Reservoir Geomechanics

Stefan Hergarten
Institut fur Geo- und Umweltnaturwissenschaften
Albert-Ludwigs-Universitat Freiburg

Processes and Interactions in Reservoirs

Components of a Reservoir Model

Fluid flow
Heat transport
Deformation

Hydrocarbon reservoirs
two/three-phase flow
(oil/gas/water)
no
optional

Geothermal reservoirs
single-phase flow
(water)
yes
optional

Parameters and Variables

Which of the parameters and variables in the list below belong to the
processes fluid flow, heat transport, and deformation? Which are (input)
parameters, and which are (output) variables?
Displacement, heat capacity, heat flux density, permeability, porosity,
pressure, shear modulus, strain, stress, temperature, thermal conductivity,
velocity, viscosity, Youngs modulus

Processes and Interactions in Reservoirs

Parameters and Variables

Fluid flow

Parameters

Variables

porosity

pressure

permeabilty

velocity (flow rate)

viscosity
Heat transport

thermal conductivity

temperature

heat capacity

heat flux density

velocity (flow rate)

Deformation

Youngs modulus

displacement

shear modulus

strain

pressure

stress

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Darcys Law
Empirically found by Henry Darcy (1856)
Describes the average flow through a porous medium on macroscopic
scales
Can be theoretically derived from the Navier-Stokes equations (which
describe the small-scale flow in pore space) under some simplifications
Simplest form (without gravity):
v =

k p
l

where
v

= flow rate (volume per time) per cross section area

k = hydraulic permeability
= dynamic viscosity of the fluid
p
l

= pressure drop per length

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The Hydraulic Permeability

Units:
SI unit: m2
Widely used unit: Darcy (D)
1 D = 9.869 1013 m2 1012 m2 = 1 m2
atm
k = 1 D results in a flow rate of 1 cm
s at a pressure drop of 1 cm in
water at 20 C ( = 103 Pas).

Permeability of oil reservoirs should be at least about 0.1 D.

Unconsolidated sand: k 5 D

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Example: Hydraulic Permeability of a Tubular Medium
Hagen-Poiseuille law for an individual pipe:
q =

r 4 p
8 l

Total flow per cross section area through a cubic block of length l with n
parallel pipes:
nq
r 2 p
n r 4 p
v = 2 = 2
=
l
l 8 l
8 l
with the porosity =

nr 2
l2

k =

r 2
d 2
=
8
32

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Darcys Law in Three-Dimensional Space
Without gravity:
~v (~x ) =
where

k
p(~x )

p(~x ) = gradp(~x ) =

x)
x1 p(~

x)
x2 p(~

x)
x3 p(~

is the gradient of the pressure field.

Including gravity:

0
k
~v (~x ) = p(~x ) + g 0

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Hydraulic Head (piezometric head, hydraulic potential)

Define h(~x ) in such a way that

0
p(~x )
h(~x ) =
+ 0
g
1

~v (~x ) =

gk
h(~x )

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Hydraulic Head (piezometric head, hydraulic potential)
Hydrostatic conditions:
~v (~x ) = 0

h(~x ) = const
Interpretation: h(~x ) is the water level in a hypothetic well at the location
~x (plus a constant value).
Incompressible fluid without thermal expansion and solutes ( = const):
h(~x ) =

p(~x )
+ x3 + const
g

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The Water Balance

~v (~x ) is the mass flux (mass per time and cross section area).

div (~v (~x )) =

(v1 (~x )) +
(v2 (~x )) +
(v3 (~x ))
x1
x2
x3

is the (negative) change of water mass per time and bulk volume (rock
and pore space) due to
changes in fluid saturation in pore space,
changes in fluid density (compression), and
compression of the matrix.

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The Water Balance
Compressibility of water: 5 1010 Pa1
Compressibility of most rocks is even smaller.

div (~v (~x )) = 0

in case of
completely saturated pore space
and moderate changes in temperature, salinity, etc.
This is not true for the gas component in hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

The Water Balance
If sources or sinks are present:
div (~v (~x )) = s(~x )
where
s = source term (supplied fluid volume per total volume and time)

Differential equation for pressure or hydraulic head:





k
gk
div
p(~x )
= s(~x ) or div
h(~x )
= s(~x )

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Pressure Field around a Point-Like (line, area) Injection
3D (point source)
p(r ) =

1
i + const
4k r
3

where r = distance from the injection point, i = injection rate [ ms ]

2D (line source in 3D space)
p(r ) =

i ln r + const
2k
2

where i = injection rate per length [ ms ]

1D (area source in 3D space)

p(r ) = i r + const
k
where i = injection rate per area [ ms ]

Heat Transport

The Heat Equation (conduction, advection, production)

c

T (~x , t) = div ( T (~x , t) cT (~x , t)~v ) + Q

t

where
kg
= density [ m
3]

c = specific heat capacity [ kgJK ]

= thermal conductivity [ mWK ]
~v

= velocity [ ms ]

W
Q = heat production rate [ m
3]

Heat Transport
Typical Values of c
Water: c = 4180 kgJK
Rocks: c = 8001000 kgJK

Typical Values of
Material
diamond
iron
quartz
sand
expanded polystyrene
water
air

[ mWK ]
2300
80
1.4
0.6
0.033
0.6
0.026

Rocks
granite
basalt
dolomite
limestone
sandstone
shale
widely used value

[ mWK ]
2.8
2
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2.5

Heat Transport

The Heat Equation for a Porous Medium

(m cm + f cf )

T (~x , t) = div ((m + f ) T (~x , t)

t
f cf T (~x , t)~v ) + Q

where
f , cf , f

= parameters of the fluid

m , cm , m = parameters of the dry matrix (not the solid!)

~v

= flow rate (Darcy velocity)

Stress and Strain

The Stress Tensor

Stress = force per area
Unit: Pa =

N
m2

Force is a vector.
At each point, the force acting on (hypothetic) surfaces of arbitrary
orientations can be considered. The orientation can be characterized
by a normal unit vector ~n (perpendicular to the surface, |~n| = 1).

9 degrees of freedom at each point

Stress and Strain

The Stress Tensor
Cauchys stress theorem: State of stress at each point can be
characterized by a 3 3 matrix, the stress tensor

11 12 13
= 21 22 23
31 32 33
so that ~n is the force per area acting on a surface with orientation ~n.
Symmetry: is symmetric: T = , ij = ji

Only 6 independent stress components at each point

Stress and Strain

Normal Stresses, Shear Stresses, Principal Stresses, and Mean Stress
Normal stresses: The component of ~n parallel to ~n (i. e., perpendicular to
the surface) is called normal stress on the surface defined by ~n.
Shear stresses: The absolute value of the component of ~n perpendicular
to ~n (i. e., parallel to the surface) is called shear stress on the surface
defined by ~n.
Principal stresses: Due to the symmetry of , there are always 3
perpendicular directions where ~n is parallel to ~n (i. e., where no shear
stresses occur):
~n(i) = i ~n(i)
with real numbers i . The values 1 , 2 , and 3 are called principal
stresses, the vectors ~n(i) define the principal stress directions.
Mean stress:
=

11 + 22 + 33
1 + 2 + 3
=
3
3

Stress and Strain

The Navier-Cauchy Equations

2
~u (~x , t) =
t 2

~ x , t)
div(~
| {z }

x1 11 + x2 12 +

x1 21 + x2 22 +

x1 31 + x2 32 +

~
+F

x3 13

x3 23

x3 33

where
= density
~u (~x , t) = displacement of the point ~x
~ = body force per volume (e. g., gravity)
F

Stress and Strain

The Navier-Cauchy Equations

The Navier-Cauchy equations reflect Newtons law and relate the
force acting on a small volume to its acceleration.
The acceleration term is only important in fluids and for the
propagation of seismic waves in solids.
Steady-state equation:
~ x , t) + F
~ = 0
div(~

Stress and Strain

Displacement Gradient Tensor and Strain Tensor

Describe the state of deformation and are not directly related to forces.
Displacement gradient tensor (arguments ~x and t omitted):

u
u
u
1
1
1
x2
x3
x1

~u = x 1 u2 x 2 u2 x 3 u2

x1 u3 x2 u3 x3 u3
Removes the translational component of ~u and contains rotation and
deformation.

Stress and Strain

Displacement Gradient Tensor and Strain Tensor
Strain tensor (arguments ~x and t omitted):
 =


1
~u + ~u T + ~u T ~u
2

Removes the rotational component of ~u and contains only

deformation, i. e., changes in the distances between points.
Linear approximation for small deformations:
 =


1
~u + ~u T
2

In components:
ij

1
=
2

ui +
uj
xj
xi

Stress and Strain

Normal Strain, Shear Strain, Principal Strains, and Volumetric Strain
Basically the same as for the stress tensor
Normal strain: The component of ~n parallel to ~n is called normal strain in
direction of ~n.
Shear strain: The absolute value of the component of ~n perpendicular to
~n is called shear strain in direction of ~n.
Principal strains: Due to the symmetry of , there are always 3
perpendicular directions where ~n is parallel to ~n:
~n(i) = i ~n(i)
with real numbers i . 1 , 2 , and 3 are called principal strains.
Volumetric strain = relative change in volume:
V = 11 + 22 + 33 = 1 + 2 + 3

Stress and Strain

The Signs of Stress and Strain
Physics and engineering: As defined here
positive normal/principal/mean stress = tensile stress
negative normal/principal/mean stress = compressive stress
positive normal/principal/volumetric strain = expansion
negative normal/principal/volumetric strain = compression
Geology: Just opposite
positive normal/principal/mean stress = compressive stress
negative normal/principal/mean stress = tensile stress
positive normal/principal/volumetric strain = compression
negative normal/principal/volumetric strain = expansion

Elastic Behavior

Hookes Law
Linear relationship between stress and strain
Hookes law for an isotropic elastic medium:
= V 1 + 2 
with
1 = identity matrix
, = Lame parameters of the medium

Elastic Behavior
Hookes Law
Hookes law for an isotropic elastic medium written the other way
round:
 =
=

2
2( + 32 )
1
((1 + ) 3 1)
E

with
E

(3 + 2)
= Youngs modulus
2( + )

= Poissons ratio
2( + )

Poroelasticity
Basic Ideas
If remains constant, a positive pore fluid pressure p causes an isotropic
expansion of the porous medium:
 =

p
1

1
1
2
2
3H
2( + 3 )

H is some kind of bulk modulus with respect to the fluid pressure.

Written the other way round:
p 1 = V 1 + 2 
with
K
= Biots coupling parameter
H
2
= + = bulk modulus of the porous medium
3

=
K

Poroelasticity
The Concept of Effective Stress
p 1 = V 1 + 2 

and p together cause the same deformation as the so-called effective

stress
eff = p 1
would cause without fluid pressure.

It is often assumed that rock failure etc. depends on eff instead of .