To study various factors on

which the internal resistance

of cell depends
A Project Report
Submitted by

Pranjal Mehta
In partial fulfillment of the

CBSE GRADE XII

IN
Physics
At

AECS MAGNOLIA MAARUTI PUBLIC SCHOOL

Arakere, Off Bannerghatta Road, Bangalore-560076

2014-15

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Pranjal Mehta of Grade XII, AECS MAGNOLIA

MAARUTI

PUBLIC

SCHOOL,

BANGALORE

with

Roll

Number

___________ has satisfactorily completed the project in Physics on Factors

affecting the internal resistance of a cell in partial fulfillment of the
requirements of All Indian Secondary School Certificate Examination
(AISSCE) as prescribed by CBSE in the year 2014-15.

Signature
Signature of the
Candidate

Signature of the
Principal

of

the
Teacher In-Charge

Signature of the
External Examiner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I warmly acknowledge the continuous encouragement and timely suggestions
offered by our dear Principal Dr.Seema Goel. I extend my hearty thanks for
giving me the opportunity to make use of the facilities available in the campus
to carry out the project successfully.
I am highly indebted to Mrs. Gayathri, Mrs. Nazia and Mr. Kotresh for the
constant supervision, providing necessary information and supporting in
completing the project. I would like to express my gratitude towards them for
their kind co-operation and encouragement.
Finally I extend my gratefulness to one and all who are directly or indirectly
involved in the successful completion of this project work.

Signature of the
Candidate

CONTENTS

SL NO

TOPIC

Page no

Abbreviations

Introduction

Theory

Scope and Limitations

Objective

Apparatus

Circuit diagram

12

Procedure

13

Observation

15

10

Result and Conclusion

17

11

Bibliography

18

ABBREVIATIONS

Physical Quantity

Symbol

Unit

electric charge

coulomb

Unit
Abbreviatio
n
C

electric current

ampere

voltage, potential
diff erence
electromotive force

Volt

E or

Volt

internal resistance

Ohm

Resistance

Ohm

Capacitance

Farad

Balancing length 1

( l1 )

Centi
meter

Cm

Balancing length 1

(l 2)

Centi
meter

Cm

INTRODUCTION
There is a great need of batteries in our daily use electronic appliances and the
use is increasing every day. From laptop to television remotes to clocks to
mobile phones, almost every household appliance runs on batteries in the
present scenario. Batteries are the backbone of handheld and portable devices. It
is hard to imagine a world without batteries. This brings the need to make
powerful long lasting batteries, so as to ensure smooth, unhindered running of
these appliances.

With the move from analog to digital, new demands are placed on the battery.
Unlike analog portable devices that draw a steady current, the digital equipment
loads the battery with short, heavy current spikes. Some appliances need high
values of current.
Many failed attempts have been made to free a few devices like printers of
wires. The simple reason behind this is the inability of efficient long lasting
batteries
to
deliver
enough
current
to
run
these
devices.
This makes is low internal resistance a very important factor to allow growth of
the electronic appliance industry and make more and more devices portable.
Measured in milliohms, the internal resistance is the gatekeeper that, to a large
extent, determines the runtime. The lower the resistance, the less restriction the
battery encounters in delivering the needed power spikes. A high mW reading
can trigger an early 'low battery' indication on a seemingly good battery because
the available energy cannot be delivered in the required manner and remains in
the battery.
One common type of cell is Leclanche cell, name after its inventor Georges
Lechlanche. We use a Leclanche cell this experiment. But, the results of this
experiment can be extended to all cells in general as most cell constructs have
the same basic prototype, the only differences are materials (electrodes and
electrolytes) used.

2
Thus , this project is aimed at studying the effect of factors like:
Distance between the electrodes
Area of electrodes dipped in electrolyte
Concentration of electrolyte
on the internal resistance of a cell by practical analysis in the laboratory.
The results of this experiment can be used to increase the efficiency of cells by
adjusting the factors mentioned above in a way that minimizes the internal
resistance of a cell.

THEORY
Electrochemical Cells

These cells work on oxidation and reduction reactions to provide useful

electrical energy. A simple electrochemical cell can be made from copper and
zinc metals with solutions of their sulfates. In the process of the reaction,
electrons can be transferred from the zinc to the copper through an electrically
conducting path as a useful electric current. An electrochemical cell can be

created by placing metallic electrodes into an electrolyte where a chemical

reaction either uses or generates an electric current. Electrochemical cells which
generate an electric current are called voltaic cells or galvanic cells, and
common batteries consist of one or more such cells.

Leclanche Cell
It is a type of electrochemical cell. In Leclanche
cell the depolarizer, which consisted of crushed manganese dioxide,is packed
into a pot, and a carbon rod is inserted to act as the cathode. The anode, which is
a zinc rod, is then immersed along with the pot in a solution of ammonium
chloride. The liquid solution acts as the electrolyte, permeating through the
porous pot to make contact with the cathode.

Internal Resistance
The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance
offered by its electrolyte to the flow of ions .
Batteries can be approximately modeled as a
voltage source in series with a resistance. The
internal resistance of a battery is dependent on the
specific battery's size, chemical properties, age,
temperature and the discharge current. It has an
electronic component due to the resistivity of the
battery's component materials and an ionic
component due to electrochemical factors such as
electrolyte conductivity, ion mobility, and
electrode surface area.
4
The internal resistance of a cell
is directly proportional to the distance between the electrodes.
is inversely proportional to facing surface area of the electrodes in
electrolyte.
is inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte.
The internal resistance of a cell is given by

r=(
where

l1

l2

l 1l 2
)R
l1

are the balancing lengths without resistance and with

resistance (shunt) , respectively and R is the shunt resistance in parallel with the
given cell.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The objective of this experiment is To study various factors on which Internal
resistance/EMF of a cell depends .

This experiment helps us to understand the efficiency of a cell and factors

affecting internal resistance.
The results obtained from this experiment will give the answers to the
Questions: what steps can we take to reduce internal resistance? , how can
maximum efficiency be obtained through feasible ways? ,Can full efficiency be
obtained at all?
However there are limitations to this experiment on the fact that a complete and
successful result will require high technical assistance and high level
equipment, which cannot be acquired at the current stage.
Furthermore the answer to these queries will require high level expertise and
intellect.
Any how we can answer some part of these queries through practical
experimentation which would be just enough for our level of intellect.

OBJECTIVE

To study various factors on

which the internal resistance
of cell depends

APPARATUS

A potentiometer , battery
battery eliminator
two way keys
rheostat of low resistance
a galvanometer
a high resistance
an ammeter
a cell (leclanche or daniel cell)
a jockey
a set square connecting wires

Potentiometer
A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring the potential (voltage) in a
circuit. Before the introduction of the moving coil and digital volt
meters, potentiometers were used in measuring voltage, hence the '-meter' part
of their name. In this arrangement, a fraction of a known voltage from a
resistive slide wire is compared with an unknown voltage by means of
a galvanometer. The sliding contact or wiper of the potentiometer is adjusted
and the galvanometer
briefly
connected
between the sliding
contact and the unknown
voltage. The deflection
of the galvanometer is
observed and the sliding
tap adjusted until the
galvanometer no longer
deflects from zero. At
that
point
the
galvanometer draws no current from the unknown source, and the magnitude of
voltage can be calculated from the position of the sliding contact. This null
balance measuring method is still important in electrical metrology and
standards work and is also used in other areas of electronics.

Battery Eliminator
A battery eliminator is a device powered by an electrical source other than
battery, which then converts the source to a suitable DC voltage that may be
used by a second device designed to be powered by batteries. A battery
eliminator eliminates the need to replace batteries but may remove the
advantage of portability. A battery eliminator is also effective in replacing
obsolete designs.Some examples of battery eliminators include the nine volt
mains power supply, the size and shape of a PP9 battery, originally intended

9
to replace the battery in portable radios in
the 1960s. A solar panel providing power for
a portable appliance may also be considered
a battery eliminator. The term is also
sometimes used as a misnomer when using a bigger battery for more runtime
when branching out a power supply to wired electrical equipment using DC
input.

Rheostat
Rheostat, adjustable resistor used in element can be a metal wire or ribbon,
carbon, or a conducting liquid, depending on the application. For average
currents, the metallic type is most common; for very small currents, the carbon
type is used; and for large currents
the electrolytic type, in which
electrodes are placed in a
conducting fluid, is most suitable.
A special type of rheostat is
the potentiometer, an instrument
that measures an unknown voltage
or potential difference by balancing
it, wholly or in part, by a known
potential difference. A more
common potentiometer is simply a
resistor with two fixed terminals
and a third terminal connected to a
variable contact arm; it is used for such purposes as a volume control in audio
equipment applications that require the adjustment of current or the varying of
resistance in an electric circuit. The rheostat can adjust generator characteristics,
dim lights, and start or control the speed of motors.
IMAGES

Galvanometer

A galvanometer is a type of sensitive ammeter: an instrument for

detecting electric current. It is an analog electromechanical actuator that
produces a rotary deflection of some type of pointer in response to electric
current flowing through its coil in a magnetic field. Galvanometers were the
first instruments used to detect and measure electric currents. Sensitive
galvanometers were used to detect signals from long submarine cables, and to
10
discover the electrical activity of the heart and
brain. Some galvanometers use a solid pointer on a
scale to show measurements, other very sensitive
types use a miniature mirror and a beam of light to
provide mechanical amplification of low level
signals. Initially a laboratory instrument relying on
the Earth's own magnetic field to provide restoring
force for the pointer, galvanometers were
developed into compact, rugged, sensitive portable
instruments essential to the development of
electrotechnology. A type of galvanometer that
records measurements permanently is the chart
recorder. The term has
expanded to include use of the same mechanism in
recording,
positioning,
and servomechanism equipment.

Ammeter
An ammeter is a instrument for measuring either
direct or alternating electric current, in amperes. An
ammeter can measure a wide range of current values because at high values
only a small portion of the current is directed through the meter mechanism; a
shunt in parallel with the meter carries the major portion.
Ammeters vary in their operating principles and accuracies. The DArsonval
-movement ammeter measures direct current with accuracies of from 0.1 to 2.0
percent. The electrodynamic ammeter uses a moving coil rotating in the field
produced by a fixed coil. It measures direct and alternating current with
accuracies of from 0.1 to 0.25 percent. In the thermal ammeter, used primarily
to measure alternating current with accuracies of from 0.5 wdto 3 percent, the

measured current heats a thermoconverter (thermocouple); the small voltage

thus generated is used to power a millivoltmeter. Digital ammeters, with no
moving parts, use a circuit such as the dual slope integrator to convert a
measured analogue (continuous) current to its digital equivalent. Many digital
ammeters have accuracies better than 0.1 percent.

11

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

12

PROCEDURE
Step 1
1.
2.

Draw the circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections.

Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight
connections according to the circuit diagrams.
3. Tight the plugs of the resistance box.
4. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and cell and see that e.m.f. and see that
e.m.f. of the battery is more than that of given cell ,otherwise null or
balance point will not be obtained (E' >E).
5. Take maximum current from the battery , making rheostat resistance
small.
K1
6. To test the corrections of the connections.(insert the plug in the key
and note the ammeter reading .Take out 2000 ohm resistance plug from
resistance box. Place the jokey first at the end P of the wire and then at
the end Q. If the galvanometer shows deflection in opposite direction in
the two cases the connections are correct).
K2
7. Without inserting the plug in the key
, adjust the rheostat so that a
null point is obtained on the 4th wire of potentiometer.
8. Insert the 2000 ohm plug back in the position in resistance box and by
slightly adjusting the jockey near the previous obtained position of null
point, obtain null point position accurately, using a set square.
l
9. Measure the balancing length 1 between the point and the end P of the
wire.
10. Take out the 2000 ohm plug again from the resistance box R.B. introduce
K1
K2
plugs in the key
, as well as in key
. Take out small resistance
(1-5 ) from the resistance box R connected in parallel with the cell.

11. Slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and obtain null point.
12. Insert 2000 ohms plug back in its position in R.B. and if necessary make
further adjustment for sharp null point.
l
13. Measure the balancing length 2 from end P.
K

1
2
14. Remove the plug keys at
and
.Wait for some time and for the
same value of current (as shown by ammeter) repeat the steps 7 to 13.
15. Repeat the observations for diffrent values of R repeating each
observation twice.
16. Calculate the internal resistance of cell by using the above relation for r.

13

Step 2
To see the effect of distance between the electrodes on internal
resistances, keeping the other factors constant ,vary separation between
electrodes and measure internal resistance in each case.

Step 3
To see the effect of area of electrodes on internal resistances, keeping the
other factors constant , add more electrolyte of the same concentration and
measure internal resistance in each case.

Step 4
To see the effect of concentration of electrolyte on internal resistance,
keeping the other factors constant , decrease concentration of electrolyte by
adding the distilled water and determine internal resistance of cell in each case .

14

OBSERVATIONS
(A). Internal resistance of cell
1. Least count of ammeter- 0.01A
2. Zero Correction in ammeter- 0A
3. EMF of dry cell= 2 V

S.No.

1.
2.

Ammeter
Reading
(A)
0.15
0.15

Pos. of null point

( cm )
With R
Without
(l1 )
R ( l2 )
25
166
19
141

Resistance

r=( (l 1l2)/ l1 )R

R()

()

2
2

11.28
12.84

Mean internal resistance = (11.28 + 12.84) / 2 = 12.06

(B) To study effect of separation between the electrodes

1. EMF of cell E = 2 V

2. Area of electrodes = 36 cm2

Table for effect of separation between electrodes :SL
NO

1
2

Separation
between
Electrodes
d (cm)
5
2

Balancing
length
(cm) ( l1 )

Balancing
length
(cm) ( l2 )

Resistanc
e
R()

r=( (l1l 2)/l 1 )R

19
22

141
98

2
2

12.84
6.9

()

It is observed that internal resistance increases with increase in separation

between them.
15

(C) To study the effects of area of electrodes

1. EMF of cell = 2v
2. Distance between electrodes = 2.5 cm
Table for Effect of area between electrodes
SL
NO

Area of
Electrodes
(cm^2)

Balanci
ng
Length(l
1)
(cm)

15.4

213

31.4

231.5

Balancin Resistan
g
ce
R ()
Length(l
2)
(cm)
31
2
38

r=( (l 1l2)/ l1 )R
()

1.7
1.65

This shows that internal resistance is inversely proportional to

area between electrodes.

(D). To study the effect of concentration of electrode

1. EMF of the cell = 2v
2. Distance between electrodes d =2.5cm

3. Temperature = 25C
4. Area of electrodes A= 31.4 cm^2.
SL
NO

1.
2.

Conc of Balancing Balancing

Electrolyte length (l1) Length
(cm)
(l2)
(cm)
A
213
34
B

211

29

Resistance
R()

r=( (l 1l 2)/l 1
)R
()

1.681

1.725

A>B
This shows that internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the concentration the electrolyte
16

RESULT & CONCLUSIONS

1) The emf of a cell is constant E=

2
V
2) The internal resistance of a cell is directly proportional to the seperation
between the electrodes
3) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the area of
the electrodes dipped in electrolyte
4) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the
concentration of electrolyte

17

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wikipedia.org
Physicsworld.com
howstuffworks.com
khanacademy.org/science/physics
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
Google Images
Practical Physics - ClassXII

18