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How Does Chainless Technology Work?
[Bicycle Shaft Drive Animation] Dynamic Bicycles' chainless bikes combine two innovative
technologies to create bikes that are smoother to ride, easier to operate, and simpler to maintain
than traditional chain bikes.
Patented shaft drive - smoothly transfers power from the pedals to the rear wheel using highly
efficient and durable gears instead of a sprocket and chain. View the Shaft Drive Animation.
Shimano's advanced internal gear hubs - all the gearing is neatly tucked away inside the rear
wheel making it maintenance-free and protected from the elements.
The Shaft Drive
chainless bicycle on TVThe shaft drive uses two sets of spiral bevel gears and a shaft rod to
smoothly transfer power from the cranks to rear wheel. The bevel gears are made of heat treated
cromoly and paired with high quality sealed cartridge bearings coupled to a steel shaft rod all
sealed inside lightweight, durable aluminum alloy. Our shaft drive, now in its third generation, has
been in production since 1991, and is already on tens of thousands of bikes all over the world.
By integrating our shaft drive with Shimano's internal hubs, our bikes not only have a sleek,
modern look, but they deliver an incredibly smooth ride, great performance and eliminate the
number one complaint people have always had about their bikes the chains and derailleurs.
With our shaft drive bikes, there is no more grease; no more mess; no more cuts on fingers or
tears in clothes; and no more chain and derailleur maintenance. Just pure, worry-free riding fun.
Internal Gear Hub
chainless bicycle on TV Dynamic Bicycles shaft drive bikes feature the Shimano Nexus family of
advanced internal gear hubs. These are the worlds best performing and most reliable family of
internal gearing. Internal gear hubs are an advanced gearing technology, whereby all the gears
are fully enclosed within the rear axle of the bike. These hubs are called planetary gears - much
like the tranmission on a car - giving a wide range of gearing in a very compact space.
So unlike chain bikes that have fully exposed (external) sprockets and derailleurs, internal gear

hubs compress all of this gearing into a compact, highly efficient cylindrical component (hub)
inside the rear axle. This internal gear hub integrates seamlessly with our shaft drive to create
incredibly efficient shifting and smooth speed changes. Shimanos internal gear hubs require very
little maintenance and are lifetime sealed and lubricated to safely protect them from dirt, debris
and damage.
Bicycle Internal Gear Hub
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Dynamic Bicycles is your source for chainless hyrid bicycles, commuter bicycles and folding
bikes.

A shaft-driven bicycle is a bicycle that uses a drive shaft instead of a chain to transmit power from
the pedals to the wheel. Shaft drives were introduced over a century ago, but were mostly
supplanted by chain-driven bicycles due to the gear ranges possible with sprockets and
derailleurs. Recently, due to advancements in internal gear technology, a small number of modern
shaft-driven bicycles have been introduced.
Shaft-driven bikes have a large bevel gear where a conventional bike would have its chain ring.
This meshes with another bevel gear mounted on the drive shaft. The use of bevel gears allows
the axis of the drive torque from the pedals to be turned through 90 degrees. The drive shaft then
has another bevel gear near the rear wheel hub which meshes with a bevel gear on the hub
where the rear sprocket would be on a conventional bike, and canceling out the first drive torque
change of axis.
The 90-degree change of the drive plane that occurs at the bottom bracket and again at the rear
hub requires the use of bevel gears. Bevel gears are the most efficient way of turning drives 90
degrees as compared to worm gears or crossed helical gears. The drive shaft is often mated to a
hub gear which is an internal gear system housed inside the rear hub. Today, there are three
significant manufacturers of internal hubs suitable for use with shaft drive systems, including
Shimano Nexus, SRAM and Sturmey-Archer.

History
The first shaft drives for cycles appear to have been invented independently in 1890 in the United
States and England. A. Fearnhead, of 354 Caldonian Road, North London developed one in 1890
and received a patent in October 1891.[citation needed] His prototype shaft was enclosed within
a tube running along the top of the chainstay; later models were enclosed within the actual
chainstay.[1] In the United States, Walter Stillman filed for a patent on a shaft-driven bicycle on
Dec. 10, 1890 which was granted on July 21, 1891.[2]
The shaft drive was not well accepted in England, so in 1894 Fearnhead took it to the USA where
Colonel Pope of the Columbia firm bought the exclusive American rights.[citation needed]
Belatedly, the English makers took it up, with Humber in particular plunging heavily on the deal.

[citation needed] Curiously enough, the greatest of all the Victorian cycle engineers, Professor
Archibald Sharp, was against shaft drive; in his classic 1896 book "Bicycles and Tricycles", he
writes "The Fearnhead Gear.... if bevel-wheels could be accurately and cheaply cut by machinery,
it is possible that gears of this description might supplant, to a great extent, the chain-drive gear;
but the fact that the teeth of the bevel-wheels cannot be accurately milled is a serious obstacle to
their practical success".[3]
In the USA, they had been made by the League Cycle Company as early as 1893.[4] Soon after,
the French company Metropole marketed their Acatane.[4] By 1897 Columbia began aggressively
to market the chainless bicycle it had acquired from the League Cycle Company.[4] Chainless
bicycles were moderately popular in 1898 and 1899, although sales were still much smaller than
regular bicycles, primarily due to the high cost. The bikes were also somewhat less efficient than
regular bicycles: there was roughly an 8 percent loss in the gearing, in part due to limited
manufacturing technology at the time. The rear wheel was also more difficult to remove to change
flats. Many of these deficiencies have been overcome in the past century.
In 1902, The Hill-Climber Bicycle Mfg. Company sold a three-speed shaft-driven bicycle in which
the shifting was implemented with three sets of bevel gears.[5] While a small number of chainless
bicycles were available, for the most part, shaft-driven bicycles disappeared from view for most of
the 20th century. There is, however, still a niche market for chainless bikes, especially for
commuters, and there are a number of manufacturers who offer them either as part of a larger
range or as a primary specialization. A notable example is Biomega in Denmark.
[edit] Comparison of shaft vs chain
Shaft drives operate at a very consistent rate of efficiency and performance, without adjustments
or maintenance, though lower than that of a properly adjusted and lubricated chain.[6][7] Shaft
drives are typically more complex to disassemble when repairing flat rear tires, and the
manufacturing cost is typically higher.
A fundamental issue with bicycle shaft-drive systems is the requirement to transmit the torque of
the rider through bevel gears with much smaller radii than typical bicycle sprockets. This requires
both high quality gears and heavier frame construction.[6][7]
Since shaft-drives require gear hubs for shifting, they gain the benefit that gears can be shifted
while the bicycle is at a complete stop or moving in reverse, but internal hub geared bikes
typically have a more restricted gear range than comparable derailleur-equipped bikes.
Most of the advantages claimed for a shaft drive can be realized by using a fully-enclosed chain
case.[6] Some of the other issues addressed by the shaft drive, such as protection for clothing
and from ingress of dirt, can be met through the use of chain guards. The reduced need for
adjustment in shaft-drive bikes also applies to a similar extent to chain or belt-driven hub-geared
bikes. Not all hub gear systems are shaft compatible.

"Hybrid technology" redirects here. For the company formerly known as Hybrid Technologies, see
Li-ion Motors.
Honda Insight hybrid
Prius used by NYPD Traffic Enforcement
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A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to move the vehicle.[1]
The term most commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which combine an internal
combustion engine and one or more electric motors.

Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles

Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a simple form of a hybrid, as power
is delivered both via an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider's muscles.
Early prototypes of motorcycles in the late 19th century used the same principles.
In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor power are mechanically coupled at the pedal
drive train or at the rear or the front wheel, e.g. using a hub motor, a roller pressing onto a tire, or
a connection to a wheel using a transmission element. Human and motor torques are added
together. Almost all manufactured models are of this type. See Motorized bicycles, Mopeds and[2]
for more information.
In a series hybrid bicycle (SH) the user powers a generator using the pedals. This is converted
into electricity and can be fed directly to the motor giving a chainless bicycle but also to charge a
battery. The motor draws power from the battery and must be able to deliver the full mechanical
torque required because none is available from the pedals. SH bicycles are commercially
available, because they are very simple in theory and manufacturing.[3]
The first known prototype and publication of an SH bicycle is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent
3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite[4] SH lightweight vehicle
which used power electronics allowing regenerative braking and pedaling while stationary. In
1995 Thomas Mller designed a "Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb" in his 1995 diploma
thesis and built a functional vehicle. In 1996 Jrg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University
of Applied Sciences built an SH bicycle and in 1998 mounted the system onto a Leitra tricycle
(European patent EP 1165188). In 1999 Harald Kutzke described his concept of the "active
bicycle": the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by
electronic compensation. Until 2005 Fuchs and colleagues built several prototype SH tricycles
and quadricycles.[5]
[edit] Heavy vehicles
Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway locomotives, buses,
heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. Typically some form of heat engine
(usually diesel) drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump which powers one or more electric
or hydraulic motors. There are advantages in distributing power through wires or pipes rather

than mechanical elements especially when multiple drivese.g. driven wheels or propellersare
required. There is power lost in the double conversion from typically diesel fuel to electricity to
power an electric or hydraulic motor. With large vehicles the advantages often outweigh the
disadvantages especially as the conversion losses typically decrease with size. With the
exception of non nuclear submarines, presently there is no or relatively little secondary energy
storage capacity on most heavy vehicles, e.g. auxiliary batteries and hydraulic accumulators
this is changing.
[edit] Rail transport
Main article: Hybrid train
Europe
An is the new Autorail grande capacit (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the Canadian
company Bombardier for service in France. This has dual mode (diesel and electric motors) and
dual voltage capabilities (1500 and 25000 V) allowing it to be used on many different rail systems.
[6] The locomotive has been on trials in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with Railfeeding, a Genesse
and Wyoming company.
China
The First Hybrid Evaluating prototype locomotive was designed and contracted by rail research
center MATRAI in 1999 and the sample was ready in 2000. it was a G12 locomotive that was
converted to hybrid by using a 200KW diesel generator and batteries and also was equipped with
4 AC traction motors (out of 4) retrofited in the cover of the DC traction motors.
Japan
The first operational prototype of a hybrid train engine with significant energy storage and energy
regeneration capability was introduced in Japan as the KiHa E200. It utilizes battery packs of
lithium ion batteries mounted on the roof to store recovered energy.[7]
North America
In the U.S., General Electric introduced a prototype railroad engine with their "Ecomagination"
technology in 2007. They store energy in a large set of sodium nickel chloride (Na-NiCl2)
batteries to capture and store energy normally dissipated during dynamic braking or coasting
downhill. They expect at least a 10% reduction in fuel use with this system and are now spending
about $2 billion/yr on hybrid research.[8]
Variants of the typical diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and Green Kid (GK)
switching/yard engines built by Canada's Railpower Technologies. They utilize a large set of
heavy duty long life (~10 yr) rechargeable lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 HP electric
motors as the primary motive sources and a new clean burning diesel generator (~160 Hp) for
recharging the batteries that is used only as needed. No power or fuel are wasted for idling
typically 6085% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if dynamic braking
(regenerative) power is recaptured for reuse; but in principle it should be easily utilized.
Since these engines typical need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery pack's
weight is a negligible penalty. In addition the diesel generator and battery package are normally
built on an existing "retired" "yard" locomotive's frame for significant additional cost savings. The
existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused. Diesel fuel savings of 4060% and up
to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over that of a "typical" older switching/yard engine. The
same advantages that existing hybrid cars have for use with frequent starts and stops and idle
periods apply to typical switching yard use.[9] "Green Goat" locomotives have been purchased by
Canadian Pacific Railway, BNSF Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway and Union Pacific
Railroad among others.
[edit] Cranes
Railpower Technologies Corp. engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems Inc. in Vancouver,
British Columbia are testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery storage for use in

Rubber Tyred Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for loading and unloading
shipping containers onto trains or trucks in ports and container storage yards. The energy used to
lift the containers can be partially regained when they are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission
reductions of 5070% are predicted by Railpower engineers.[10] First systems are expected to be
operational in 2007.[11]
[edit] Road transport, commercial vehicles
GM has launched hybrid versions of its full-size GMC Yukon (pictured) and Chevrolet Tahoe
SUVs for 2008
Early hybrid systems are being investigated for trucks and other heavy highway vehicles with
some operational trucks and buses starting to come into use. The main obstacles seem to be
smaller fleet sizes and the extra costs of a hybrid system are yet compensated for by fuel
savings,[12] but with the price of oil set to continue on its upward trend, the tipping point may be
reached by the end of 1995.[dated info] Advances in technology and lowered battery cost and
higher capacity etc. developed in the hybrid car industry are already filtering into truck use as
Toyota, Ford, GM and others introduce hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company
recently introduced a hybrid-electric truck, called the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city usage
seems to be competitive.[13][14] FedEx and others are starting to invest in hybrid delivery type
vehiclesparticularly for city use where hybrid technology may pay off first.[15]
[edit] Military off-road vehicles
Since 1985, the U.S. military has been testing serial hybrid Humvees[16][17] and have found
them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealth mode with low thermal signature/ near silent
operation, and greater fuel economy.
[edit] Ships
Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybrid vehicle.
Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. This runs on batteries when submerged and
the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel engine when the craft is on the surface.
Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by companies
such as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than the tallest ship masts,
capturing stronger and steadier winds.
[edit] Aircraft
Taxiing and other ground operations of Boeing 737NGs will soon be done using hybrid electric
drives as WheelTug ground propulsion systems become available.[18][19] By using the APU
(powered by a turbine) to energize a Chorus electric motor mounted in the landing gear for
ground movement, aircraft will be operating in a hybrid configuration where the main engines are
used only for take off, landing, and flight.
Boeing 737-800
The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel
cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is coupled to a
conventional propeller. The fuel cell provides all power for the cruise phase of flight. During
takeoff and climb, the flight segment that requires the most power, the system draws on
lightweight lithium-ion batteries.
The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft Industries of Austria,
which also carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wing span of 16.3 meters
(53.5 feet), the airplane will be able to cruise at approximately 100 kilometers per hour (62 miles
per hour) on power from the fuel cell.[20]
[edit] Engine type
[edit] Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles
Hybrid New Flyer Metrobus

Hybrid Optare Solo

Main article: Hybrid electric vehicle
When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These
encompass such vehicles as the AHS2 (Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon, Chevrolet Silverado,
Cadillac Escalade, and the Saturn Vue), Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid,
Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid Lexus RX 400h and 450h and
others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses internal combustion engines (generally
gasoline or Diesel engines, powered by a variety of fuels) and electric batteries to power the
vehicle. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid to Mild
hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.[21]
Ferdinand Porsche in 1900 developed the first gasoline-electric series-hybrid automobile in the
world, setting speed records using two motor-in-wheel-hub arrangements with a combustion
generator set providing the electric power. While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late
19th century, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical
engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 197879. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to
return as much as 75MPG with plans still sold to this original design, and the "Mother Earth
News" modified version on their website.[22]
The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the range needed
in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can be plugged in to house
(mains) electricity for charging, as well being charged while the engine is running.
[edit] Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)
Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles, BEVs can be recharged while the user
drives. The BEV establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the
highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current
collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this processon the highwayand can then be
used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged.
This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually unrestricted highway range as long as you
stay where you have BEV infrastructure access. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a
major highway, this may reduce the need for expensive battery systems. Unfortunately private
use of the existing electrical system is nearly universally prohibited.
The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old and, outside of some cities, is not widely
distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail). Updating the
required electrical and infrastructure costs can be funded, in principle, by toll revenue, gasoline or
other taxes.
[edit] Hybrid fuel (dual mode)
Ford Escape Hybrid the first hybrid electric vehicle with a flexible fuel capability to run on
E85(ethanol).
In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also consider
vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the same engine to be
hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the
terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual mode vehicles:
Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and overhead
electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In principle, this could be
combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006,
no such design seems to have been announced.
Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank typically gasoline
and ethanol, or methanol, or biobutanol.
Bi-fuel vehicle:Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from petroleum or

diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossible to build an (LPG or NG)
flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine.
While the duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range and flexibility
where (LPG or NG) infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase.
Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars
modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on waste vegetable oil that has not
been processed into biodiesel.
Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also included
(see Motorized bicycle).
[edit] Fluid power hybrid
Hydraulic and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure accumulator to drive
the wheels via hydraulic or pneumatic (i.e. compressed air) drive units. The energy recovery rate
is higher and therefore the system is more efficient than battery charged hybrids, demonstrating a
60% to 70% increase in energy economy in EPA testing.[23] Under tests done by the EPA, a
hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp)
City, and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-imp) highway.[24] UPS currently has two
trucks in service with this technology.[25]
While the system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling and is cheaper than gaselectric hybrids, the accumulator size dictates total energy storage capacity and requires more
space than a battery.
[edit] Electric-human power hybrid vehicle
Another form of hybrid vehicle are human power-electric vehicles. These include such vehicles as
the Sinclair C5, Twike, electric bicycles, and electric skateboards.
[edit] Hybrid vehicle power train configurations
Main articles: Hybrid vehicle drivetrains and Micro HEV
[edit] Parallel hybrid
The Honda Insight is a Mild Parallel Hybrid.
The Toyota Prius is a series-parallel hybrid.
The Ford Escape Hybrid has a series-parallel drivetrain.
In a parallel hybrid the single electric motor and the internal combustion engine are installed so
that they can both individually or together power the vehicle. In contrast to the power split
configuration typically only one electric motor is installed. Most commonly the internal combustion
engine, the electric motor and gear box are coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For
electric driving the clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the
gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run at the same speed.
The first mass production parallel hybrid is the Honda Insight.
[edit] Mild parallel hybrid
These types use a generally compact electric motor (usually <20 kW) to provide auto-stop/start
features and to provide extra power assist[26] during the acceleration, and to generate on the
deceleration phase (aka regenerative braking).
On-road examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda CR-Z, Honda Accord
Hybrid, Mercedes Benz S400 BlueHYBRID, BMW 7-Series hybrids, General Motors BAS Hybrids
and Smart fortwo with micro hybrid drive.
[edit] Power-split or series-parallel hybrid
Typical passenger car installations include the Toyota Prius, the Ford Escape, the Lexus RX400h,
RX450h, GS450h, LS600h and CT200h.

In a power-split hybrid electric drive train there are two motors: an electric motor and an internal
combustion engine. The power from these two motors can be shared to drive the wheels via a
power splitter, which is a simple planetary gear set. The ratio can be from 0-100% for the
combustion engine, or 0-100% for the electric motor, or an anything in between, such as 40% for
the electric motor and 60% for the combustion engine. The electric motor can act as a generator
charging the batteries.
On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine, when maximum
power is required, for example to overtake, the electric motor is used to assist maximizing the
available power for a short period, giving the effect of having a larger engine than actually
installed. In most applications, the engine is switched off when the car is stationary reducing
curbside emissions.
[edit] Series hybrid
The Chevrolet Volt is a series plug-in hybrid released at the end of 2010.
A Honda Civic Hybrid used by Zipcar, a car sharing service at Washington, D.C.
Ford Escape plug-in hybrid.
A series- or serial-hybrid vehicle has also been referred to as an Extended Range Electric Vehicle
or Range-Extended Electric Vehicle (EREV/REEV); however, range extension can be
accomplished with either series or parallel hybrid layouts.
Series-hybrid vehicles are driven by the electric motor with no mechanical connection to the
engine. Instead there is an engine tuned for running a generator when the battery pack energy
supply isn't sufficient for demands.
This arrangement is not new, being common in diesel-electric locomotives and ships. Ferdinand
Porsche used this setup in the early 20th century in racing cars, effectively inventing the serieshybrid arrangement. Porsche named the arrangement "System Mixt". A wheel hub motor
arrangement, with a motor in each of the two front wheels was used, setting speed records. This
arrangement was sometimes referred to as an electric transmission, as the electric generator and
driving motor replaced a mechanical transmission. The vehicle could not move unless the internal
combustion engine was running.
The setup has never proved to be suitable for production cars, however it is currently being
revisited by several manufacturers.
In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in Japan.[27] Meanwhile, GM will
introduce the Chevy Volt EREV in 2010, aiming for an all-electric range of 40 miles,[28] and a
price tag of around $40,000.[29] Supercapacitors combined with a lithium ion battery bank have
been used by AFS Trinity in a converted Saturn Vue SUV vehicle. Using supercapacitors they
claim up to 150 mpg in a series-hybrid arrangement.[30]
[edit] Plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle (PHEV)
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
Another subtype added to the hybrid market is the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV). The
PHEV is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with increased energy storage
capacity (usually Li-ion batteries). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at the end of
the journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal combustion engine.[31][32]
This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding or at least
minimizing the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric vehicles, the total emissions
saving, for example in CO2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the electricity
generating company.
For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long as the electrical
energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would have otherwise used. Current

tax systems in many European countries use mineral oil taxation as a major income source. This
is generally not the case for electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic customer,
however that person uses it. Some electricity suppliers also offer price benefits for off-peak night
users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the plug-in option for commuters and
urban motorists.
[edit] Fuel cell, electric hybrid
The fuel cell hybrid is generally an electric vehicle equipped with a fuel cell. The fuel cell as well
as the electric battery are both power sources, making the vehicle a hybrid. Fuel cells use
hydrogen as a fuel and power the electric battery when it is depleted. The Chevrolet Equinox
FCEV, Ford Edge Hyseries Drive and Honda FCX are examples of a fuel cell/electric hybrid.
[edit] Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians
A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report examined HEV accidents that
involved pedestrians and cyclists and compared them to accidents involving combustion-engine
vehicles. The findings showed that, in certain road situations, HEVs are more dangerous for
those on foot or bicycle. For accidents where a vehicle was slowing or stopping, backing up,
entering or leaving a parking space (when the sound difference between HEVs and CEVs is most
pronounced), HEVs were twice as likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than CEVs. For
crashes involving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a higher incident rate for HEVs than CEVs
when a vehicle was turning a corner. But there was no statistically significant difference between
the types of vehicles when they were driving straight. [33]
[edit] Environmental issues
Fuel consumption and emissions reductions The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel
economy and lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs),
resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three
elements of a typical hybrid design:
relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs, resulting in a smaller
engine sized more for average usage rather than peak power usage. A smaller engine can have
less internal losses and lower weight.
having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy, especially in
stop-and-go traffic,which is represented by the city driving cycle.
recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are normally wasted as heat. This
regenerative braking reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into
electricity, depending upon the power rating of the motor/generator;
Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found on hybrid
vehicles include:
shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during other idle periods;
improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the drag
on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more force to move through the air causing
more stress on the engine making it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a
car is a good way to help better the fuel economy and also improve handling at the same time.
using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth ride, high grip,
etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical drag, once again making the
engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more
inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by choice of carcass structure and rubber compound have
lower rolling resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever
the power source.
powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and when needed ;
this reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them continuously with traditional
engine belts.

These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent
stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are reduced, particularly at idling
and low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous high
speed highway use these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.
[edit] Hybrid vehicle emissions
Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the recommended level
set by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended levels they suggest for a
typical passenger vehicle should be equated to 5.5 metric tons of carbon dioxide. The three most
popular hybrid vehicles, Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards even
higher by producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide
emissions. Hybrid vehicles can reduce air emissions of smog-forming pollutants by up to 90%
and cut carbon dioxide emissions in half.[34]
[edit] Environmental impact of hybrid car battery
Main article: Electric vehicle battery
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by
adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008)
Though hybrid cars consume less petroleum than conventional cars, there is still an issue
regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid car battery. Today most hybrid car batteries are
one of two types: (1) nickel metal hydride, or (2) lithium ion; both are regarded as more
environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute the bulk of gasoline car starter
batteries today. There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others. Lithium
ion is the least toxic of the three mentioned above. [35][36]
The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteriesthe type currently
used in hybridsare much lower than batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium.[37] However,
nickel-based batteries are known carcinogens, and have been shown to cause a variety of
teratogenic effects.[38]
The Lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for use in hybrid electric
vehicles. Hitachi is a leader in its development. In addition to its smaller size and lighter weight,
lithium-ion batteries deliver performance that helps to protect the environment with features such
as improved charge efficiency without memory effect. The lithium-ion batteries are appealing
because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and can produce a
voltage more than three times that of nickel-metal hydride battery cell while simultaneously
storing large quantities of electricity as well. The batteries also produce higher output (boosting
vehicle power), higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent
durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle.
Additionally, use of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and also
achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than gasoline-powered vehicles with a
consequent reduction in CO2 emissions helping to prevent global warming.
[39]
[edit] Raw materials increasing costs
There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture of
hybrid cars.[40] For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of
the advanced electric motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems.[40][41]
Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that
are found in permanent magnet electric motors.[42]
Nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China,[43] and many analysts believe
that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire supply by
2012.[40] In addition, export quotas on Chinese rare earth elements have resulted in an unknown

amount of supply.[41][44]
A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada as
well as Mount Weld in Australia are currently under development;[44] however, the barriers to
entry are high[45] and require years to go online.
[edit] Alternative green vehicles
Main article: Green vehicle#Types
Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on alternative energy
sources than fossil fuel. Another option is to use alternative fuel composition (i.e. biofuels) in
conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them go partly on renewable energy sources.
Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that offers
automated on-demand non-stop transportation, on a network of specially built guideways.
[edit] Adoption Rate
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more specific clean up instructions.) Please improve this section if you can. The talk page may
contain suggestions. (September 2010)
While the adoption rate for hybrids is small today (under 3% of new car sales in the U.S. for
August 2010),[46] it has to potential to be very large over time as more models are offered and
incremental costs decline due to learning and scale benefits. However, forecasts vary widely. For
instance, Bob Lutz, a long-time skeptic of hybrids, indicated he expects hybrids "will never
comprise more than 10% of the U.S. auto market."[47] Other sources also expect hybrid
penetration rates in the U.S. will remain under 10% for many years.[48][49][50]
More optimistic views include predictions that hybrids would dominate new car sales in the U.S.
and elsewhere over the next 10 to 20 years.[51] Another approach examines the penetration
rates (or S-curves) of four analogs (historical and current) to hybrid and electrical vehicles in an
attempt to gauge how quickly the vehicle stock could be hybridized and/or electrified in the United
States. The analogs are 1) the electric motors in U.S. factories in the early 20th century, 2) diesel
electric locomotives on U.S. railways in the 1920-1945 period, 3) a range of new automotive
features/technologies introduced in the U.S. over the past fifty years, and 4) e-bike purchases in
China over the past few years. These analogs collectively suggest it would take at least 30 years
for hybrid and electric vehicles to capture 80% of the U.S. passenger vehicle stock.
A hydraulic bicycle is a chainless bicycle that transfers power to the pedals by means of a liquid
passing through tubes from hydraulic pump to hydraulic motor and back.
Advantages include:
Shifting, through valves and displacement, provides either continuously variable gearing or
more steps than traditional bicycles.
Shifts smoothly under full power.
Drive transmits power while pedaling forward and backward. Thus racers can power bicycle
through turns by alternating short forward and backward pedal strokes. No slack or backlash
occurs, in either direction. Ability to coast is maintained.
Mechanism is clean and operates silently.
Fewer moving parts (about 10 vs over 70), all of which are continuously bathed in clean
lubricating fluid.

Sealed systems require less maintenance than open chain system.

Front-wheel drive and two-wheel drive systems can be implemented. (See Two-wheel drive)
Drive can double as a hydraulic brake, eliminating the weight, cost, and maintenance of regular
brakes.
The hydraulic (hydrostatic) transmission could be useful for recumbent bicycles because the
hoses may be easier to route than a long chain.
Energy recuperation, storage and power assist could be added.
Disadvantages include:
Implementations to date are heavier than those of bicycle chain and sprocket designs.
Though some of the components in a sealed hydraulic system maintain constant efficiency
upwards of 95% in all conditions (see Hydristor), the overall losses usually result in a power loss
of about 25% (see Hydraulic machinery). In contrast, a chain-and-sprocket system loses
efficiency in bad weather and dirt from 97% for clean new components down to less than 80%
when worn and dirty.[1]
The system may leak fluid causing a mess and eventual failure.

A Hungarian design team has unveiled a new chainless bike, powered by steel wires, that easily
disassembles and can be organized for touring or racing.
The Stringbike uses two steel cables attached to pulleys, which move on swinging kidneyshaped discs as you pedal. The discs replace a traditional round gear system, and you can install
different discs depending on your needs, according to the Web site Hungarian Ambiance.
The position of the pedals determines the position of the discs, so that they swing in opposition
one is always pulling the bike forward, and the other lags behind. This allows a continuous
transmission change, which could help a rider navigate winding streets, because you can more
easily control the transmission without having to shift gears. This video demonstrates the
concept.
Unlike a typical 10-speed with a derailleur, you wont feel any slippage when you shift gears
higher or lower gear is obtained by higher or lower placement of the pulleys.
The wires can even be set asymmetrically, which would provide a different weight load on each
leg because one would have to work harder than the other. This is impossible with a traditional
geared bike, but it could be useful for training or for riders with injuries, as Hungarian Ambiance
points out.
The Stringbike, developed at bike-maker Schwinn Csepel Ltd., is also more convenient for those
without racks both wheels come off quickly and cleanly, because there are no chains or
derailleurs to align. Bike commuters wont have to worry about chain grease soiling their khakis,
either. And because there are fewer components, it could eventually be cheaper to produce than
traditional bikes.
Plus, it looks cool, meaning the Stringbike could be the hipster sets next obsession. At least its
more functional than the ubiquitous fixie.

flour mill

PEDALING RATE
How fast should a person pedal? Human beings are very adaptable and can produce power over
a wide range of pedaling speeds. However, people can produce more power--or the same
amount of power for a longer time--if they pedal at a certain rate. This rate varies from person to
person depending on their physical condition, but for each individual there is a pedaling speed
somewhere between straining and flailing that is the most comfortable, and the most efficient in
terms of power production. (For centuries, this fact was apparently not recognized.
The predominant method of human power production was to strain with maximum strength
against a slowly yielding resistance. This is neither comfortable nor efficient. Neither is the
opposite extreme of flailing at full speed against a very small resistance.
A simple rule is that most people engaged in delivering power continuously for an hour or more
will be most efficient when Pedaling in the range of 50 to 70 revolutions per minute (rpm). See
Figure 2. For simplicity's sake, we will use 60 rpm, or one revolution of the pedal cranks per
second, as an easy reference
value for estimates of the gear ratios required to drive a given load.
GEAR RATIOS
The relationship between the rotating speed of whatever is being driven and the pedaling rate
(both expressed in revolutions per minute) is called the gear ratio. Most practical applications of
Pedal power will use bicycle-chain drives, which on bicycles range from 1:1 (the rear wheel turns
at the same speed as the turns at five times the speed of the cranks) for high gears.
Very-Low-Power Applications
There are some very-low-power applications of pedal power, in which the required power output
is so far below that of which human beings are capable that maximum efficiency is not a concern.
For example, sewing machines are generally limited to a less than optimum value to allow the
sewing table to be placed at a convenient height. The pedaler provides a range of sewing
speeds without gear-change mechanisms. A large step-up ratio is usually given by a round belt
made of leather. It cannot transmit large torques; this inability serves a purpose, because when
the sewing needle jams, the belt slips, preventing the needle from breaking.
High-Power Applications
An example of an application at the higher-power end of the scale is a hypothetical maximumpower drive for an irrigation pump. Let us suppose that the pump has the speed-versus-power
characteristics shown in Figure 3, and that the pedalers will be paid to produce as much power as
they comfortably can for periods of two hours at a time.
Choosing a conservative value from Figure 1, we estimate that a mechanical output of 100 watts
seems reasonable for this length of time. Furthermore, we estimate from Figure 2 that the
optimum pedaling speed to give this power output is 55 rpm.

We can then see from Figure 3 that when the pump absorbs 100 watts, its speed of revolution
should be 95 rpm. We need, therefore, a step-up gear of 95:55. We have available a set of
bicycle cranks and pedals with a chainwheel having 48 teeth. To achieve our ratio of 95:55, we
then need:
45 x 55/95 = 27.8 teeth on the cog (the smaller sprocket attached to the pump shaft).
Ideally then, we should use a sprocket of 28 teeth. However, sprockets of 27, 28, or 29 teeth
would be acceptable.
No allowance has been made in this calculation for energy losses in the chain transmission.
This is because a single chain going over two sprockets is very efficient--over 95 percent, even
for unlubricated, worn, or dirty chains.
However, some applications require two stages of step-up transmission, and in these cases,
power losses are greater. For instance, suppose that a ventilation fan must be driven for a long
period at 900 rpm, and the optimum pedaling speed is estimated to be 60 rpm. The step-up ratio
is then 900:60 = 15:1. The smallest sprockets generally available for bicycles have 12 teeth. The
chainwheel for a single step-up stage would need:
12 x 15 = 180 teeth.
Such a chainwheel is not available, but even if one were specially made, it would have a
diameter far too large to pedal around. Moreover, using a very large-chainwheel with a very small
cog produces a small angle of contact (or wrap) around the cog; this causes high tooth wear on
the cog.
Therefore, a step-up ratio of 15:1 is better produced by a two-stage step-up gear. For example,
a standard high-gear arrangement from a bicycle could be used. It has a chainwheel of 48 teeth
driving a cog of 13 teeth, fixed to a second shaft on its own bearings(*) (for instance, another
bicycle crankset with another chainwheel of 48 teeth on the countershaft, driving a cog of 12 teeth
on the shaft to be driven. The combination would then be:
(48/13) x (48/12) = 14.8.
This is close enough to 15:1 to be useful.
In this case, it would be best to assume that there would be a 10 percent loss of power. For
example, if the pedaler can produce an output of 50 watts for the desired period, the driven
device will receive 45 watts input.
III. DESIGN VARIATIONS
CRANK LENGTH
The crank length is the distance between the center of the pedal-spindle and the crank axis; that
is, it is the radius of the circle defined by each pedal as it turns. The normal crank on an adult's
bicycle is 165 to 170 millimeters (mm) long. However, people remain able to produce near
maximum power output at any crank length from between 165 and 180 mm, so long as they have
a period to practice pedalling at the new length.
SHAPE OF CHAINWHEEL
Evidence from tests suggests that elliptical chainwheels with a relatively small degree of
elongation--that is, with a ratio of major to minor axis of the chainwheel ellipse of no more than
1.1:1--do allow most pedalers to produce a little more power. No subject tested showed a
reduction in power. It is therefore recommended that, when elliptical chainwheels are available
at a reasonable price, they be used. However, the gain in power output is small, and this must

be considered when comparing costs and benefits.

PEDALING POSITIONS
There are three common pedaling positions:
* The first is the upright position used by the majority of cyclists around the world. In this
position, the seat, or saddle, is located slightly behind where it would be if it were a seat, or
vertically above the crank axis; the hand grips are placed so that the rider leans forward just
slightly when pedaling. Tests have shown that subjects using this position are able to produce
the most pedalling power when the top of the saddle is fixed at a distance 1.1 times the leg length
to the pedal spindle at the pedal's lowest point.
* The second position is the position used by riders of racing bicycles with dropped handlebars,
when they are holding the upper parts of the bars. Their back is then at a forward lean of about
40 degrees from the vertical. Their saddle height requirements are similar to those of cyclists in
the first position. (The position of the racing bicyclist who is trying to achieve maximum speed is
not suitable for power production on a stationary device. Even racing bicyclists sometimes
experience great pain after a long time in this position, and the position is unnecessary on a
stationary device because there is no wind resistance to overcome.
* The third position is the position used in modern semi-recumbent bicycles. The placement of
the center of the pedaling circle relative to the seat is shown in Figure 4.
In this seating position, the pedaling forces are countered by the lower back pushing into the seat
(which is similar in construction to a lawn chair made of tubes and canvas). The arms and hands
do not need to remain on the handlebars to perform this function, the way they usually do in the
first two positions.
They can remain relaxed, and free to guide the work that the pedaler is powering. The upper
body too can remain relaxed, and the chest is in a position that makes breathing easier than
when the pedaler bends forward. The major disadvantage of this position is that, since the
pedaler's legs move forward from the body, it may be hard to position large, deep equipment like
a lathe or saw so that it is in reach without being in the way.
In almost all other respects, the semi-recumbent position is highly desirable, though not essential.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF PEDAL POWER
PEDAL POWER FOR TRANSPORTATION
The principal use of pedal power around the world is for the transportation of people and goods.
A bicycle used by itself can carry a rider, plus 50 to 100 kilograms of goods in a front and/or rear
carrier on the cross-bar, or on the rider's head. The carrying capacity of a bicycle can be greatly
increased by attaching a trailer to it. One model of trailer has seats for two adults, and allows the
bicycle to be easily converted into a rickshaw.
A rickshaw is usually made from the front or rear-portion of a standard bicycle, connected to a
load-carrying platform over a two-wheel axle. Rickshaws can carry an extraordinary quantity of
people and goods. In Bangladesh, they are responsible for transporting several times the total
freight and passengers carried by all railroads, trucks, and buses combined.
However, the potential productivity of these rickshaws is greatly reduced by the fact that virtually
every one of them has only a single-speed gear. Sometimes the gear mechanism is even
deliberately converted to single speed. When the author lived in Nigeria, the most common
bicycle was a Raleigh Roadster, which came equipped with a three-speed gear, but the retailers
normally wired the gear-change lever in the low-gear position. A driver who has only one gear
available must exert much more effort to pedal the rickshaw. The strain is severe and
unnecessary, and productivity is greatly reduced.

OXFAM, an international development and relief organization, has done considerable work on a
three-wheeled pedal operated vehicle capable of carrying payloads of over 150 kilograms.
Called an "Oxtrike," the vehicle uses a three-speed gearbox in its transmission and a mild steel
sheet frame. The frame can be manufactured on a small scale, using foot-powered cutters, hand
operated folding machines, and welding or riveting. It can be fitted with passenger seats or a
cargo box.
It should be noted that an ordinary bicycle frame is not sturdy enough for payloads of this size.
The weight also requires particularly good brakes. The Oxtrike's mild steel construction
addresses the first problem. The braking system includes both the standard lever brakes on the
front and a foot pedal on the rear. Each wheel has its own brake drum, with a balance bar to
distribute the force equally.
OTHER USES OF PEDAL POWER
General Considerations
Broadly speaking, applications of pedal power are possible when the power level required is
below a quarter of a horsepower (that is, below about 200 watts). Common applications of
stationary pedal power include pumping water, grinding grains or metals, shredding, or threshing.
Pedal power can also be used to generate electricity for individual uses--to operate room lights, a
television set, or a projector, for example. Surplus power could be diverted to a battery-charging
circuit. The easiest way to do this is simply to drive either a DC generator or an AC alternator
through a circuit feeding a battery in parallel with the load.
The same circuit could be used for an alternator of higher power, chain-driven from the cranks,
through an appropriate gear ratio.
Other pedal power applications include:
Cassava graters
Coffee pulpers
Coffee/grain hullers
Cracking of oil palm nuts
Fiber decorticaters--sisal, manila, hemp, etc.
Winches or hoists
Balers
Potter's wheels
Flexible shaft drive for portable grinders, saws, etc.
Tire pumps
Sewing machines
The use of pedal power for agricultural implements that have to move across soft or uneven
ground is not recommended. A mower described and illustrated in Bicycling Science (see
Bibliography) required so much energy to move the mower across the ground that a small
proportion of the rider's total energy went into mowing. This loss of energy would occur for any
use--like plowing, cultivating, or harrowing--in which the vehicle had to move across the ground.
McCullagh's Pedal Power describes some designs in which the pedaling unit is stationary at one
edge of the plot, while the plow or other implement, guided by a second worker, is pulled by a
rope or chain. This principle should be tried out further.
The Dynapod
Bicycles can sometimes be adapted to drive the devices mentioned above, but the result is often
inefficient. It is frequently cheaper in initial and maintenance costs to use a properly designed
and constructed dynapod.

A dynapod is a portable pedaling device that consists of a stand, saddle, handlebar, pedals, and
sprocket wheel. The name comes from the Greek words for "power" and "foot." Dynapod power
varies according to the size and fitness of the operator and the length of time spent pedaling.
There are three kinds of dynapods: 1) A one-person dynapod that utilizes belt drive. It can be
built either with or without chaindrive. 2) A two-person dynapod that can be pedaled either by one
person at a time, or by two people together. It is also possible to fit a special adaptor so that a
direct shaft drive leads off the unit and powers a flour mill or other machine. (When this is done,
only one person can pedal at a time.) 3) A one-person dynapod that has belt drive, chain drive,
and direct drive. It is very similar to the two-person dynapod.
The two-person dynapod illustrated below (Figure 5) has been attached to a grain mill, but the
unit can be adapted to a wide variety of uses. The dynapod frame can be made of wood or
welded steel, depending on cost and availability of materials. Heavily weighted flywheel provides
extra power and smoothes out the pedal stroke, reducing operator fatigue.
A similar device, designed to draw irrigation water from shallow wells in Bangladesh, consists of a
welded steel frame with a drive wheel attached to the plunger of a handpump (Figure 6).
V. COMPARING THE ALTERNATIVES AND CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
Whether or not pedal power is advantageous for an application depends absolutely on local
conditions. In many countries, gasoline (petrol) is highly subsidized; one consequence is that
pedaled rickshaws, for example, are giving way to ones run by small internal combustion engines.
However, in locations far from reliable fuel supplies and maintenance shops, internal combustion
engines are not so attractive an alternative, and pedal-powered devices may be much more
suitable.
Pedal power is often a comfortable choice because it is a familiar technology--even though it may
be used in unfamiliar ways. Construction and maintenance skills are generally available among
village artisans, as are spare parts from used bicycles.
Depending on the application, pedal power can be extremely versatile. A dynapod can operate
a pump during the growing season, run a thresher at harvest time, and power a grain mill
throughout the year. Its portability allows it to be moved from site to site to go where the work is.
Choice of pedal power--or any technology--must be made by carefully comparing the
alternatives for the application desired and the availability of resources--construction and
maintenance skills, financing, raw materials, labour. Whether machines are made locally or
purchased from nearby factories or even importers, they should be within the capability of local
people to maintain and repair in order to avoid so far as possible lengthy periods when they are
out of service.
At this level especially, pedal power often compares favourably with wind or water power. A
windmill, for example, often requires considerably more resources in funds and construction time
and skill than does a pedal-power unit based on a bicycle. Windmills within the capability of a
local village builder will generally be limited to a size giving an average output of 50 to 100 watts
(though the maximum output may be 1 kilowatt). Windmills are more subject to the vagaries of
the weather. While energy storage can help minimize the effect of variations in the wind, high
winds and other kinds of severe weather often cause minor damage, and occasionally cause
major damage.
Windmills in this range are probably best suited to charging batteries and to pumping water for
irrigation, stock watering, or potable water supply. But even for these purposes, a pedaled pump
might be preferable. It was found by the author's VITA group, for instance, that the output of a
Savonius-rotor windmill in average Boston area winds was so small--even when the windmill was

mounted on a headland overlooking the sea--that the windmill's output could be exceeded by a
pedal-power unit operated for only two to four hours per week.
A pedaled pump may have several advantages if a farmer wishes to irrigate field crops: it is often
less expensive to build; it can supply water at the most suitable times of the day and of the crop
growth cycle; and it can be used at more than one location and possibly for more than one
purpose.