Behavioral and Motivational

Mechanisms of the Brain

Activating-Driving Systems of the Brain
Without continuous transmission of nerve signals from the
lower brain into the cerebrum, the cerebrum becomes
useless.

Nerve signals in the brain stem activate the

cerebral part of the brain in two ways:
* by directly stimulating a background level of
neural activity in
wide areas of the brain
* by activating neurohormonal systems that
release facilitory or
inhibitory hormone-like neurotransmitter
substances

Control of Cerebral Activity by Continuous

Excitatory Signals from the Brain Stem
Reticular Excitatory Area of the Brain Stem
The central driving component of this system is an excitatory area
located in the reticular substance of the pons and
mesencephalon. This area is also known by the name
bulboreticular facilitory area
Excitation of Excitatory Area by Peripheral Sensory Signals
The level of activity of the excitatory area in the brain stem is
determined by the number and type of signals that enter the brain
from the periphery

 Increased Activity of the Excitatory Area Caused by

Feedback Signals Returning from the Cerebral Cortex

Thalamus is a distribution Center That Controls Activity in

Specific Regions of the Cortex

A Reticular Inhibitory Area Located in the Lower Brain Stem

This area can inhibit the reticular facilitory area of the upper
brain stem and thereby decrease activity in the superior portions
of the brain. One of the mechanisms for this is to excite
serotonergic neurons: these in turn secrete the inhibitory
neurohormone serotonin

Neurohormonal Control of Brain Activity

Neurohormonal Systems in the Human Brain
Fig. 58-3

1. The locus ceruleus and the norepinephrine system

The norepinephrine generally excites the brain to increase
activity
This system plays an important role in causing dreaming, thus
leading to a type of sleep called rapid eye movement sleep
(REM sleep)
2. The substantia nigra and the dopamine system
It lies anteriorly in the superior mesencephalon and its neurons
send nerve endings to the caudate nucleus and putamen of the
cerebellum where they secrete dopamine
Dopamine act as an inhibitory transmitter in the basal ganglia

3. The raphe nuclei and the serotonin system

The serotonin has the ability to suppress pain
It plays an important role to help cause normal sleep
4. The gigantocellular neurons of the reticular excitatory
area and the acetylcholine system
In most places the acetylchholine functions as an excitatory
neurotransmitter
Activation of acetylcholine neurons leads to an acutely awake
and excited nervous system

Other Neurotransmitters and Neurohormonal

Substances Secreted in the Brain
Other neurohormonal substances function either at the specific synapses
or by release into the fluids of the brain : enkephalins, GABA, glutamate,
ACTH, epinephrine, vasopressin, vasopressin, histamine, endorphins,
angiotensin II, neurotensin

States of Br ai n A cti vi ty - Sl eep, B rai n Waves,

Epi leps y, Psychosis

Sleep
Defined as unconsciousness from which a person can be aroused
by sensory or other stimuli
Two Types of Sleep
1. Slow-wave sleep
The brain waves are very strong ad very low frequency
2. Rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep)
In this type of sleep the eyes undergo rapid movements despite
the fact that the person is still asleep

Most sleep during each night is of the slow-wave variety; this

is the deep, restful sleep that the person experiences during the
first hour of sleep
REM sleep occurs in episodes that occupy about 25% of the
sleep time in young adults, each episode normally recurs
every 90 minutes

Slow-Wave Sleep
This sleep is restful and is associated with decrease in both
peripheral vascular tone and many other vegetative functions of
the body

There is decrease in blood pressure, respiratory rate, and basal

metabolic rate
It is frequently called dreamless sleep
Dreams of slow-wave sleep usually are not remembered.
During slow-wave sleep consolidation of the dreams in memory
does not occur

REM Sleep (Paradoxical Sleep, Desynchronized

Sleep)
In a normal night of sleep, bouts of REM sleep lasting
5 to 30 minutes usually appear every 90 minutes

Characteristics of REM sleep:

1. Usually associated with active dreaming and active bodily
muscle movements
2. The person is more difficult to arouse by sensory stimuli
3. Muscle tone throughout the body is depressed indicating
strong inhibition of the spinal muscle control areas
4. Heart rate and respiratory rate become irregular, a
characteristic of the dream state
5. Irregular muscle movements occur. These are in addition to
rapid movements of the eyes
6. The brain is active. This type of sleep is also called
paradoxical sleep because it is a paradox that a person can
still be asleep despite marked activity of the brain

Basic Theories of Sleep

Passive theory of sleep excitatory areas of the upper brain
stem, the reticular activating system, simply fatigue during the
waking day and become inactive
Active theory of sleep sleep is caused by an active inhibitory
process

Neuronal Centers, Neurohumoral Substances, and

Mechanisms That Can Cause Sleep A Possible
Specific Role for Serotonin

Areas of the brain that can produce sleep

1. The most conspicuous stimulation area for causing natural
sleep is the raphe nuclei in the lower half of the pons and
the medulla
many nerve endings of fibers from these raphe neurons secrete
serotonin
2. Stimulation of some areas in the nucleus of the tractus
solitarius can cause sleep
3. Stimulation of several regions in the diencephalon can promote
sleep, including
A. rostral part of the hypothalamus
B. occasional area in the diffuse nuclei of the

4. Other possible transmitter substance related to sleep

Muramyl peptide and Nonapeptide
Lesions in Sleep-Promoting Centers Can Cause Intense
Wakefulness
Discrete lesions in the raphe nuclei lead to a high state of
wakefulness and lesions in the medial rostral suprachiasmal
area in the anterior hypothalamus
Possible Cause of REM Sleep
Large acetylcholine-secreting neurons in the upper brain stem
reticular formation might, activate many portions of the brain. This
could cause the excess activity that occurs in brain regions in
REM sleep

Cycle Between Sleep and Wakefulness

Physiologic Effects of Sleep
1. Effects on the nervous system itself
2. Effects on other functional systems of the body
The principal value of sleep is to restore natural balances
among the neuronal centers

Brain Waves
Fig. 59-1a

 Alpha waves
Are Rhythmical waves that occur at frequencies between 8 and
23 per second
Found in the EEG of normal adult people when they are awake
and in a quiet resting
state of cerebration
waves occur most intensely in the occipital region
voltage is usually about 50 microvolts
During deep sleep the alpha waves disappear

 Beta waves
Occur at frequencies greater than 14 cycles per second and as
high as 80 cycles per second
They are recorded mainly from the parietal and frontal regions
Theta waves
Have frequencies between 4 and 7 cycles per second
They occur normally in the parietal and temporal regions in
children
Occur during emotional stress in some adults, during
disappointment and frustration
Delta waves
Frequencies less than 3.5 cycles per second
They occur in very deep sleep, in infancy, and in serious brain
disease

Origin of Brain Waves

Origin of Alpha Waves
Origin of Delta Waves
Changes in the EEG at Different Stages of Wakefulness and
Sleep

Alert wakefulness is characterized by high-frequency beta

waves
Quiet wakefulness is usually associated alpha waves

Epilepsy
Types
Grand Mal Epilepsy
Petit Mal Epilepsy
Focal Epilepsy

Psychotic and Behavior and Dementia Roles of Sspecific

Neurotransmitter System
Depression and Manic-Depressive Psychoses Decreassed Activity of
the Norepinephrine and Serotoni Neurotransmitter System
Schizophrenia- Possible Exaggerated function of Part of the
Dopamine System
Alzheimers Disease Amyloid Plaques and Depressed Memory
Associated with accumulation of Brain Beta Amyloid Peptide
Vascular disorders may contribute to progression of alzheimers
Disease