3.3.

5 Implementing computer-based information systems

Content
• custom-written and off-the-shelf approaches;
• upgrading systems;
• system installation;
• system maintenance.

Learning outcomes
Candidates should, in general and within the context of a scenario, be able to:

A. describe the involvement of the client when a custom-written computer-based

information system is to be produced, from the initial meeting with the client
to the installation of the system;
1 client must be involved at every stage of the development of a custom
written system
2 client provides initial details to the development team about what the
system must do
3 these details form the basis on which investigation and development
takes place
4 if details are incomplete or inaccurate then the final system will not
meet original requirements
a waste of money and time
5 if client is consulted at all stages of the life cycle then errors can be
found and dealt with in time
a consulting only at installation stage will be too late
6 developers should listen to concerns of clients
a clients can suggest modifications
7 extent of client involvement depends on methodology
a waterfall enables developer to return to previous stage
b prototyping enables the client to ‘see’ potential outcomes with
the system

B. discuss the implications of selecting, implementing and supporting the

installation of custom-written and off-the-shelf solutions;
1 selection of custom written or off the shelf depends on many factors
2 important that chosen system meets the needs of end users
3 custom written solution
a software written to meet the needs of end users
b developed by the software provider who works with the end
user organisation to determine requirements
c software built to match those requirements
d advantages
i meets user requirements exactly
ii user specifies functions and software developed to meet
those functions
iii no bloatware within software (excessive features)
iv once software has been built then user could fully own
it and sell it to other companies
 v specialist backup and support available from software
provider
e disadvantages
i development cost may be quite high
ii no wider support available for software (lack of books,
other websites)
iii system will take a while to analyse, design, develop, test
and implement it
o end user requirements may change during
process
iv if mistakes are found in the code then it may take a
while to fix them
v problems may occur in a live system after
implementation as it may lack testing compared to off
the shelf
4 off the shelf software
a any software that can be purchased, installed and used
immediately
b advantages
i generally cheaper to buy then custom written
ii cost is normally a one off purchase price
iii large number of users of previous and current versions
therefore has been tested thoroughly
o although it can never be tested fully
iv choice is high (lots of competitors)
v widely used therefore support is much wider (published
books, help websites)
vi bug fixes and patches are released quickly due to high
amount of users
c disadvantages
i too many features and functions which will not be
required by end users (bloatware)
o these cannot be removed
ii software likely to have a large memory footprint
iii not going to meet all user requirements as it is designed
for a wider audience
5 see final comparison table on page 186
6 Implementing and supporting installation of custom written and off the
shelf software
a Staff who will use the system will need to be involved with
implementation
b Some staff may see new system as leading to job losses
c Some staff may feel they do not have the skills for new system
d Therefore due to these concerns involving staff will lead to
lowering discontent
e Staff must be offered training sessions
f Staff must be reassured that their jobs are not in jeopardy
g Benefits of system must be emphasised
i Encourage users to use system more efficiently
 h Staff must be given easy access to user guides and other
documentation
i This will hopefully lead to increased staff confidence and
independence
j Clients and customers needs should also be considered (eg
passengers on a rail network)
k New systems may cause disruption for them – this should be
taken into account with planning
l Organisation must be in a position to rectify any issues which
arise from the introduction of a new system for customers

C. explain how the expertise of staff, costs, benefits and current systems affect
decisions about upgrading or installing software and hardware;
1 decision to upgrade or install new software
a should be taken during analysis stage
b should be taken after considering expertise of staff, costs
involved, budget, benefits to organisation and system currently
in use
2 cost benefit analysis
a should consider costs to be incurred
b these will include staff training
c costs of hardware and software upgrade or purchase
i some staff will have the skills in place to handle new
hardware or software
d planned changes may affect admin and operational procedures
e training may need to be extended to numerous future users
3 Costs of training
a If new software and hardware is to be installed this will
increase training costs
b If new software is custom written then training can only be
provided by original company who created the software
c Training causes disruption to organisation as important staff
may have to go on training sessions
d Training may have to be carefully planned
4 Costs of upgrading or new packages
a Costs of licenses must be considered
b Software upgrade may have a smaller licence then a new
software package
c For off-the-shelf software further costs will be incurred in
tailoring a new version
5 Consider the issue of hardware
a Hardware currently being used may be obsolete
b New hardware may be required (for a cost)
c Upgrade of software may lead to changes required in hardware
i new graphics card to support advanced software
d Upgrading hardware may lead to changes required in software
i New drivers to allow hardware to work
e Hardware must be compatible with software
f This requires thorough testing
6 Software upgrades
 a If it was initially custom written then any upgrades to software
may be covered by maintenance contract in place with software
dev team
b Likely to be a limit on revisions without incurring further costs
7 Adding software to existing systems
a If new software is in addition to existing software then
compatibility must be considered
b If it is incompatible then data will have to be transferred
between systems or reconfigured
c This will add to costs
8 Method of implementation and timescale
a Select method of implementation carefully
b Method should take into account extent of the upgrade or
installation and impact on organisation
c Timescale will have an impact on whether an upgrade or a
fresh installation is possible
i Especially if it has to be custom written
9 Ultimately the upgrading of a system must ensure that the benefits of
the new outweigh the benefits of the old

D. describe a range of methods for installing a new computer-based information

system: parallel, phased, direct, pilot;
1 once a new computer system has been developed and tested it must be
implemented
2 system will be
a installed
b new equipment put into operation
c software installed and setup
d data files created
e end users trained
3 four main strategies for implementing a new system
a parallel
b phased
c pilot
d direct
4 Parallel
a Old and new systems run at the same time for the period of
installation
b Results compared for accuracy and consistency
c Old system not shut down until new system working fully
d Disadvantages
i Staff are doing twice the amount of work
ii Data is being duplicated across two systems
iii Support has to cope with two systems
e Advantages
i If a problem is found with new system then old system
can be still used
5 Phased
a Used in larger organisations where the system to be put in place
can be split into smaller subsystems
 b Each subsystem is introduced one at a time until all systems are
in place
c Actual implementation method for each system could be direct
or parallel
d Advantages
i Each subsystem can be introduced with a minimum of
disruption
ii If a subsystem fails it can be fixed without the rest of
the larger system being disrupted
e Disadvantages
i Changeover will take longer
ii Create extended period of unsettlement
iii Other subsystems which haven’t been upgraded may be
incompatible with new subsystems
6 Pilot
a Requires selected departments (or franchises) to use the new
system before it is rolled out to the rest of the organisation
b Other departments use the old system until the pilot department
has the new system running correctly
c Advantages
i Old system can still be used in parts of the company if a
problem is identified in the pilot
ii A non essential department could be used for the test
before being rolled out to other departments
d Disadvantages
i Take a long time
ii Very expensive
iii Compatibility of data
7 Direct
a New system completely replaces old system
b This is done at a given time
c No interim parallel, pilot or phased
d Advantages
e Disadvantages
i Any problems or bugs in new system may lead to it
crashing and no system to replace it
ii Complete loss of data and failure of organisation
iii Increases testing time
iv Increases training requirements
v Implementation has to be done on a slack period
f Advantages
i Quick!
ii May be cheap
8 Whichever system is chosen it must be carefully selected and managed
to ensure a seamless transition
9 Must consider adv’s and disadv’s fully before choosing one
E. discuss the choice of a particular installation method or methods for a range of
applications;
1 this will probably be an essay style question – use the notes from LOD
F. explain the role of reviews during the life of a computer-based information
system, describing how reviews may be planned for and carried out
effectively;
1 system must be reviewed during its lifetime to ensure that system
continues to operate efficiently
2 reviews should be scheduled on a regular basis
3 using a planned, scheduled review strategy will ensure that
a system continues to provide satisfactory levels of performance
b allow users to report problems they had with their system
c also ensure that system does not become out of date or be
perceived as old fashioned
4 reviews of a system can also be scheduled to coincide with planned
changes in the operation of the organisation using the system
a planned changes may include external or internal changes
i external changes may include legislation changes
(including tax and VAT) and data protection updates
ii internal changes relate the organisation itself
5 other internal factors to be considered during a review are
a checking that data is being processed efficiently
b still sufficient storage space
c is the data entry system still working
6 another role of reviews is to enable developments in hardware and
software to be incorporated into a system
a developments in hware and sware occur very requently
b new software might not be compatible with old system
c as hardware or software becomes obsolete reviews must take
place to ensure new hware or sware remains compatible
7 during a review
a users must be asked for their own views on how the system is
performing
b this will enable users to suggest improvements
c they are ones using system on a daily basis and therefore will
know it best
G. describe perfective, adaptive and corrective maintenance;
H. explain the need for perfective, adaptive and corrective maintenance during
the life of a computer-based information system.
1 Over the life of a system it may be necessary to perform maintenance
on it
2 Many different reasons for post implementation maintenance
a Errors bugs that were not identified during testing
b Users finding parts of the system which do not work well
c Tasks which were not included during design now need to be
included
d Emergence of new security issues
e Software developer may have found a way to make the system
run better
f New hardware or software may be purchased which needs to be
integrated into existing system
3 Adaptive maintenance
 a Usually occurs when organisation has a new need which
system must fulfil
b System may have to be adapted due to changes within the
organisation
c Or adapted due to external changes (government)
d Or to enable system to run with new hardware
4 Perfective
a Usually done when changes must be made to enhance
performance of system
b Or make it easier to use
c Should turn a good system into a better one
d Generally completed at request of end users
e Requests could include
i Addition of shortcut keys
ii Improved screen design
iii Increased levels of online help
iv Rewriting of procedures to reduce response time of
system
v Restructuring of data to reduce storage requirements
5 Corrective
a Also known as remedial maintenance
b Usually done if there are bugs in the system
i Programming errors
ii Logic errors – more likely to be undiscovered
c Usually done through the release of patches