Community Forest

Management Planning
A Field Guide
For Cross River State, Nigeria
A Step-By-Step Approach
By
K.E. Lawrence

FOR REVIEW AND COMMENTS

A publication of:
IROKO Foundation
18 Academy Court
Kirkwall Place
London, E2 0NQ
Front Cover Photo by: Fidelis Anukwa, other photos and illustrations
by K Lawrence, however Slaters Guenon is courtesy of Iroko
Foundation, and the Drill is by Pandrillus.
All profits from the sale of this book go to support the conservation
efforts in Cross River State through IROKO Foundation at
www.irokofoundation.org
Questions and comments for the author should be directed to:
bendum94@yahoo.com
ISBN 10: 0-9553266-0-5 ISBN 13: 978-0-9553266-0-8

Copyright Karen Lawrence and IROKO Foundation, 2006

All rights reserved
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2006
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Environmental Science for Social Change. The process was

designed to fit the cultural context of Cross River State
communities and Forest Commission as well as to meet its
community forestry policy context.

Acknowledgements
This manual has come to life through the support of communities
in Cross River State, such as; Owai, Etara, Ekuri Eyeyeng, Abo
Obisu, Abo Mkpang, Abo Bonabe, Bashu Okampe, Bashu Kaku,
and Bashu Bokem. Many residents voluntarily gave their time to
participate in our activities. I would like to give special thanks to
the Clan Heads, Village Chiefs, Village Chairmen and members
of the Ekpe society for their constant support throughout the
management planning process and its implementation.

My thanks also to Sophia Buranakul and Tunde Morakinyo who

both helped edit this manual. Development In Nigeria (DIN) used
an initial draft in their community forestry projects and the
comments of their staff have helped adjust several parts of the
process. This is still a working draft and has been published so
that those in Cross River State, involved in community forest
management planning, can use it.

I am also grateful for the support and assistance of all of the

Forest Management Committee (FMC) members of these four
communities, but especially their Chairmen, Secretaries, Vice
Chairman, Women and Youth Leaders.
Cross River Forestry Commission provided enormous assistance
through its Community Forestry Support Unit, but special
contributions were made by:
Fidelis Anukwa, Team Leader, facilitator, and documenter.
Bridget Nkua mapping specialist, facilitator, and process
documenter for Bashu.
Francis Aduma, process documenter for Bashu.
Daniel Otu, inventory specialist for all communities.
Robert Spencer, Community Forest Project Manager.
Ayi Achibong, process documenter for Owai.
Tunde Morakinyo Management Plan verification for Etara
Eyeyeng and Bashu.

This manual is written to accompany a training activity so that

many of the points and tips are to remind the trained facilitator
how to proceed and what to think about at every stage. The style
is similar to a recipe book, with the view that each person will
take the ideas and way of thinking outlined within it, but learn to
adapt the process to meet the needs of the field situation.
.

I gratefully acknowledge previous activities that laid important

groundwork. In particular, the Slim Line Management Plan
facilitated by Dr O. D. Atte helped orientate the communities to
think about how to manage their forest, and Dr Bisong, who
facilitated the Land Use Management Plan that investigated
technical options available to the community.
The community mapping process for management planning was
adapted from techniques developed by a Filipino NGO,
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3.3.4 UNSUSTAINABLE FORESTRY AND FARMING SOLUTIONS

3.4 FEEDBACKING PEOPLE TO PEOPLE
3.4.1 ADAPTING THE RESOURCES MAPPED

Contents
COMMUNITY FOREST MANAGEMENT PLANNING

1.1
1.2
1.3
2
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.

PREPARATION
MATERIALS REQUIRED
CHOOSING COMMUNITIES
INITIAL DISCUSSIONS

5
11
13

SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
INITIAL ASSESSMENT
DISCUSSIONS WITH LEADERS
SOCIO ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
COMMUNITY MEETING
PLACE MAPPING
VERIFICATION WALK.
RESOURCE MAPPING
PROBLEM MAPPING
SUSTAINABILITY DISCUSSION

3.1 GENERAL MAPPING PROCESS

3.1.1 OPENING DISCUSSION
3.1.2. THE GENERAL PROCESS
3.2 RESOURCE MAPPING BY MARGINAL GROUPS
3.2.1. HUNTING AND FISHING ABUNDANCE MAPPING
3.2.2 WOMENS NTFP MANAGEMENT
3.2.3 IMPORTANT NTFP MANAGEMENT
3.3 HIGH VALUE RESOURCES
3.3.1 MAPPING TIMBER
3.3.2 MAPPING MEDICINE AND SACRED PLACES
3.3.3 MAPPING FARMING

16
16
17
19
20
23
23
26
28

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iv

FOREST MANAGEMENT COMMITTEES

COMPLEX ORGANISATIONS
POWER DYNAMICS
CONFLICT BETWEEN AND WITHIN FOS

MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
5.2. DECISION MAPPING
5.2.1 MAPPING ACTIVITIES
5.2.2 RULES AND REGULATIONS
5.3. IMPLEMENTATION
5.3.1 IDENTIFYING TRAINING NEEDS
5.3.2 REVENUE GENERATION

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77
79
84
84
90
90
94
96
96
96

ENDORSEMENT

99

6.1 COMMUNITY FOREST MANAGEMENT AGREEMENTS

6.1.1 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF AN AGREEMENT
6.1.2 INTEGRATING THE CFMA INTO LOCAL BY LAWS
6.2 TECHNICAL INTEGRATION GEO REFERENCING DATA
6.2.1 SPATIAL INTEGRATION
6.2.2 MERGING THE DECISION MAP
6.2.3 FOREST INVENTORY PLOTS
6.2.4 INDICATIVE SURVEYS
7.

69

MANAGEMENT PLANNING

5.1.

31
32
32
33
39
39
43
46
53
54
55
56

4.1
4.2
4.3
5

16

RESOURCE ABUNDANCE MAPPING

4.

58
66
68

MAKING LINKS

100
100
101
102
102
103
103
104
105

7.1 LOCAL PROJECTS

7.1.1 EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD
7.2 FINANCIAL SUPPORT
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106
106
109

MONITORING, EVALUATION AND ADAPTATION 112

Community Forest Management Planning

8.1 MONITORING
8.2 EVALUATION
8.2.1 PARTICIPATION
8.3 ADAPTATIONS
8.3.1 ADAPTATIONS TO THE PLANNING PROCESS
8.3.2 REFECTION ON PERFORMANCE
8.3.3 POINTS TO PONDER
9
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.2
10

APPENDICES

113
116
116
120
121
124
125
128

APPENDIX 1 MAPPING PROCESS STEPS FOR PAS

APPENDIX 2 FOREST MANAGEMENT AGREEMENT
APPENDIX 2 FOREST MANAGEMENT AGREEMENT
APPENDIX 3 GLOSSARY
REFERENCES.

128
128
129
131
134

This is one of two manuals that highlight resource mapping as a

tool for community forest management and protected area
planning. Community Forest Management planning is the focus
of this manual and it draws on field experiences in Cross River
State. Cross River Forest Policy allows controlled timber
harvesting in Community forests and the planning process
developed here addresses this. On the other hand, where
communities have forest in protected areas logging is not an
option, however controlled. Therefore communities require a
different mapping process, shown in appendix 1, which will be
the focus of the second manual. Furthermore the second mapping
process may not result in a community resource plan, but instead
contribute to a protected area management plan.
Any planning process requires local people to think in a new
way. For many forest communities that live in a giving
environment the need for planning has not been there (See
Thomas and Rayner 1998, Lawrence 2002). Planning capacities
were limited to strategising how to survive periods of famine or
hardship. Rainforests will always have something to eat, as long
as you know where to look.
Circumstances have changed and many communities face
extreme hardship as resources have degraded. Communities
seeking new ways of engagement are willing to participate in
time consuming planning activities that will help them improve
access and status of natural resources. This manual documents
the process of engagement supported by Cross River Community
Forest Management Policies. During the process communities
participated in developing integrated forest management plans.
These highlight activities they want, resulting in doable and
easily sustained changes that affect their own behaviour.

vi
vii

The general community mapping technique used here was

adapted from that developed by Environmental Science for
Social Change. However, this process has been designed to fit the
1

cultural context of the Cross River Peoples and Cross River State
Forestry Commission. The planning process was implemented
during 2002 in four different types of communities. The
communities were those with a single-village forest committee, a
two-village forest committee and a three-village forest
committee. All four areas have resource rich lowland tropical
rainforests as part of their community forests.
The step-by-step methodology presented in this manual was
finalised when developing the three management plans and a
joint management framework. The approach ensures community
mapping is used in a systematic process that allows local people
to develop their Community Based Forest Management Plan. In
contrast to many other processes it is adaptable, allows various
types of involvement in the participatory process and guides
people through a new way of thinking.
Each chapter discusses the process as shown in the following
diagram. Steps 1, 2 and 3 outline how to start, the use of mapping
to analyse the situation and status of key resources. Step 4
focuses on the institutional requirements and steps 5, 6 and 7 deal
with the plans development and preparation for its
implementation. Step 8 reflects on the process by considering the
monitoring, evaluation and adaptation activities that accompany
it. Each step identifies the purpose and expected outputs where
appropriate, the explanations given to the community and the
activities. The reader is helped through the text by coding for the
bullet points. So Red bullets are for outputs, grey points for
results, and green squares for what it means. For bullets in black,
diamonds indicate the purpose, circular points are for
information, squares for action, stars for information about the
community, hands for action the community needs to do, and
arrows for advice.
There are a also series of boxes in each chapter, where
information about the process is given in green, examples from
the community in blue, things to note in cream, important points
in orange and warnings or very important to be aware of in red.
2

Adapted from Steps for Participatory Land Use Planning, SEILA Cambodia 2001

SSTTEEPP 00
Training the Team

SSTTEEPP 11

1 Preparation

The staff of the Cross River Community Forestry Unit have been
trained in the following process. However it is recommended to
level off with the facilitation team, which may include all or
some of this group. The team needs to clarify their expectations,
roles and responsibilities. To be successful the team will need to:
Trust the community.
Be open to new ideas, questions, and realities.
Be able to listen respectfully and attentively to all
sectors, including women and non-literates.
Facilitate the process and not control it.
Be firm to ensure people in the community are
respectful of each other.
Reflect critically on the quality of the plans produced,
and the outcomes they guide.
Seek ways to learn and improve their skills.
Enjoy the process.
Keep focused on the outcome.
The outcome of the planning process is to facilitate new ways for
local people to relate to resources, each other, traders and forestry
officials so that the local resource base is sustained for future use.
Purpose of the Community Forest Management planning
process:
To
encourage
sustainable
forest
resource
management and use or wise use.
Build the capacities of local resource users, and those
in support organisations (Forestry Commission,
NGOs, and Communities).

Community mapping is the basic technique used to develop the

Community Based Forest Management Plans. For the following
process you need materials and a means of processing the results.
These are all locally available in the market.
1.1
Materials Required
Preparing for the community maps, you will need:
A roll of transparent plastic sheeting (at least 6ft long
(1.8m).
Multiple coloured permanent markers (at least four
colours).
Cotton wool.
Useful Tip
Rubbing Alcohol to
wipe
away
the
Use a large tabletop to
unwanted pen marks.
approximately measure the
Clear /cello tape.
dimensions of your plastic
Cutter/craft knife
sheeting. For example If the
Sheets of large brown
roll is 1.8m long and the table
paper.
1x 2 meters, then unroll the
plastic 2.5 times the width of
Sheet of white tarpaulin
the table. Roll out another
or canvas.
two sections that are 0.75
Roll of thick clear tape.
times the width of the table.
Roll of brown tape.
One map sheet is made up of

For each session, or layer

one large section of this
drawn you will need;
measured plastic stuck to
(using the masking tape) the
Plastic sheeting cut and
two smaller sections. Make
stuck together to cover
up a near square area of
an area of about 3 m x
plastic sheeting.
2.5m.
5-10 alcohol based pens
of four colours (more colours if possible).
5

1 Bottle of rubbing alcohol.

1 roll of cotton wool.
Paper/card
Cutter
(Stanley knife).
Clear tape to stick the
plastic sheets together
to make a rough square.

At the end of the mapping session, once the map is drawn;

You need to protect the ink (it may be a little damp) from
marking the plastic when you fold the map.
Take 6 sheets of the largest brown paper (if each sheet is
about 0.80m x 0.65m).
Put these over one half of the map, on the side that has
been drawn on and fold the plastic with its protective
paper sheet sandwiched between the layer.
Things to remember;
) People need to
use the rubbing
alcohol sparingly.
If
people
accidentally spill
it then wipe it up
well and allow it
a few seconds to
dry.
) Gently
remind
people to put the
caps back on the
pens (please dont
boss them).
) If the pens are
getting old their
ink can be quite
faint. Try and watch whether the features drawn are coming
out dark and if not, give the person another pen of the same
colour.
6

Processing the Maps at the Office.

Washing maps once communities have finished drawing make
it fun for your team.
The easiest way is to first dunk them in a large container
of rainwater, this only removes the red dust, not the
stubborn marks.
Dry them on the line.
Use damp toilet roll to go over the map, back and front,
rubbing away the remaining red dirt marks.
Highlighting Features
Some of the colours, like red, may fade.
Go over faint features after washing the map and before
you photograph it.
Be careful to go over the feature exactly the way the
community drew it.
Photographing the maps
Point to Remember
Tips for Digital Documentation
Set the camera to take the
Do not forget to
highest resolution photos it
photograph the
can (max 4MB or 5MB).
legends.
Put the base layer up on a
wall over the white canvass
Keep a logbook and
and take a photo from a
note down what data
fixed distance marked on
you have
photographed for
the floor with a cross.
which community.
The distance needs to be far
enough away to take the
whole map in one shot, leaving a small boundary round
the edge to reduce distortion.
Do not use the flash because it will produce white light
marks on the photo when it reflects off the plastic.
The camera will need to take a long exposure so lean the
camera on something steady so it remains in focus.
Once the base layer has been photographed, put up the
next layer over the base layer aligning it exactly with the
features on the base layer.
7

From the same position, using the cross on the floor, take
another shot of the two layers together.
Take down the layer and put up another layer and repeat
the photo documentation process so each layer is
photographed over the base layer.
Then remove the base layer and take a photo of each
layer against the white canvass background, without the
base layer underneath.
Take close up photos of detailed features and symbols
that have been drawn on each layer.
If you cannot find a wall or building large enough to
stick the maps to then photograph the maps in the way
described for analogue cameras.

2 shots are just possible to digitise, (photos 1 and 2),

but 1 shot is bad because the distortion makes
features illegible.
To Photograph: Photo 1
Take shots of the
map using a chair.

Photo

The map

The arrows here

show the
direction of the
shot being taken.
Photo

Photo 4

Tips for Analogue Documentation Using analogue camera

Use a 28 mm lens to minimise the edge distortions.
Stand equal distance from the map edge when you take
the shots.
Put the map on the floor, stand on a chair to get a good
distance from the map so you can get enough detail.
The more shots you take the better the results for
digitising;
6 shots are best, (photos 1-6),
4 shots are good, (photos 1-4),
3 shots are OK, (photos 1,2 and T),
8

Photo 2

Photo T

Photo 3

Use a Digital
Camera
4 or 5 mega
pixels.

Taking Data Off the Maps.

Note the names of the important features when they are
being drawn.
If there are discrepancies in spelling try and clarify it
after the mapping session.
Tabulate the data on the maps as place name, and ask for
the local name of each resource, English meaning, and
feature - find out the scientific
name later (if possible).
Storage of Plastic Maps.
This protects the drawn features and
stops them getting transferred onto the
facing piece of plastic sheeting.
Put sheets of large brown
paper (preferably cello-taped
9

together) over half of the plastic layer (on the drawn side
of the map). Fold the plastic over onto the brown paper
so that it now lies sandwiched between the folded plastic
layers of the map.
Continue folding the map until it is a manageable size for
storage.
Label the map, name, date and place on the reverse side.

Returning the Maps.

After documentation, give the original plastic maps (now
carefully folded) to the community because it is their
data and they will be able to use it to explain their
situation to others.
Once the photos have been digitised then a digital hard
copy can also be given to the community.
If there is more than one community involved, the
leaders of each village should be given the plastic map
and they can then decide to arrange for its care.
Give each set of community leaders involved in the
mapping a copy of the digitised map.

10

1.2 Choosing Communities

For communities to produce their own Community Based Forest
Management Plan they need to be ready. How do you know
whether the community is ready for planning or if resource
mapping is better? Or when there are several communities
requesting planning assistance how do you prioritise them?
We used certain criteria to assess how receptive communities
were likely to be and whether they would come out with a
management plan at the end of the activity. In three of the four
areas our assessment was correct, but the fourth, Abo Inland was
less successful, and a plan was not produced. It was only evident
that Abo Inland did not meet our selection criteria after the
activities had started. This case is discussed in detail in later
sections, but although it was not as successful as the other three
areas, the three communities made important decisions together
using the process.
Communities that do not meet this criteria can still undergo the
management planning process, but it needs to proceed slowly so
that the resource mapping process buildings the necessary criteria
for successful management planning and implementation.
Generally the criteria below were useful to assess which
communities to work with.

11

Selection Criteria Used For Communities.

Criteria for selecting which communities to develop a sustainable
community forest management plan, using community mapping
are the following:
Strong village institutions, evidence of ability to control
access to resource base.
Forest organisation (FO) with good representation from the
local community and good local relations.
Accountability and transparency mechanisms between the
FO and traditional institutions at least set up or planned.
Local community is interested in managing their forest
resources.
Concerns.
These criteria would result in slowing down the planning process
to address problems:
Evidence of mismanagement by the FO or corruption.
Evidence of mismanagement by the local leaders or
corruption.
Disorganised FO or village institutions.
Communitys lack of interest to manage their forest
resources.
Uncontrolled or Extensive logging activities in the
community, this biases the local economy and requires
extensive work in order to set up strong control mechanisms.
The presence of logging companies operating under contract
with the communities. These companies have already
infiltrated local institutions, wealth distribution patterns and
tend to weald influence if their access to local resources is
perceived to be threatened.
Forestry officers with a locally perceived bad reputation with
villagers, due to corruption and connivance with logging
companies or other resource exploiters. It takes a long time to
build the trust between the FC and communities required for
effective planning.
Communities that meet any of the criteria in the second group
would be unlikely to respond well to planning activities in a set
12

period of time. These communities require more time for the

planning and discussion, possibly over a period of a year or more
depending upon the disparities, conflicts and conniving present
within local institutions and relations.
Once it is clear which community to work with proceed with the
initial discussions.
1.3
Initial Discussions
Arranging Visits - this determines how ready and available
people will be for the activity.
Send letters by hand to the leader of each village in the
forest committee.
Give at least two weeks notice for the letters to arrive
and arrangements to be made in the villages.
If possible use the public radio too.
Visit ahead of time and meet all the community to
explain the activity, do not assume there is
communication between the villagers and their leaders
it may be poor.
Scheduling this determines who can map.
Give options to the community so they can decide when
to have the meetings.
Ensure that meetings do not coincide with harvest time
for major products (eg. bush mango).
Be flexible with timing so that the planned activities can
fit into farm and forest activities, either morning or
evenings.
Plan for rest time.
Be willing to change your schedule if you need to.
Multiple Community Forest Committees / Organisations - one
will be dominant.
Ensure that at least one meeting is held in each of the
villages represented in the Forest Management
Committee or Community Based Organisation.
The management decision meeting needs to be held in
the dominant village where possible because more
13

people will attend, but let the community decide the

location of meetings, with guidance.
Visual Assessments.
During the initial meeting walk around with the leaders
and visually assess the socio-economic situation of the
community.
Take note of the materials used to construct the houses,
carry loads, and transport goods.
Assess the status of community projects such as the
primary school, health centre, water, churches, roads and
bridges.
Look for children with scars on their legs, blond hair,
extended stomachs.
Take note of what you see, as these assessments will help you
ask questions during the planning activities. This type of
informal data can help you develop a socio-economic monitoring
form (see step 8, monitoring, evaluation and adaptation).
Managing
Expectations.
During any meeting
with the community
your team must be
careful
not
to
promise results or
activities that your
project
or
the
Forestry
Commission cannot
deliver.
The community may ask if you are
going to give them projects or wages.
It is difficult to say no when
communities are often in great need
remind them they will get the maps
and a copy of the documentation.
14

Compensation/Consideration.
Whether to pay people to attend meetings or workshops this
is a favourite question asked by at least one person in the four
communities. In part this is a legacy of the national park
workshops where people were paid a seating allowance and food.
Ideally participation should be voluntary but the scheduling must
then be flexible to allow farm activities to continue relatively
uninterrupted. Attendance levels will indicate who is interested to
attend, rather than who wants to get an allowance.

Most communities
remember the
broken promises
made by Cross
River National Park.

Although it is advisable to say no to allowances, it is fine to say

yes to tokens. We found small tokens of appreciation during
each meeting ensured a level of cooperation and once clearly
explained, most participants did not have a problem with not
being paid. We found the following were acceptable to the
participants:
Situational Analysis.
A small token of pepper and magi can be given to the
women leaders of each community as a small indication
of appreciation.
The men receive two bottles of hot per meeting.
Resource Mapping.
A bag of salt is purchased for the women leaders of each
community in the FO as a token of appreciation.
The men receive two bottles of hot per meeting. Box
juice drinks, a novelty item, are bought for those that do
not drink hot.
Boiled sweets, mints or something sharp are also handed
out half way through the activity. Usually at the end a
box of cabin biscuits is also given out.
Management Planning.
Two bottles of hot are given to the community at the
end of the meeting.

Keep your word - if

you are not sure you
can deliver it do not
offer it

Providing a bottle of hot is cultural, Moslems and some

Christians sects do not drink therefore a culturally acceptable
alternative needs to be found, this may include buying the locally
produced wine.
15

SSTTEEPP 22

2 Situational Analysis

example who owns livestock, who does not own land or who
trades?
The information is an official version and will need to be verified
by others in the community through interviews with women,
youth and elders.

You are seeking five outputs from the community at this stage
Producing the place map with local names.
The location of available resources.
Problems experienced with resources and where they
are located.
The local understanding of what is Sustainable Forestry
and what they consider as destructive practices.
Getting a local sense of place, the people and the
landscape.
2.1 Initial Assessment
2.1.1 Discussions with Leaders
Official Situation.
Go through the front door, talk with the community leaders first,
both the traditional ones and those that have been elected. You
will learn important information such as:
Data that local government
Planning first or Policy?
uses to monitor
development in the villages.
For any organisation
Size of the population, who
starting a project that aims
studies outside and who
to influence both
visits regularly for trade or
community forestry policy
other activities.
and practice the dilemma
Those households that are
is which to initiate first
policy or practice.
perceived by the leaders as
needing greater support by
One feeds into the other
the community
so community mapping
(vulnerable/poorer).
needs to start as early as
Key diseases suffered by
possible as part of the
the community and children
planning stage, to be able
Birth and death rates.
to inform policy and
Key economic factors for
improve its development.
16

Familiarisation.
Walk round the village and get to know it. Start to be familiar
with how simple tasks are performed by observing life in the
village such as:
Water collection.
Socio-Economic
information must be
Firewood collection.
kept confidential
Cooking.
trust is easily lost
Washing.
and hard to regain
Toilet.
once broken.

2.1.2

Socio Economic Assessment

This is optional for community forest management planning.

However if the project links from planning to implementing
activities that may improve local incomes, then you need to obtain
basic socio-economic information as early as possible so you can
compare it with data obtained later in the process.
17

Socio-economic questions are often considered sensitive, you may

have to wait until after the mapping has started so that a
relationship of trust is established.
Assessment Forms.
From previous visits to the village develop a tick box form that
can identify the various socio-economic status levels using
material goods. For example a guide would be the following
Type of housing material used for the roof, wall and fences.
Type of furniture in the house, such as beds, tables, chairs
Transportation available.
Luxury items bought such as radios, generators and TVs.
What available sources of income do they have.
What they spend their income on.
Unstructured Interviews.
Do not interview everyone, but ask the leaders to suggest
households, include those families that are considered to be
the most vulnerable in the village.
A sample of between five to ten households can be enough to
get a more detailed understanding of the village.
Use the form that you have developed to guide the interview
but ensure that it takes no more than hour to do, unless
people are willing to talk for longer.

Identifying Indicators.
Choose information that is easily monitored and will show
changes in people, and the village that have been caused by the
planning process and its implementation.
This could include things such as the
A picture
number of:
paints a

New roofs.
thousand
words.

Radios.

Water containers.

Participation of women in meetings.

Domestic animals.

Children going on to secondary school.

Land actively farmed.

The choice of information will depend upon what you found out
in the interviews. Information to monitor changes in the
resources will be identified through the planning process itself.
Photo Documentation.
If time and project resources are very limited and you cannot
interview villagers, then photograph what you observe in the
village.
2.1.3

Community Meeting

Opening Discussions create an event.

Most people like to open an important activity with a
prayer.
It provides an opening ritual that focuses peoples minds
on the importance of what they are about to do.
Explaining the Activities.
The first discussion needs to explain the following activities and
emphasise the participation of the whole community. Everyone
uses the forest or its products and therefore is responsible for
managing it. Before the activities start explain a few key points.

18

19

 There is no money for activities this is only a plan that

can help them get more community funds from small
changes to their forest activities.
They are only being asked to volunteer about 2 hrs of
their time.
The Plan will sustain community resource use over time.
The plan will build on their own institutional strengths
and help make them stronger so that people learn to use
what they have well and wisely so they get the best value
out of their forest activities.
Everyone has a role especially the resource users and
elders.
Stress that those with writing or reading skills have a
different role from drawing.
Ask those with reading and writing skills to document
the activity and do the legends.
Clarify the expectations of the people gathered.
Focusing on the Goal.
To help people understand the importance of what they do stress
the following that these are the intended results:
The aim of the process is to develop rules and regulations
for their bush.
Copies of the rules and regulations will be lodged with the
local magistrate so that they become the communities bylaws or will be endorsed by local government.
They will be asked to sign a Community Forest
Management Agreement with the Forestry Commission
that acknowledges and supports their plans to manage the
forest wisely.
Now they are ready to start mapping.
2.1.4

To observe community dynamics, especially between the

leaders, the forest committee or organisation and
villagers.
Explain to the People before the Activity that:
People are to draw on the
Useful Tip
large plastic sheet using the
permanent marker pens.
Do not use the word
VILLAGE when discussing
To draw their place they
what they are expected to
will need to include roads,
draw.
hunting tracks, farm tracks,
rivers, and hills.
Otherwise they will focus on
The village(s) is to be
the buildings and not draw
shown symbolically with a
the areas of forest and farms
few houses.
that will need space for later
They are not allowed to use
maps.
English words for anything
Always ask them to draw
emphasize the local
their PLACE.
dialect.
They are not allowed to use
geographic symbols, everything they draw must look the way
it is in their place.

Place Mapping

Purpose of the Activity why draw a map of their place?

To obtain a sense of how people see their place, where
they draw its limits through the resources they use.
To obtain the base map that will sit underneath
subsequent layers.
20

21

Activity.
Put the plastic sheets on the white canvass/tarpaulin, and
stick them together with the clear tape.
Show the villagers gathered that the pen ink will rub away
with the rubbing alcohol.
Ask them what colour pen they want to use for the first
feature, which is either the road or the river, and offer the pen
for people to take.
You may want to suggest a symbol is changed slightly to be
able to differentiate it from another one, such as roads and
tracks, rivers and streams, but essentially they are
encouraged to use the same colour for similar features.
Remind people that the hills must look like the shape of their
hills, do not allow them to draw humps!
When people have finished drawing the features ask them to
write the names of roads, rivers, and hills in their own
dialect they are not to use English even for words like river,
or road.
Results.
This provides a network of rivers and hunting tracks that
can be used to identify the management zones in the
decision mapping.
The local names will help identify management zones later.
The place map can be used as a teaching tool in the local
school, so that the local dialect, legends, stories and names
are not lost.
What does it Mean?
Dont worry you will have a map with multiple scales on it
(distance, time and culture see Lawrence 2002).
It is like looking at their place through a fish eye lens, with
the areas around the village(s) being close, seem bigger
and distances between features are large.
The same distance on the map may represent areas that are
either two hours walk away from the village or those that
are very close, but walked often.
The far off places taking several hours may be represented
by smaller distances on the map.
22

What the varying distances indicate is the relative

frequency that people go to the area, so the very far places
are not visited often and may appear smaller or represented
by small distances.
Features such as hills may be drawn in different sizes,
indicating again either their importance culturally or the
frequency that they are visited.
2.1.5

Verification Walk.

Check the information drawn on the place map, especially the

place names, rivers and boarders. Identify an area on the map that
you can easily walk to with members of the community, leaders
or the local forest committee. Use the walk to verify the
following:
GPS cultural areas, sacred trees or lakes.
Identify on the ground where boundaries markers are
positioned for national parks, forest reserve and neighbouring
villages. These should not have been identified on the place
map, but the verification walk is a good time to identify these
boundaries and take GPS readings if possible.
Find out about local legends or
Point to Remember
cultural practices linked to the
landscape, forest or water.
Although you are seeking
Identify whether there are
a general resource use
conflicts with neighbours, traders
pattern, men will be more
or with groups within the village.
eager to draw.
2.2 Resource Mapping
Purpose
This activity is to help the
community understand their
general resource use pattern.
It also helps people to practice
thinking about what resources
are important, why, and where
are they located in abundance.
23

Therefore the general

resource layer may reflect
mens important
resources rather than
those of the whole
community take note of
how involved the women
are in the process
equity and gender
differences will be
address later.

Explanation.
Ask people to draw the location of where they find a
particular resource abundant in their forest.
If they say that certain resources are everywhere, contradict
them, because most Non Timber Forest Products and timber
resources grow in clusters - those that use them know where
they collect them.
If they want to draw timber, remind them that this is a
separate activity to be done another day.
Activity.
Put another plastic layer over the place map and add the two
extra pieces to cover the whole place map and stick the
pieces together with clear tape.
Ask people to trace one central feature, the road, or the rivers
that go across the map these allow the maps to be aligned
together so do not forget it.
On the new plastic layer
ask the people to draw the
symbols
where
they
collect to resource, or see
it growing abundantly.
They are drawing their
general resource use
patterns.
During the activity ask
what the symbols mean.
Prepare a table and ask
the one that drew the
symbol to redraw it next
to its name (you may
want to trace complex
symbols).
Ask people to write the
name of each resource in
the local dialect and the
common term in the two
blank columns (this can
be done by the leaders who read and write).
24

Get people to rank the resources by asking them which is the

most import resource and why.
After the activity has finished cover the map with brown
sheeting to protect the community map, fold carefully and
keep it in a safe place.

Verification.
During a morning or afternoon walk
around the village and farmlands with
a local resident to ask questions and
understand the different parts of the
maps that have been drawn and the
local resource harvesting techniques.

Funny Fact
The brown sheet put
over the map, stops
the permanent pen
marks drawn on the
plastic from
transferring to the
other side of the
map in the humidity.

Results.
This shows the general relationship
between the people and their local resources.
What does it Mean?
Locally
important
resources are highlighted
by being drawn in more
detail or larger.
Size of the resources may
also indicate the area
covered by this resource.
Rocks and other features
may be included in this
map.
Observe and note the
dynamics between the
men and women, leaders
and young men and
educated members of the
community you may
have to think about
adapting the process to
ensure equity.
25

2.3 Problem Mapping

Purpose.
To understand what the community perceive as resource
problems in their area and problems that they associate
with their place.
To know what problems need to be addressed in the
resource mapping and planning steps. If people identify a
decline in several resources then these will be the
resources to map separately.
To understand the changes experienced by people in their
resource base and link these to sustainability discussions.
Explanation.
Ask people to draw what
they think are problems in
their place using sketches to
symbolise the problem.
They may discuss a problem
help them to analyse it by
breaking it down into its
component parts.
Talk about the smaller
problems and how they can
symbolise them.
Give examples from other
communities. For example,
Etara/Eyeyeng
showed
people shooting animals to
explain about outsiders encroaching on their hunting
grounds.
Activity the choice here is either to draw or list the problems.
The decision taken will depend upon the time and willingness of
people to draw.
Place another plastic layer on the place map add the two
extra pieces to make up the whole size and stick them
together with clear tape.

26

Again ask people to trace one central feature, the road, or

rivers that go across the map try and use the same symbol
as before, one located in the middle of the plastic.
Encourage someone to draw the first problem symbol, for
example if its the decline of key resources like Afang, then
suggest they use the same symbol from the resource map.
Just draw it in the location where afang productivity has
declined.
Ask someone to write the explanation on the legend next to
its symbol.
If the problem symbols are too intricate then relate the map
drawing to a numbering system on the legend or trace the
symbol on a spare piece of plastic that can become the
legend.
After the activity has finished cover the map with brown
sheeting to protect the community map, fold carefully and
keep in a safe place.

Results.
Stress the need to
make a management
plan to address some
of these problems.
What does it Mean?
The resources that
have been identified
as degraded are the
ones the community
can draw as
specialised abundance
layers during the next
step.
It is the local
perception of what
problems they have
that is important.
Think about the resource use patterns that have caused
these problems and talk about them with the community.
27

which of the rivers causes this (lack of forest

cover).

2.4 Sustainability Discussion

Changes in the Forest Environment - you will have been given
ideas by people during previous discussions about resource use
problems.
This discussion links different changes in the
environment to unsustainable resource use or harvesting
practices.
This discussion either happens before the problem
mapping to get people to think about what their problems
are, or after it, to relate their problems to what
unsustainable management means.
Indicators of Small Changes.
For communities that are basically resource rich forest
communities, they may not be aware that they have
unsustainable practices.
They may feel they are a good community and have
internalised all the previous enlightenment campaigns and
no longer have unsustainable practices.
Ask this serious of questions to draw out indications of
malpractice. The answers here are those from Etara
/Eyeyeng communities.
a. Are resources further away now than before? It
depends upon the resource, salad used to be close
before, but not now. Others like bush mango are still
close (resource degradation).
b. Are there resources that cover a smaller area
now? Some like Afang (Resource degradation).
c. Are there resources, like animals that take longer
to catch or are harder to find? Some animals are
less abundant now, they have moved away
(resource depletion).
d. Can you still hear the same birds calling? Yes
(This indicates there is very little noise pollution or
no change in indicator birds like hornbills)
e. Do children sometimes get sick/diarrhoea from
the water? Yes from time to time, but because we
get the water from the large river we dont know
28

f.

Do rivers and streams shift with big storms?

Yes (high storm flows can indicate that there has
been too much forest conversion into farms up
stream, see Walpole 2003).
g. Is water harder to come by in the dry season, do
some rivers dry up? Yes a few (indicating a lower
water table due to less recharge during the rainy
season, again due to landuse changes).
h. Are the areas that flood the same as before or
bigger? No the
same (changes
in
flooding
patterns
can
indicate a severe
level of landuse
change).
Indicators of Large Change.
Sudden changes are usually
obvious to the community and
may take the following forms:
Rivers drying that used
to remain full flowing
even in the dry season.
Decline
in
afang
(salad) or an important
timber or NTFPs.
29

Encroachment from other communities.

Non production of bush mango or other fruits.
And access problems like the lack of bridges.

Making the Links.

Discuss sustainability in the context of the results from the
problem mapping or the problems identified during this step.
If you are running out of time focus on making links and
discussing the problems, geographical distribution,
seasonality and frequency.
Support techniques.
The community mapping is not sufficient on its own, therefore a
variety of other techniques can be combined during spaces
between mapping sessions:
Semi structured interviews.
Walk and talk activities.
Participant observation.
Photograph activities in the village to verify community
discussions.
Group discussions on key themes like timber, logging,
marketing, NTFP collection, and farming.

SSTTEEPP 33

3. Resource Abundance Mapping

This chapter discusses community resource mapping with small
groups of specialised users such as hunters, and their accompanying
resource discussion. Your aim for each resource is to understand:
Changes in abundance.
Seasonality of use.
Regeneration capacity.
Harvesting techniques.
Volumes harvested and farm-gate prices obtained.
The small groups could be any of the following:

Women; do not allow any men in the room!

Hunters and fishers.
Sticks and Rope gathers; chewing, cattle sticks and both cane
rope and rattan gathers.
Tree finders, timber dealers, native doctors and farmers local use of timber and proposed cutting for commercial use.

Depending upon the resource map in the previous activities

others may be:
Bush mango and achi gatherers fruit gatherers.
Raffia, pandan and oil palm gatherers/growers or tappers
leaf or plant product collectors.
Bee keepers honey collectors.
The general mapping process is discussed first and then several
examples of typical small group mapping are given. The examples of
more specialised small group mapping show how detailed
information can be drawn from the group. The small group mapping
activities follow the same general mapping process.

30

31

3.1

General Mapping Process

Warning

3.1.2. The General Process

3.1.1

Opening Discussion

SYMBOLIC IMPORTANCE

Opening Discussions
Open with a prayer to focus
peoples minds on the
importance of what they do.
Management Objectives
Ask what their management
plan objectives are as part
of the first introductory
meeting.
Find out as a community
what do they want to
achieve with their plan and
why.

Drawing symbols for

resources is important.
Those that really know the
resource will want to draw
them in detail; by doing so
they take responsibility for
the resource (see
Lawrence 2002).
It takes time, but visually
resource mapping gives
residents something they
can be proud of and they
will want to share with their
children and outsiders.
It removes the need to use
words so those less
schooled or literate can
participate.
If you have a group that is
not responding, for
whatever reason, change
from symbols to words or
something simple, but
keep it spatial!
If you have to change to
words or block colours it is
quite probable that you are
NOT talking to those that
gather or use the
resource.

Scheduling
Propose a possible schedule and
ask the people to suggest
changes. You may encounter
the following activities, which
will guide the schedule:
Dry season activities can be
either morning or afternoon.
Wet season activities are
either very early morning or
late afternoon, or evening.
Sundays: Sunday afternoons
are a good day for meetings;
however, some villages (ie
those in Boki LGA) like to drink during the morning and will
be rowdy.
Villages with traditional age grade groups may hold their age
grade meetings on the Sunday, if its near the bush mango
season the age grades are organising who will stay in the
villages, so you may not have Sunday afternoon meetings at
all (for example in Owai).
32

Do not suggest

Objectives
of
Resource
symbols, let them
Abundance Mapping
decide what they want
to draw to represent
To encourage the small
the resource.
group to assess how
productive their resource is,
The more decisions
and locate zones of high
they make about the
production.
map the more
To
explore
doable
responsibility they are
management options that
taking for the activity.
may address particular
problems they identify with
This helps increase a
the resource, and increase
sense of ownership.
regeneration or yields.
To understand what marketing system they have and how it
can be improved to increase the economic benefits going to
the community.
To initiate thoughts about how they can close or effectively
control access to the resource.
Gain an initial understanding on how the community
manages scarcity or calamities (women in particular).
Explanation to the Groups
Ask people whether the resource is found in equal quantities
in all areas.
They will say no, if they are the ones gathering, hunting or
collecting the resource. There is usually some form of
degradation in regular collection areas.
Stress the need to understand where and how the resource is
found so that the group can look at what problems are where
and suggest how to improve the situation.
Remind them that after the mapping the group will discuss
prices and marketing of these resources to see how these can
be improved and to share what other communities are doing
or experiencing.
You may have to schedule a marketing discussion meeting
for another day
33

Mapping Activities
Put the place map on the
floor
orientated
the
direction of the real features
outside.
Ask one member of the
group to trace either a river
or road that runs through the
map, this feature will be
used to line up the layers.
Ask people to discuss and
decide where their resource
is most abundant or more
frequently found, these are
the places they will draw
the
symbol
for
that
resource.
The more abundant the
resource is, the more
symbols they will put in the place on the map.
Ask them to keep the symbols simple so everyone can draw
them, but looking like the thing they are trying to represent.
They can choose to draw a seed, leaf, buttress, but let them
decide.
If there is more than one resource involved, for example
animals, womens NTFPs or several types of rope or stick,
ask them to start drawing the location of their most important
resource.
The Legend if they use many resources you may want to start
by listing them first and then prioritising which ones are drawn.
Once they start drawing the location of the resources ask
them to put the symbol on the paper next to the column for
names in their dialect and its common one.
Ask a dominant member of the group or a leader of the FMC
or CBO to construct the legend and to write.
Ask a resident who is literate to document the attendance
more often if they can read they will volunteer to do this job.
34

Ranking - Analysis
Once the map is complete and they have drawn all the symbols
they want and finished the legend, use the legend to rank the
resources.
a. Importance Ranking simple and quick.
Ask them to identify the most important resource and why?
If they say they sell the resource, ask them for how much?
The community will then be asked to give the resource a
number corresponding to its importance.
b. Pair Wise Ranking
Often it is easier to compare two
resources together and decide
which of the two is more
important and why. This is the
principal behind a more
complex
method
for
determining the relative rank of
resources, such as pair wise
ranking.
Draw a table and write the
names of the resources
along the top and along the
side.
Shade the squares that
compare the resource with itself so you have a diagonal line
passing through the table.
Ask people to think about the type of values they have such
as income generated, medicinal value, usefulness, and
spiritual importance.
For the boxes that compare two resources with each other
and are situated above the shaded line, identify those that
have greater economic value and why (results written in
blue).
For those boxes that compare two resources and are situated
below the diagonal line, identify which resource is more
35

useful or important to the community, or because it performs

a critical role (results written in green).
As the example below shows, go along each row comparing
one resource with the other and so that the group can
determine which is more important than the other and why.

COMPARE
Economic
Value/
Usefulness
Rattan

Rattan - R

Afang - A

Chewing
stick - CS

Bush Mango
BM

XXXX

CS better
market

BM higher
price

Afang (salad)

A Food all
year round

A
regular
income
XXX

BM higher
price

Chewing
sticks

R food,
making
things
BM for
soup,
boundary
marker

A more
regular
income
XXXX

Bush Mango

A - food
A food
available
all year
round

In this example therefore:

Economically - Bush Mango
is the most valuable resource,
Afang the second most
valuable and thirdly chewing
stick. Rattan is considered the
least important economically.
Usefulness Afang is the
most valued because it is the
most necessary, Bush Mango
is next and finally Rattan.
Chewing Sticks is the least
useful resource for the
community.

36

BM soup,
boundary
marker

BM higher
price, bigger
harvest
XXXXX

Abundance Ranking all except timber! Only carry out

abundance ranking with timber if they have savannah or
resource poor forests.
Once the individual resources are ranked go back to the map.
Ask them to look at the map and assess the areas that are
most important or have the greatest abundance.
Ask them to circle the area in red, write down a number
corresponding to the ranked value and its name.
Then ask which is the next most abundant or important area
until all their symbols are within circled areas named and
numbered.
They may want more than one area ranked with the same
number and this is fine.
If there are areas identified and ranked without symbols in
them this is fine, but ask them what resources are found and
what state they are in. It is likely that these are low ranking
areas for that resource.

Reasons for Change.

) Discuss the reasons for the abundance ranking.
) Assess the map and find those areas that are lowest rank and
discuss how, why, and when these areas changed their
abundance level.
) Ask the elders how these areas were before in their youth.
) Find out whether there is a particular resource that is now
scarce.
37

) Again ask the elders how this resource was harvested before

by stores which is then paid back at harvest, with interest

find out what interest is paid and how.
) If there is debt, find out how extensive it is and how many
people it affects and when people go into debt.

to ensure regrowth.
) Discuss the reasons for the scarcity.
) Use the results from previous mapping discussions to link
problems to particular resources (see below, suggestions are
made for each resource).
) Ask about the harvesting techniques, whether there is
wastage or damage done to
the resource that stops it from
regenerating.

Management Options Available to Local

Change Blockers
People.
You are now ready to discuss the
Debt.
Cultural use.
management options.
Provides for key
Beware of change blockers; these
service,
may stop people changing their
important use
behaviour when they implement
like education.
the plans.
Low social
Explore what is doable and argue
status of the
with people when they present
users.
difficulties, and suggest possible
Non support by
solutions they can consider.
traditional
General Management Options
institutions.
may
include;
rotational
harvesting, set aside, total banning, or banning for a
specified period.
TRY TO FOCUS THOUGHTS ON HOW THEY CAN
CLOSE or CONTROL ACCESS TO RESOURCES.

Marketing Systems.

) Find out the type of marketing

)
)
)
)
)
)

system
for
resources.
Determine whether there are
annual dealer registration fees,
weekly agents registration
fees, landing tax, exit tax, etc.
How well does the system
work, if there are fee
differences for indigenes and
non-indigenes?
What are the informal taxes
that must be paid, how much and how often?
Discuss the value of the resource by asking what they are
able to get for it both in terms of volume and price: good
week verses bad week.
Compare the income they get now with what they got before
(total value).
Ask them what they think will happen to the resource if
things continue without them making some changes in
harvesting practices.
Make things personal by finding out what they spend money
on and how they will pay for the goods without depending on
the resource.
Key activities need money such as education, health, or
weddings. Find out whether there is an existing debt cycle for
example with timber dealers or traders often credit is given
38

3.2

Resource Mapping by Marginal

Groups
3.2.1.
Hunting and Fishing
Abundance Mapping
Purpose.
To include marginal members
of the community in decision
making (its likely the loners or
village bad boys go off and
hunt, - it keeps them out of
trouble!).
For hunters and fishers to take
responsibility for causing their
own problems.
39

Cycle of Debt
Many hunters are tied
into a debt cycle with
the dealers, this can
range from 1000
3000 naira advances
depending upon the
community.
Management
decisions have to
consider how to
alleviate this pressure.

 To enable them to control where and how they hunt and

fish.
To make the link between the important role of animals
in propagating locally important resources such as bush
mango, mimisops, cedar, mahogany, cane rope, cattle
stick and afang etc.
Bush Meat Trade

Possible Problems.
Find out how it
Over hunting decline in large
works, both locally
mammal populations.
and for the city
Wasteful hunting practices.
trade.
Essentially this is the use of traps
and not clearing the trap so the
Live animal trade,
animal dies and rots.
birds and primates.
Hunting fires, these are left and can
set light to the whole forest in the
Find out how they
work, and how
dry season. Some communities may
they are linked to
use this as a hunting technique, but
other trades such
it is only a problem if fire is used as
as logging.
a regular hunting tool to flush out
animals. This method yields
numbers too high for animal
populations to support and it
destroys habitat.
Encroachment of outsiders
hunting in their areas.
Lower prices for wet season
hunting because its all assumed
to be trap caught and therefore
the meat is lower quality
stressed meat is tough.
Hunting endangered species;
this must be approached subtly,
do not impose outside rules on
them or local people will likely
brake them as a form of
resistance (Scott 1990).
Hunting in the National Park;
this is a very sensitive issue and one to be handled very
40

carefully at this stage. The park has always been park of the
traditional hunting area and many are aware of the no
hunting rules, but still hunt there. No hunting is something to
be worked towards in the future once they trust you.
Find out how much pressure hunters are putting on the
National Park resources and help them to acknowledge that
over hunting has caused a decline in the animals available.
Over fishing is difficult to identify in one discussion. It is
possible that a few villages still have fish in their waters and
are in danger of overfishing.
The use of poisons to catch fish, especially the use of agrochemicals.
Common Sense

Possible Solutions try and obtain

Never suggest
agreement on the following.
hunters leave farming
Control of who goes into the
areas as no hunting
forest.
zones just because
they have a low rank!
Control of hunting fires.
Discussion of Hunting Options
THINK
) Determine whether the areas of
before
you
lowest rank are farm areas, if so
SPEAK
emphasise the need to intensify
hunting in farm zones to keep down
the pests such as wild pig,
HUNTING SEASONS
grass cutter and porcupine
suggest this option first.
Set aside, rotational
) Rotational hunting: For
seasons.
areas that have a low rank
The time periods for
and are not farmed, they
these options must be
linked to breeding cycles
may want to set them aside
of key endangered
for between two to five
species so that young
years, and only hunt in
females have time to
higher ranking areas. No
produce young.
Hunting areas need to be in
place for a minimum of two
years (the breeding cycle of drills is every 2 years).

41

) Sanctuaries: Inaccessible areas or those with difficult access

can be set aside as permanent no hunting areas or set aside
for a number of years (a minimum 2 years).
) Seasonal hunting: they may decide to stop hunting for six
months of the year, or for example when infants are newly
born (unpredictability of breeding cycles in the tropics makes
this option unlikely).

) Selective hunting: They chose species they do not want to

hunt. They need to discuss how this can be done. Although
large primates (chimp, drills,
Alternative Meat and
monkeys) do not have an eye
Fish Sources
shine at night, hunters use dogs
and hunt during the day (Gatsby
Women will be interested
1990). If they are willing not to
in finding alternatives
hunt certain species, find out
because it will increase
why and what changes in
food security.
Snail farming.
practice this requires.
Small animal
) Controlling trap use: clearing
husbandry.
them more frequently, not using

Domestication of
them in areas far away, and
game
filling in those with pits when
Fish ponds.
hunters know the traps will be
These alternatives will not
inactive for more than a week.
be without their own
problems.

42

Fishing Options
) Fish Sanctuaries: It is suggested that only a small section of
the river is a no fishing zone, this usually takes time decide
upon and only after people have experienced how it works.
Explore whether there are villagers willing to experiment
with no fishing zones.
) Seasonal fishing: suggest a time of year (1-2 months) when
residents are busy with other farm or forest activities, to ban
fishing so it is then doable!
) Ban the use of poisons: the use of the pesticide gameline is
VERY DANGEROUS to health, especially for children.
Many agro-chemicals are non-biodegradable and cause
cancer (possibly bone cancer and
Etara-Ekuri Eyeyeng
leukaemia) use of banned
chemicals is still common in some
The women identified a
areas.
list of over 30 species of
) Increase the size of the net to
plant and animals they
allow finger seedling fish to get
collect from the forest,
out.
farms and village.
) Ban the use of natural herbs as
They only mapped the
poisons, especially if they are
location of the 17 most
poisonness to people.
important species.
3.2.2
Womens NTFP Management
Purpose.
To include women in
decision making processes.
To
understand
which
resources are important to
women and why?
To know where their
abundant resources are
found,
and
what
management interventions
they want.
To strengthen womens
institutions, or leadership
roles.
43

Possible Problems
Afang and/or hot leaf is in decline
AFANG/Salad FACTS
due to:
There is a great deal we
Bad harvesting.
still do not know about the
Encroachment by outsiders.
plant!
Cutting down the climbing
Initial findings indicate
support tree.
that available leaf
Conversion of forest into farms.
volume is only about
Climbing trees to cut the rope
4 kgs per year. (DIN
interviews 2002).
before the seeds have ripened
Seeds if scored can
(or in the case of hot leaf,
germinate, but slowly.
collecting all the seeds and not

Cuttings or rhizome
allowing some to regenerate).
propagation
Signs of bad harvesting:
techniques seem the
Pulling up from the roots - you
more effective at the
can see the root collar still
moment, but growth
attached to the ends of the plant
is still slow!
in the bundle.
The vine must have a
Cutting the main rope and using
tree to climb!
it to tie the bundle.
There are two types
Leaves are still attached to the
of afang, Gnetum
rope in the bundle.
Africanum soft leaf
The most important areas for
and hard leaf afang afang collection for the women
Gnetum
are now further away.
buchholzinam.
The areas where afang can still
be collected are few compared with a few years ago.
Possible Solutions.
) CLOSE or control access to the forest to outsiders.
) Control or stop farm expansion in areas that are currently
ranked high. Without control the afang will continue to
decline in that area.
) Control bush fires.
) Rotational harvesting: Areas that have a low ranking if left
fallow for a few years (at least two), will naturally
regenerate. The women can concentrate collecting afang in
areas of higher rank.
44

) Enrichment planting: not all areas will be suitable, afang is

a forest species so that areas
maintaining high soil moisture
content, stable soil temperatures
and relatively shady conditions
will be ideal. Women will want
to plant afang on their farms,
but the conditions in food crop
farms may not be ideal. Planting
afang under cocoa and plantain
is possible if they do not use
herbicides. A more likely
strategy is enrichment planting
aftang along river banks and
in the headwaters of rivers
and streams or springs. Thus
increasing
the
economic
viability of areas that the
community must leave fallow to
protect the water sources.
) Seasonal collecting: Very few
communities collect the same
amount of afang all year round.
At certain periods they really
need to collect afang and then
other months they may be too
busy doing other things, to
collect (see the seasonal
calendar below). Closed seasons
with no afang collection are
only doable if they are linked
with this local seasonal pattern
of collection and there is clear
agreement from the agents that
buy afang/salad.
) Harvesting control: Collectors
in many communities are
children or child-adults (a
person we would think is still a
45

Mkpang
The women knew how to
sustainably harvest
afang, however the male
leadership undermined
the Womens rules and
regulations. The men
registered outsiders to
harvest afang as and
where they liked in the
bush.
During the management
discussion the male
leaders agreed to
support the women and
their rules, which
although still allowed
outsiders, they had to be
trained and monitored by
the women.

child but is living an adult life with its accompanying

responsibilities). If new harvesting rules are going to be
effective then there must be training for young collectors and
dissemination to all collectors. Outsiders must be informed as
part of their registration agreement.
3.2.3

Things We Learnt

Important NTFP
Management

The exact choices for any particular

community depend upon what
resources the community drew in
the first set of activities and what
they feel is important. Group
resources together logically such as:

Bush Mango and Achi.

Chewing and Cattle sticks.

Cane ropes and sticks

(cattle and chewing).

Bee Hives and fruit trees

(possibly cashew).

Essential Oils (mimusops,

Neem tree, vitiva grass etc)

Medicinal
Herbs
(biogenetic resources).
You may choose not to do this layer
if it is not possible for the
community due to the lack of time.

Do not try and

combine hunting with
other types of
resources, as they
may be different user
groups.

It is quite a large
conceptual leap to
move from animals to
plants.

We tried combining
resource mapping at
Abo Inland and it was
not very successful, as
we got poor quality
data for either hunting
or for the sticks.
Mkpang had two
sessions with the men
focusing on the
separate issues,
hence why their data
was richer for both
hunting and the sticks
(NTFPs).

Purpose.
To encourage the youth to
be involved in decision
making processes.
To understand the abundance of the main NTFP
resources and how production or regeneration can be
improved.
To understand the marketing mechanisms of these
resources and find out how incomes and benefits can be
46

increased for local residents, and more money spent on

community projects.
Possible Problems.
Many of these problems are associated with marketing of the
resource, but these should have been identified during the first
mapping session.
Not enough of bitter bush mango, so the communitys price
for sweet bush mango is very low when volumes are high.
Lack of storage facilities for bush mango so they have to sell
when the price is too low.
Bush mango trees are shaken to get the fruit early when
prices are high and to secure high grade kernels (Pale cream
and undamaged, see Sunderland 2001).
Animals eat the bush mango.
Achi trees are cut for timber.
Too much rain or too much sunshine during the following
period reduces the fruits formed and gives a low harvest.
This could be indicative of micro-climatic changes in an area
due to low forest cover in the surrounding hills.
Chewing sticks are less abundant due to over harvesting and
cutting trees that are under sized.
No processing of chewing sticks.
Outsiders cut the chewing sticks and bundles are sold not the
individual sticks opportunity lost.
Cattle sticks are less abundant due to over harvesting and
cutting below the root collar by outsiders.
Mature cane ropes are in decline because the plants are burnt
to clear farms.
Cane ropes are harvested badly as young rattan stems are cut
along with the mature stems when gathering.
Less honey due to not enough sources of flowering plants,
over use of insecticides in an area, or the honey is too wet.
Possible Solutions
The regeneration dynamics of species discussed below are not
well known. Hence timeframes are suggested on the basis of
what is doable for communities. Details on markets and species
characteristics are discussed further in the Cross River State
47

Forest Commission Project leaflets on NTFPs, (also see

Sunderland 2001, Stockdale 2005).
Bush Mango
Community Observations
) Control bush burning on the
on Bush Mango
farms and do not burn these
trees when new farms are
Etara-Eyeyeng observed
opened.
that Bush Mango fruits in a
) Ban the felling of bush mango
three year cycle.
trees.
) Control harvesting and allow
If the first year is plentiful,
the second will be bad and
the fruits to mature.
the third will be average.
) Enrichment Planting: They
The forth year returns to be
can be planted as boundary
a year of plenty.
markers, or with cocoa or along
river banks and in the
This pattern assumes a
headwaters of streams and
stable micro-climate is
rivers. They can be a centre
maintained!
species in agro-forestry systems
such as alley cropping and
contour farming.
) Grafting of bitter bush
mango: The green bitter bush
mango scion is grafted onto the
sweet bush mango stem or onto
another bitter bush mango stem.
It starts fruiting from about 5
years old, but it only lives for
about 7 years. Therefore you
need to recommend
communities plant alternate
grafted with non-grafted so that
once the grafted tree dies, the
native slow growing but long
lasting tree continues providing
fruit thereby staggering
production.
) Micro-watershed management: there is very little data on
micro-catchments in the tropics, however, converting large
48

parts of the catchment from forest to farm alters the microclimatic balance, by
Reminder
reducing humidity levels
For
EVERY
New Layer
(Walpole 2003). To restabilise a micro-catchment,
Ask a member of the group to
forest cover needs to be
trace on the new plastic sheet
increased and more trees
a central feature running
planted. Stabilising microthrough their base map, such
catchments will not reduce
as the river or road.
the seasonality of bush
The plastic layer stretches
mango totally, but it may
slightly therefore if you put
help if communities have
crosses at the corners they will
noticed that its seasonality
not line up. You may end up
has increased.
with multiple crosses in the
) Storage: Bush mango can
corner of multi-layered maps.
be sun dried and stored
above cooking areas. Put
neem tree leaves in the sacks to stop insects attacking the
fruit.
Achi

) Propagation needs to be
attempted.
) Control the cutting of this tree
for timber.
Chewing Sticks
) Control access.
) Control harvesting; only allow
mature stems to be cut.
) Enrichment planting. Chewing
sticks can be propagated,
however its not common. If
seedlings are available they can
be planted along riverbanks and
in the headwaters of rivers and
springs.
) Rotational harvesting: The areas that have a low ranking
are left fallow for a few years (at least five) to naturally
49

regenerate, while collection is concentrated in areas of higher

rank.
) Set aside areas; depending upon how depleted areas have
been, an area of medium or high rank may need to be chosen
to set aside for regeneration
Controlling Traders
and wilding collection.
) Paying by the stick. Many
Many communities are afraid
communities charge an exit or
to impose rules on traders.
landing tax, which is charged
They are afraid the traders
by the bungle and not by the
will go elsewhere.
stick. Charge taxes by the
stick.
Remind the community that
) Village stick processing:
they are the ones that have
processing is very simple, just
the resource and the traders
chop the sticks, sun dry and
will return because they
package them. Owai
want to make money. They
community does this now and
may leave, but they will
can provide training to other
return. The sources are
communities. They still do
fewer.
not market the final product
and rely on traders that sell the products out of state.
Cattle Sticks
Seeking an Agreement
The marketing links are still not
with Hausers
well understood for this product;
however, Hausers cut the resource
An agreement needs to be
negotiated with the Hauser
for an Al Kahaji (cattle stick).
community to ensure cattle
They are striped of their bark, cut
stick harvesting is
down to about a meter and sold
sustainable.
back to the cattle hausers in Ikom
market.
It may seek to offer
) The root stock and collar have
exclusive harvesting rights to
an unknown market, some
those groups that take
have suggested it has possible
responsibility for
medicinal uses.
regenerating and replanting
wildings in the harvest area.
) Control who has access to
the stick, either by the
community providing local
guides to monitor the harvesting, paid by the hausers, or by
50

insisting the sticks are cut by local residents (hausers prefer

to cut their own sticks).
Control harvesting by not allowing the sticks to be cut
below the root collar and stock so that it can coppice (grow
another stem quickly). Only mature sticks should be cut or a
restricted number of immature stems from areas of high
abundance rank.
Enrichment planting. These can be propagated, however it
is not common. It is easier to plant the wildings. With
seedlings available they can be planted along riverbanks and
in the headwaters of rivers and springs. This tree grows very
slowly.
Rotational harvesting: The areas that are ranked with low
abundance need to be left fallow for a few years (at least
five), while they concentrate harvesting in areas of higher
rank abundance.
Set aside: depending upon how depleted areas have been, an
area of medium or high rank may need to be chosen to set
aside for regeneration and wilding collection.

) Species protection: mature trees are chosen for protection

and a number of immature trees in each of the low ranking
areas, these can be left for seed and wilding production.
) Paying by the Stick. Many communities charge an exit or
landing tax, which is charged by the bungle and not by the
stick. Charge taxes by the stick.
51

Cane Rope Cigarette Size Rattan

) Control bush burning.
) Control the harvesting of cane rope so that only mature stems
in a clump are cut. Regeneration capacity of the rattans will
increase dramatically.
) Enrichment planting/rattan farming: after the farming has
finished, young wildings can be planted with a stake tree.
The planting areas need to be moist soils, ideally along
riverbanks and in the headwaters of streams, rivers, and
springs (AFN 1998).
Honey Bees
Most of the management ideas
should have been imparted with
the training given. These just
need incorporating into the
forest management plan.
) Control the use of
pesticides.
) Planting of fruit trees and
shrubs.
Potential Resource Markets.
These are two relatively
unexplored markets, although to
an extent they do exist.

) Essential Oils: Mimusops

oil takes a lot of time and energy for processing and unless a
dealer makes a request, women are reluctant to process the
seeds for the oil. Mimusops is also a source of timber for the
men, and this takes precedence at the moment. Another
potential oil could be the neem tree oil (which is ant-malarial,
and can be used as an insecticide, see the box).
) Medicinal Herbs: Already bio-prospectors have approached
communities in Cross River, Owai in 2000. Cross River State
rainforest is refuge forest, and has some of the highest
endemism. It is likely that interest in medicinal value of the
plants may increase as it has in South East Asia.
52

3.3
High Value Resources
This is a location map do not do
abundance ranking of the areas
identified!

NEEM Tree
The good the bad and the
ugly
The oil in fresh leaves and
seeds of the Neem tree has
various important uses.

Insect repellent.

Anti malaria.

Contraceptive

Abortive.

Pesticide.

Fish poison.

Purpose.
To understand which
trees are perceived to be
locally important and to
ascertain where
important trees are
growing most
abundantly.
They can be planted near the
To understand what
house to repel flies and
timber harvesting
mosquitoes and as a cure for
activities are being
malaria.
conducted where and by
It can grow aggressively as it
whom.
prefers dryer sandier soils. It
To link the forest and
grows less aggressively in
timber to medicinal use
moist forest soils.
for the community.
To understand what types of farms are where in relation
to the timber.
Warning

Possible Problems
The community may have
If the base map was drawn
limited knowledge on which
too small during earlier
trees are commercially
steps, then people will not
valuable and therefore may be
have enough space to draw
high value resources.
vulnerable to exploitation by
dealers.
The detail is needed for
Some trees may have more
informed discussions for
long-term value to the
wise management.
community due to their NTFP
products or medicinal use, which local residents have not
thought about.
Proposed sustainable forestry plots of 50 hectares may be
unrealistic due to limited access. A harvesting plan will need
53

to be facilitated much later to ensure timber is cut sustainably

(see Step 6 on endorsement).
Much of the forest can be lost
USEFUL TIP
when converted into farmland,
which are then not managed
We observed that most
well so it degrades.
people are not able to
Valuable trees can be burnt in
multi-task activities. We
found that the group
farmland conversion activities.
needed to complete one
Traditional land ownership
task fully before moving to
systems may encourage opening
the next symbol.
of forest beyond an areas that a
family can maintain it well.
3.3.1
Mapping Timber
Ask the group to draw where
their most important timber
species are abundantly growing
in the forest.
Trees often grow in clusters and
it is where these abundant
clusters are located that they
need to draw the symbol.
People can choose to draw a
characteristic of the tree
such as, seeds, buttress roots
or even branch formation.
Once the group has finished
drawing the abundance
locations of one species,
they can move on to the
next one.
Several individuals can
draw at once by each
drawing a different species,
or by drawing symbols of
the species they know in an
area.

54

However, subgroups can

be set up where each has
a similar but different task.
So that different people
can draw one or two types
of tree at the same time.
Drawing the farming
symbols however, had to
wait until all the timber
discussions were over.

Importance Ranking of Tree Species.

This is only facilitated for tree species.
Importance ranking only worked well with one (Owai) out of
four communities because Owai, had a well established
timber market and local timber
Verification of Legal
dealers.
Timber
Whether a community can do an
importance ranking of timber is
As a measure to combat
indicative of how exposed they
illegal logging, the
are to the timber market and
community may want to
develop their own brand to
how much training they need.
mark the wood as legally
coming from their village.

Timber Marketing Systems.

Ask what the local experiences
Survey the local and
have been so far with the
national timber markets to
logging and timber dealers.
find out how the traders
Who signs the owners consent
operate.
and when?
How much is the registration fee, what amount is charged per
tree/log/stump?
How much is the exit or landing tax per lorry load?
When does the wood get hammered, by whom and where?
What are the fees at check posts (cash points) that must be
paid to transport timber to market?
How do they define illegal logging and how do they deal
with illegal loggers?
3.3.2
Mapping Medicine and
Sacred Places
Ask the elders if there are
sacred places, such as forests,
rocks or rivers.
Ask one of the youth to then
work with the elders to draw the
symbol in the area of the map
where they find it.
Ensure the elders are given time
to share the story or legend that
explains why a place is special.
55

Gender differences
Men and women use
different medicinal plants.
Clarify medicines used in
womens health such as
childbirth, menstruation,
and family planning if there
is time. Traditional
medicine may still be
widely used in some
villages.

Medicine areas or plants can either be completed before the

timber group draw, or after it, depending upon who arrives
first (medicinal knowledge is
often
specialised
in
the
community).
Ask the group to draw just the
location of where people collect
medicines. We found that very
traditional doctors do not like to
share the name of what they use.
They claim naming the plant
without the proper rituals can
reduce its power or the power of
the doctor. In this case they can
draw a generic symbol for the
main collecting areas.
Important Point
Alternatively the group
may choose to locate
Farming is the only time that
where they find common
symbols are suggested.
medicinal species, usually
the ones for fever are
Otherwise they are left with the
open knowledge.
freedom to decide how they
If there are individual
symbolise their resource.
symbols for medicinal
plants link them later with the
general symbol or identify them
on the legend as specifically
medicinal.

3.3.3
Mapping Farming
Once the timber and medicinal
areas have been located ask the
farmers to draw their farms.
In order to get the complexity of
the various mixed farming
systems with the limited colours
and on a busy map, use a set of
symbols shown in the following
table:
56

Symbol on the map

Blue dots
Red dots
Black dots
Green dots
Green crosses

x x xx x x x x x x

Farming system
Cocoa only
Plantain banana only
Yam and cassava only
Oil palms only
Rubber only

Ask for suggestions from the group as to which colour dots

they want for each farm system in their area.
Ask the group if all their crops are represented, if not, as
above choose a simple symbol that can be combined with the
different coloured dots, like X or a triangle.
With the cocoa be sure to clarify what tree crops are planted
with it, sometimes it can vary. This can be confirmed or
discussed in more detail
Important Point
with women later, during
seasonality discussions.
Men and women farm
The group can then
different crops, often
combine the symbols on the
women tend the seedling
map to show what kind of
tree crops when they are
farms are where. So that red
growing in their food
crops, once large enough
and blue dots mean its a
the men take over the
cocoa farm intercropped
maintenance of tree crops.
with banana and plantain.
Alternatively the group can
Women are normally
just draw the areas where
subsistence farmers, with
they farm. People need to
men focusing on
indicate areas that are active
commercial varieties.
and fallow farms.
Ensure you include both
Completing the Legends.
types of farmer groups.
Once people have chosen
the symbol for the tree species or resource and drawn where
it is located the drawer needs to put the symbol on the
legend.
If more than one dialect is spoken, leave a column for the
name of the resource in each dialect, and its common name.
57

For the farming put an area of coloured dots in a blank line,

for each colour and ask people to assign it a type of farming
system to it.

) Paying by the lorry load one stump, one permit, one

)

Quick Verification as a separate

activity.
The forest-farm areas can be
verified using the maps from a
landuse survey.
Use the topographical map to
clarify boundaries and areas.
Ensure that the sketch map
includes all areas of forest,
even those under forest
reserves or national park
because you want people to
map where they really are
doing activities and not where
they think they are allowed.

)
Land Use Policy

3.3.4
Unsustainable
Forestry and Farming Solutions
Those who clear the land
Logging and Single Tree
own it!
Permits - Problems and
This is a common local land
Solutions (in bold).
use policy that destroys forest
There
are
several
ways
as people clear more land
communities can be cheated by
than they can farm.
timber dealers using the singleBashu made an important rule
tree permits. These are some of
to deal with this problem.
the examples we found, but this
is not an exhaustive list.
If the farmer does not
) A contract for one year or
maintain the farm for two
more to cut wood from the
years the land reverts back
community forest No
to community ownership.
contracts like this!
This may stop forest being
) Multiple use of single
converted into farms.
owners consent form one
original consent form for one tree cutting permit.
58

payment for the tree (it may be in kind like building a

bridge), pay the landing fee per lorry load.
Hammering the wood
Fact of Life
outside the community
Hammer wood within
Communities have no choice but
the village so they get
to log as the royalties from the
the royalty. Communities
timber are a major capital input
may like to develop their
and pay for badly needed basics
own symbol or brand to
such as infrastructure projects
show the wood was
like schools, bridges, and roads.
legally cut from their
area.
In practice timber dealers are not controlled by inventory
plots and harvesting
Burden of Sustainability
plans, - identify areas
where timber dealers
Timber dealers and contractors
can and cannot log!
do not need to carry out
Villagers do not know
inventories in community forests;
what agreements have
they are allowed to cut wherever
been made by their
the community allows them to do
so.
leaders -advise
communities to put
Communities cannot cut timber
contracts down in
in their own forests until they
writing, especially those
have carried out an inventory
between outsider dealers
and harvest plan.
and the community.
Farmers have been
Logging companies also have to
burning valuable timber
conduct inventories and
species when they open
harvesting plans to log in forest
up land for new farms
suggest this is the priority lumber for the timber dealers.

Community Inventory Plots.

(See Dunn and Otu 1996)
) 50 hectare plots were identified in two communities in the
state (Ekuri and Etara/ Ekuri Eyeyeng). Here communities
learnt how to identify species, and prepare harvesting plans
so locals can cut their own timber and sell it at local markets.
59

) The policy gives no reason why inventory plots cannot also

be a means of controlling outside timber dealers to harvest
timber sustainably. In practice however, several forestry
officials perceive inventory plots as a means of guiding
community controlled forest management ironically this
places a greater burden of
Funny Fact
sustainability proof on
communities than on timber
In Boki LGA logging is not
dealers.
logging!
) A community without
inventory plots identified
Because there is a Boki wide
needs to choose an area for
logging moratorium, logging
sustainable timber
has been redefined.
harvesting and identify
where they want to put the
Logging is cutting trees as
whole logs and selling them.
first of a possible 40 plots
(assuming a 40 year
Timber dealing/ tree cutting is
harvesting cycle, see
where trees are cut and
Morakinyo 2001).
processed into lumber and
) All community members
sold and locally it is not
need to understand that
considered logging!
these areas will remain
permanent forest and will never be farmed.

60

Areas of No Logging.
) Locally logging is perceived to disturb animals with its noisy
operations, so an area may be closed for logging to allow
hunting. Some animals and birds will not return if disturbed
by excessive noise.
) Logging can also destroy NTFPs if it is not harvested
carefully. This applies to timber dealers because they are not
required to prepare harvesting plans.
) Forest Regeneration: Local residents may already have
decided they need to set aside hills for forest regeneration.
Do not suggest more than those already chosen without
conducting a site assessment. Affirm their decision especially
if rivers have their headwaters
in the hills they are proposing
Natural Regeneration
to protect.
Natural regeneration is faster if
) Protection for NTFP
the people plant fruit trees,
collection: Combine the
bush mango and do not hunt.
resource layers, where some
parts of the forest have a high
Animal propagators are
abundance rank for NTFPS of
encouraged in to the area and
both men and women, these
feed. Thus bringing in other
are ideal areas to protect as
tree species planted with
collection forest. Residents
fertilizer!
may suggest that these areas
are not logged or farmed, and
(see the work on natural
regeneration of FORUP,
in this case affirm their choice
Chiang Mai University).
by relating the decision to
data from the resource layers.
) Areas for Reforestation: Areas where bush fires have gone
out of control are ideal for reforestation. Ask the cause of the
original deforestation or fire when areas are suggested.
Wildings are best planted here as well as NTFP species.
) Protection of Mother Trees: The community may not be
able or willing to give up certain areas for protection. In this
case encourage the identification of mother trees, (seed trees)
of valuable timber and NTFP species to be protected against
bush fires, logging and conversion into farmlands. Ideally
link their protection with a ceremony and mark them
culturally, for example with cloth or cuts.
61

Areas of No Farming.
) Several communities have very destructive land acquisition
policies. Those who open
Climate Change
the land, own it. Every
year communities are
Changes in land use (forest or
encouraged to open more
farm) alters the microclimate
land as it becomes a local
because soil humidity
competition to see who has
decreases and temperatures
the most land. However, the
increase. These changes may
farms are not maintained
be reversed.
because of limited labour.
Indicators of global climate
) NTFPs like Afang, cane
change may be observed with
rope and chewing stick are
insects changing habitat or
destroyed by bush burning.
abundance. Just make note of
Afang does not grow in the
these broader changes
food crop farms, and other
observed by the community.
NTFPs take a long time to
regenerate.
) The communities need to be
clear about where they can
expand their farming and
areas where they cannot to
avoid confusions and
possible conflicts later.
) Impetus for creating
farming policies and
changes in landuse practices
may be the impact farms are
having on the drinking
water.
Impact on Water Resources.
) River bank use: The farm
information will show whether people are farming up against
the rivers edge. If this occurs it needs to stop in order to
stabilise the river, and to maintain a vegetative buffer to
absorb agro-chemicals used on the farms.
62

) Protection of Headwaters:
In the villages we visited
Water Facts
this aspect was seemingly
The riverbank is not the
neglected in the local
watershed or catchment!
cultures. Although
elsewhere headwaters are
Watershed is the area of land
often protected through
enclosed by a ring of hill peaks
cultural taboos
surrounding a river and its
(Poffenberger 1999).
streams. The rain falling in this
However, without this
enclosed area will drain into
cultural resource, protecting
the same river.
headwaters from farming
Good Watershed management
needs to be brought out for
goes beyond just riverbank
discussion with the
protection!
community.
) Reducing forest cover: in
Water quality deteriorates with
micro-catchments in the
increasing land conversion in a
tropics diminishing or
micro watershed.
degrading forest cover has
serious consequences for a
local microclimate and
ground water recharge
capacities (Walpole 2003).
Indicators of changes in
landuse patterns are some of
the following:
Rivers or water holes
drying up for longer
periods during the dry
season, and new
rivers dry up.
Once permanent
spring sources stop
flowing up during the
dry season.
Flash flooding during the wet season.
Rivers break their banks and the river alters its path
during the rainy season.
63

 Dry seasons are hotter and the wet season rains are
harder, but arrive later.
Identifying the types of Farming.
Spatial farming features can be improved by asking the group
to use a symbol to show areas of fallow farms.
There are different roles on the farm therefore talk to both
men and women.
The women are the planters and maintain the cocoa,
plantain/banana and tree crop farms early on for food crops,
the men usually tend the cash crops.
Walk through the farm areas and if men are there ask them
about their farm, this will verify or add to data from the
women and from the map.
Find a group of women and casually interview them about
their farming activities, the crops and cycle of activities
during the year.
Also ask them when they need cash most during the year,
these will normally coincide with the need to pay for school
fees and celebrate fiestas.
You are looking to produce a seasonality table (see below for the
example from Owai Women). Symbolise the interview data as
much as possible to make the table easy to read.
Seasonal Activities.
The matrix is of Months of the year, Main areas of the activity
(forest and different types of farms), and times of the year with
large cash outlay and the activities carried out by the community.
Check if there is a hungry season, when it occurs and how they
get through it. Find out in particular what carbohydrates foods
and protein foods are eaten during this time. See whether
children are fed the same food during this period.
Legend:
W
Afang peak harvesting time
6
Gathering bitter bush mango
6
Gathering sweet bush mango

64

Forest

Cassava
Farm

Yam Farm

Cocoa Farm

Plantain
Farm

Clear bush

Clear bush

Clear bush

Clear Bush
Put fire

Put fire

Put fire
Harvest banana,
plantain

Plant Yam,
maize, ocra
and melon

Start to
harvest
banana and
plantain
Plant
plantain
Plant yam

J
F

6
W

Plant
cassava,
Melon,
ocra, and
corn
Harvest yr
old cassava
Plant
maize,
pumpkin &
vegetables
Harvest
vegetables
Weeding

66

Weeding

Second yr plant
banana and
plantain

Cut oil palm

seeds

Plant
plantain,
banana
Plant yam

Pound, cook and

grind oil palm
seeds

Cut plenty
of plantain

Times of
Large
Outlay

2nd term
school fees

3rd term
school fees

Plant
cassava
Harvest
Ocra
J
A

66
666

666

66

N
D

Harvest
melon
Weeding

Cocoa harvest
z

Harvest
Yam

1st terms
school fees
10th New
Yam
festival

z
Christmas
starts 25th 7
days no
farm

Harvest Pears
z
Harvest Oranges
E
Harvest Maize

65

Dark blue are the rainiest months and the hardest as it is too wet
to go to the farm or gather much from the forest. Red is the dry
season, light blue is the light rains.
3.4

Feedbacking People to People

Objectives.
Useful Tip
Put
thematic
maps
together and overlay
We found that people could
them, thereby identifying
think better with the maps if
initial activity zones.
they were lined up with the
Discuss conflicting uses,
same orientation as the real
management
problems,
world.
regeneration potentials,
and proposed solutions.
People tended to look
outside the window to
Allow local people to
remind themselves where
communicate with their
resources were found.
own group and encourage
a local development of ideas.
Purpose.
To present the thematic
maps to the elders and
youth of the less dominant
community, where there
are
multi-community
Forest Organisation.
To review the types of
decisions the community
is expected to make
during the final decision
mapping.
To allow local people
summarise what they have
done and learnt.
To enable local people to
practice presenting their
situation using their maps.

66

Explanation.
Ask two representatives of each thematic resource group to
be present in this meeting.
As each layer is placed on the base map, lined up with the
river or road, ask the local presenter to come and tell the
people what they did and learnt.

Activities.
Place the base map on the floor, and orientate it in the
direction of the real features represented, so the road feature
goes the same direction as the one it represents outside the
hall door.
Put the first plastic layer on the place map; line it up first
with the common features going through the middle of both
maps, such as the road or river.
Then ask someone from the group to come and explain the
layer in their own dialect.
Make sure the legend is easy
to hand so they can use it to
explain the features on the
layer.
After they have finished,
make
your
analytical
comments that will guide the
types of policies they need to
think about in reference to this
resource abundance layer.
Then take that layer off and
put the next layer on and
repeat the process.
Results
This activity can be very
key in affirming aspects of change that elders have
observed. It is also key to inform those who were not
present in the thematic mapping sessions.
This is the first time that many residents will have
presented to each other using maps like this. Leaders will
67

have the opportunity to practice giving all groups within

their community time and place for discussing issues.
This builds the leadership capacity of presenters, including
the women and hunters.
Some communities may need time to think about what
rules and regulations they want, without strangers present
such as the facilitating team. Etara / Ekuri Eyeyeng chose
to have time on their own to discuss the issues and options
presented.
3.4.1

Adapting the Resources Mapped

Options to Choose.
The resource options the community can map are endless, so
you must be selective.
Choose a maximum of four thematic layers, and combine
related resources if need be. This is as many as the
community can cope with.
Thematic mapping is an exhausting activity, adapt the
process to fit the local rhythm and pace where possible. If
they get tired, give them
a break.
The longer a
management plan takes
the better it is as more
people have a chance to
question decisions, and
negotiate agreements. A
slow process allows for
more of the community
to be on board, and
agree to the plans
implementation, not just
the leaders or an
inspired few.
Go rest and prepare for the actual management decision mapping.
68

SSTTEEPP 44

4.

Forest Management Committees

Once the resource mapping activities are finished you need to reflect
on the forest organisation to be chosen by the community or that
exists to implement forest related activities. The state of the forest
organisation will determine whether you proceed to Step 5 the forest
management planning or not. In order to make this decision you need
to consider three aspects that reduce governance capacity such as,
organisational complexity, power dynamics and existing conflicts.
On the other hand if the village requires a simple organisation the
following need to be considered.
If there is no existing forest organisation then the community
needs to elect one, with members representing resource user
groups, marginal groups, and leaders. Try to ensure there is
even representation of women, men and youth.
One village to form a Forest Management Committee (FMC)
or Community Based Organisation (CBO) for forest
management and protection.
If there is an existing organisation strengthen it by clarifying
roles, responsibilities, activities, reporting or communication
monitoring patrolling, taking evidence and stopping illegal
logging.
As far as possible the forest organisation needs to fit into
existing leadership structures. You may need to clarify how
the forest organisation relates to the traditional leaders and
the local government officers.
Register the local forest organisation with the Cross River
State Forestry Commission once the community, local
government officials, traditional leaders and elders have
approved the members So the forest organisation becomes
a Forest Management Committee (FMC).
Many communities formed FMCs during the project lifespan.
Find out what worked and what did not so that the new
organisation can learn from the previous experience.
69

 Monitor the organisation for power relationships between

members and between existing organisations and conflicts of
interest.
Proceed to Step 5.
If more than one community shares a forest organisation then
proceed with these objectives in mind:
Complexities clarify what they are and simplify them.
Power dynamics understand how they operate and
diffuse them.
Conflicts identify the resources and groups affected,
where they occur and resolve them.
Good governance ideals need to be applied such as responsibility,
transparency, accountability, community and integrity.
4.1
Complex Organisations
The more villages per Forest Management Committee FMC/CBO the
more complicated it will be to ensure the organisation functions well.
Internal relations, communication and accountability between the
members and the tribal institutions are often very weak. In addition
FMCs are more likely to fail institutionally unless relationships are
clarified early and the FMC is integrated into traditional
organisational systems. The following examples show how some of
these complexities were addressed in the field.
Near Neighbours One Forest Committee/Organisation.
The situation of Etara/ Eyeyeng is typical of two neighbouring
villages that cooperate well. The two villages are within easy
walking distance and rely on each other as they share the road
and the school. The need for community cooperation is beyond
just the FMC. In this case the planning process was adapted in
the following ways.
Communication was given to both community leaders
Meetings were held in both community halls
A feedback meeting was held in one community hall (for
example in Eyeyeng), whilst the decision making meeting
was held in the other community hall (for example in
Etara).
70

The final set of maps was split up and with one community
holding part of the maps and the other community holding
the remaining part. Together they complete the full set of
maps
Both communities
received a final
paper copy of
their digitised
management plan.

Distant Cooperation
Between Villages One
Forest Committee.
A
large
distance
between cooperating villages complicates the process because
each of the two communities has to draw its own resource maps
and then come together to make joint decisions. An example of
this type of arrangement would be Old and New Ekuri. They are
about 6 kilometres apart, but traditionally they share the same
community forest and therefore have one Community Based
Organisation between them (the Ekuri initiative). This situation
requires the following type of adjustments to the planning
process.
Separate mapping and meetings are needed in each village
because they are large and each has a preferred area of
resource use, which is nearest to either one of the village
centres.
Joint mapping and meetings are needed because there are
clear zones or activities (such as hunting) that are used
equally by both communities interchangeably.
Where separate meetings are held, joint verification must be
facilitated. The venue of the joint meetings needs to alternate
between the two villages to give the elders of each
community equal chance to make comments on the planning
process, practices, and rules and regulations.
This process requires more time, both to travel between
villages and for communities to negotiate and to agree to a
common set of rules.
71

The following process for example would produce a joint

management plan.
Steps 12

Step 3

Step 5

Old Ekuri
New Ekuri
Joint meeting to discuss the process and agree the
schedule
Place map
Place map
Resource map
Resource map
Problem map
Problem map
Joint meeting to discuss the similarities and
differences: propose schedule for next visit
Joint meeting to confirm the schedule discussed last
phase
Women of Old Ekuri
Women of New Ekuri
day 1
day 2
NTFP resources near
NTFP resources near new
Old Ekuri
Ekuri
Joint Hunting and Fishing drawn first in one village
and then verified by the elders in the other.
Farming and medicine
Farming and medicine and
and timber
timber
Joint verification of timber/farms and medicine
Feedback of management layers and discussion of
possible rules and regulations.
Private discussion between the communities to
discuss joint rules and regulations.
Management decision
Management decision
meeting
meeting
Joint management decision meeting
Verification of decisions Verification of decisions
Final feedback and joint affirmation meeting

Multiple Villages One Forest Committee/Organisation.

Multiple village situations are similarly complicated, if not more
so. Much depends on the physical proximity of multiple villages.
For example Bashu Forest Management Committee is an
example of three villages that are very cooperative, whereas Abo
Inland FMC has not resolved its internal conflicts.
72

Three Village Cooperation

One Forest Organisation.
If the three villages are 5-10
minutes walk from each other,
the process can proceed in a
way similar to that shown
above.
Clear
points
to
remember would be:
Communication should be
given to the leaders of all
three villages.
When conducting meetings
a few residents of all three
villages need to be present
Hold at least one of the
resource abundance
mapping sessions in the less
dominant village.
Have a feedback meeting in
the least dominant village
(in the Bashu example this
was Kaku, as Bokem did
not have its own hall).
Each of the leaders needs to
receive a hard copy of the
final management plan.

BASHU FMC
Bashu is made up of three
border villages located near
Cameroon. The three villages,
Okpambe, Kaku and Bokem
were distinct, with Kaku and
Okpambe (the largest) as near
neighbours.
Bokem is the furthest away but
when there was unexplained
illnesses, the residents moved
to the edge of Okpambe and
Kaku. Bokem village site is
now only used during the bush
mango season as it is in the
forest.
Consequently the three
villages, have leaders and
their own administration, but
also have a joint local
government chairman for
Bashu. Communication is
effective as they are all living
in the same vicinity.
A joint management plan was
successfully completed with
these three villages and their
shared FMC.

Multiple Villages One Forest Organisation.

On the other hand if there are more than three villages sharing an
FMC or the distance is large between villages (both in terms of
communication gap or travel time) then suggest splitting the
FMC and reforming it as one per community. If communities do
not want to split up and form their own Forest Organisation then
the following points should guide the process.
73


In principal you are seeking to form a federated forest
organisation from a number of locally accountable village forest
committees or sub-organisations.
Each village must elect a separate sub-FMCs/ CBOs that is
supported and linked into their village leadership system.
These sub-FMC/CBOs have an equal number of
representatives to sit on the joint FMC.
Sub-FMC/CBOs are then responsible for implementing the
management plan decided upon by each village.

The Joint FMC is then responsible for implementing the

jointly agreed rules and ensuring that outsiders comply with
them so the villages are not played off one another.
The Joint FMC reports to all of the leaders through its
subcommittees and/or through regular quarterly or bi-annual
meetings.
Develop management plans using the eight-step process for
each village in the joint FMC.
Hold a joint meeting with all the leaders of all the villages
during Step 2 to discuss joint problems encountered and
strategies to solve them.
Hold a joint meeting with all the leaders of all the villages to
discuss what decisions were made and why. Clarify the
differences and the similarities between the situations in each
participating village.
74

The common management decisions become overall general

regulations.
The consequences of different decisions and possible options
for joint action must be discussed between the leaders of the
villages.
Discuss what general policies may be agreed upon that show
agreement on principles but allow for individual community
interpretation without undermining each other.
Hold verification meetings in each of the villages to confirm
decisions made by their leaders.
Common policies on prices, fees and tariffs must be agreed
upon to ensure there is a unified front meeting traders and
communities do not undermine each other.

Potential Problems with Multi-village FMCs.

Lack of respect between the diverse groups in the
communities.
Large gap in terms of orientation and understanding between
sub-FMC members and village leaders, so that there is no
local support from residents.
Historical conflicts do not allow agreements to be reached.
Leaders or local elites cannot agree upon basic policies
because of self-interest.

75

 Resources are open to over exploitation by unscrupulous

traders because local leaders cannot agree on common
pricing and access policies.

A Giant FMC
Abo Forest Management Committee started as a nine village
forest organisation, which then split into Abo mainland, Abo
Inland and Bashu FMCs. Each new FMC had three villages in
it. However, much of the initial training and FMC formation was
conducted in those villages nearest the road. Consequently
there were gaps in understanding between the leaders and the
new FMCs of Abo Inland and Bashu. Because Bashu villages
were closer they overcame this problem through the process of
developing their management plan.
However Abo Inland FMC, Obisu, Mkpang and Banabe were
not able to overcome this gap. The process produced several
key joint policies but they did not complete a management plan.
In Abo Inland FMC management decisions were not possible
because Abo Inland FMC did not have sub organisations that
could have been directly accountable to the village leadership
system hence there was no local support for the FMC.
FMC members understood the need for sustainable forest
management but many of the village leaders did not. The
traders and loggers took advantage of an ineffective
FMC/village structure and divergent resource management
views. Therefore dealers paid for a truckload of timber per
consent form rather than paying for each log cut and the
villagers lost out. The planning process went towards solving
the local communication problems by providing a place for local
people to find out what was happening to forest resources and
to decide common objectives.
Abo Inland needs at least another year to implement their joint
decisions, organise sub-FMCs and increase the awareness of
the whole community, before management planning for each
village can be facilitated. With three individual management
plans, the three villages can finalise the joint policies they have
started to make.

76

4.2
Power Dynamics
A difficult element to identify but which can be very destructive to
any planning process is the power dynamic between and or within the
various community organisations.
Balancing Power Between Villages or Groups.
Uneven power relations can stop the sustainable use of forest
products.
There are many causes of uneven social relations and must
be clarified before you can strategise how to mitigate the
problem. Some causes are;
Education: university
graduates and illiterates
(ie. women).
Money: traders or
government workers and
casual farmers/forest
product collectors.
Status: tribal leaders or
low status of women,
villages of different tribal
groups.
Knowledge: native
doctors, teachers.
Political Power: local
government workers,
those with connections to government projects and funds.
Women may have low status culturally, educationally and
economically. However, this cannot be assumed. It is
therefore important to ensure that women get the opportunity
to draw their own resources and speak out in separate groups.
This also allows you to observe the dynamics within
womens groups. Once they are with the men, their relative
status can be understood.
Some women may also lack a formal educational experience,
which will slow down how they respond to participatory
activities, give them extra time to think, practice symbols and
draw.
77

 Illiterates in the male

population are more difficult
to identify quickly. Generally
men that have spent more
time hunting may be expected
to have missed schooling.
However, this is not always
the case as with Bashu the
young men paid for their
schooling from the proceeds
of hunting. Those that have
less formal educational
experience can be more
patient with participatory
processes, but also show
reluctance to pick up pens and
draw. If illiterates are
participating ensure that the
more skilled members of the
community do not censure
their drawings.

Self Censure
An enthusiastic FMC
member of Bashu
evaluated the drawings of
various people and rubbed
out those which he
considered were drawn
badly. Those less perfect
drawings happened to be
drawn by illiterates, both
men and women.
The facilitator had to stop
several times and remind
the community that they
had to respect each other
and reprimand those
rubbing out the drawings.
When the women drew
symbols on the decision
layer, some men also
rubbed these out. This is
indicative of the relative
status between men and
women. Affirm womens
contributions if this situation
occurs.

4.3
Conflict Between and Within FOs
Another destructive element in a forest organisation and difficult to
identify at first, is when the elected
CONFLICT
members have a conflict of interest. The
most common example we came across
The sustainability of any
was with logging. However equally,
forest organisation and a
conflicts can arise between different
communitys ability to wisely
groups in a community or communities
manage its forest resources
will depend upon various
that share a common forest organisation.
interests being declared,
This section illustrates some of the
compromises negotiated
examples we found in the field we did
and agreements made to
not have enough time to resolve these
resolve the conflict of
conflicts once we became aware of
interest.
them.
Logging Conflict of Interest.
Logging villages pose a particular
problem in terms of increasing local
disparities between groups in a
community for the following
reasons.

Talking Tough.
Although the cultural
dynamics of the communities
must be respected, it needs to
be recognised by all
concerned that the community
mapping activity is a
Do not allow selfcommunity activity
censorship
mutual respect is required.
As a facilitator take control where it is appropriate.
Gently, but firmly enforce certain behaviour to balance
power relations or to resolve conflicts within argumentative
groups. Sometimes to regain order over arguments, you will
need to be very firm to control the conflict.

78

79

Do not ignore a conflict, it

will not go away and
resolve itself. Hold the
process until it has been
resolved to peoples
satisfaction.

 Men mainly control logging.

The capital involved and profits returned are more than 10
times the annual returns from farming activities.
Over cutting is easy and relatively undetectable officially
unless the underpaid forest guards are very diligent.
There are several opportunities where officials may approach
a forest organisation for a facilitation fee, or just take a cut to
allow the load to continue travelling.
Only a few species are very marketable.
Higher profits are more often made for special orders outside
Cross River State.
Local groups in opposition to
sustainable management
planning may not make
themselves known
immediately, however, during
operations their presence will
be clear assume they are
likely to exist and thus
anticipate opposition by
providing small group
discussions with loggers and
their supporters.
OWAI A Logging Village Example
Owai split with Iko Ekperem to form its own Forest Management
Committee in early 2001. Communication, information and
seminars were not reaching Owai people due to the large distances
between the two villages. Owai community has been logging in
their large community forest for some time. The first time we arrived
the timber was piled high at the entrance of the community, and
none of it was stamped or hammered. During the meeting with
village leaders they seemed to show an interest in sustainable
forest management. However, a youth working as a forest ranger
for the National Park spoke out near the end of the meeting and
declared that there was little point talking about conservation or
sustainable use as most of the members of the FMC were loggers,
traders or were supported by them.

80

If the community has already been influenced by corrupt logging

interests, expect all management planning processes to take much
longer. It is unlikely to be in the interests of the logging traders to
sustainably manage community forests.
People will talk good things but nothing will change he accused.
It then became apparent that none of the timber was stamped,
none of it checked at the stump, and worse the forest guard
passed hammer to the logging companies on the way in for a
fee. The loggers just hammered their own wood and returned the
hammer to the forest guard on the way out. Thus the loggers were
free to cut as much timber as they wanted, often they would
photocopy one authorised permit signed by the local leader, and
use it several times. The community leaders were paid a flat fee
for an agreed number of trees that could be felled.
It was pointed out to the community that they were loosing
royalties by not monitoring their timber, and by not giving one
signed permission form for one stump. When they realised how
much money they were loosing they agreed to re-elect their FMC
members and start to follow the single tree permit rules and
regulations.
The corrupt forest guard was officially reprimanded and moved.
However, subsequent visits to Owai indicated that malpractice
continued as timber was still not inspected and hammered on
site. Some of the loggers were willing to keep to the rules, but the
corruption network still operated behind good intentions. The
leaders that were making money with the previous system, were
reluctant to implement changes that would reduce their personal
incomes.
The gap between what was said and what was actually happening
remained large because there was not enough support given to
the re-orientation of the whole community and its various levels of
leadership.

81

Conflict Between or Within Partner Villages.

Where there are different goals and objectives for community
resource management, you can expect conflict. These were some
examples of the conflicts we found in the field.
Women may want to close access to certain resources (such
as afang) whilst leaders may want to maintain open access as
they get the fees from outsiders.
Where tourism brings the possibility of development to
communities, more than one community may claim access
rights to the same resource (see the box below).
Leaders with development ideas for areas of forest near
settlements may have conflicting plans; one wanting to
convert the forest to a community plantation the other to
convert it to farmlands (for example Etara/Eyeyeng).
Who Owns the Name
The Mbeb mountains in Boki LGA are shared by eight villages, and
they are important because they are one of the few sites where
Cross River Mountain Gorillas are found. For Abo Inland, a group of
three villages, two of them, Mkpang and Obisu have paths leading
to these mountains, Mkpang has more direct access to the
mountain that is already a tourist attraction.
The first mapping session was conducted in Obisu where
representatives from all three villages mapped their area on the
same place map. The next day resource mapping was held at
Mkpang, with representatives from the other two villages coming to
map. The host village has the largest representation for that
mapping session and hence why the venues swapped around all
three villages.

Mkpang claimed the mountains and the potential tourist

development facilities that they hoped would come later, to be
theirs alone. They felt Obisu had already taken enough land
resources from other villagers and should not take the distant
mountains.
Obisu was a village on a crossroads and in comparison with the
other two; it is resource poor and has less opportunity to alleviate
poverty. The Obisu leaders wanted access to the tourism
potential of the mountains as sometimes their young men acted
as guides. For this reason they demanded the right to the name.
A technical map was used to show Obisu leaders that Mbeb was
not behind Obisu and the conflict was resolved (to a degree). The
name at Obisu was erased, but a path was drawn connecting
their hills to Mbeb Mountains drawn in the Mkpang space. Only
then could activities continue.

Where possible, conflicts

need to be resolved before
decisions are finalised. This
may mean slowing down
the planning process in
order to fully resolve the
conflict.

Mkpang leaders spotted that Obisu mappers had drawn a line of

hills on the edge of their place as Mbeb Mountain. Mkpang villagers
were angry and started shouting at the Obisu mappers present.
The room disrupted into chaos, with both villagers screaming at
each other that the mountain belonged to them and only they had
the right to name it.

82

83

SSTTEEPP 55

Management Planning

In this activity the aim is to obtain local decisions regarding the

following:
Traditional forest management zones.
Allowable and non-allowable activities in the zones.
Maximum extraction rates (annual allowable cuts) and
sustainable harvesting patterns.
Control mechanisms; who when may extract and how?
Monitoring system, harvesting and regeneration; who,
when and how?
Training needs.

The types of responses obtained from small group discussions

will guide you in terms of which options to present. Take note
throughout the discussions with the community and during the
agreements process you must always beware of the
participation pitfalls (see Cooke 2001 and the box).
Participation Pitfalls
Radical or high risk solutions proposed people feel safer in a
group and make a decision that as an individual they would not
agree to.
Production of a collective false agreement, - people are not
honest about what they really think.
Group think a lack of independent critical thinking and
assessment of the collective decisions, so a decision can be
made contrary to the evidence.
Coercive Persuasion participants are not participating
completely out of free will, and thus decisions will not hold. This
may happen accidentally if people get tired, want to go home,
and make decisions to finish the meeting quickly.

There are three stages to this

Step, such as examine the
management options, determine
what decisions need to be taken
for what resources and where as
well
as
strategize
for
implementation.
5.1.

Management Options.
There are a number of management decisions that the community
will need to make and may want to take. As facilitator you are
responsible for guiding which options they may consider by
analysing the issues and linkages made in the resource maps.
Most of the options provided here have been drawn from field
examples. The details for each option were discussed in step 3.

Management Options
Recap Discussions.
Between visits you need
to remind people what
they did in the last
activity.
If there is a gap between
resource mapping and decision mapping, then remind people
of the salient decisions that were drawn out in the last
meeting.
Emphasise the Importance of their local rules, which are to
be given to the magistrate and to neighbouring communities.
Therefore local decisions for rules on the bush can become
local bylaws under Nigerian law.
84

Forest Management Zones.

Request the communities divide their forest areas into its
named zones.
These should have been identified already as the areas that
were ranked for abundance in the resource mapping
activities.
Assign a name to the forest management zones, normally
they take the name of the river, hill or nearest landscape
feature such as a cave or waterfall.
85

Farming zones are usually divided by family or clan name,

but they may also use the old forest area name.
Make sure boundaries and localities
Warning
are clear before planning. These are
At this stage the
the means to integrate other
criteria for the
information with the local plans.
management zones
are not scientifically

estimated. The
Potential Decisions for Hunting.
purpose is to achieve
If it is an important forest activity then
acknowledgment on
some or all of these options may need to
the cause of decline
be discussed again.
and agreement on a
) Control who can hunt.
management option
) Control
fires

controlling
that can start to
abandoned smoking or cooking fires
address the problem.
used by hunters.
) Intensive hunting Zones in farmlands.
) Principal hunting zones no logging and sited away from the
national park.
) Rotational hunting no hunting for a specified number of
years.
) Sanctuaries no hunting areas.
) Seasonal hunting periods of no hunting.
) Selective hunting no hunting of specific species.
) Banning or limiting trap use technology control.
) Increase trap checking frequencies controlling waste.
) Setting up domestic animal loans (chickens, or turkeys) to
provide another source of meat.
Animal Points to Remember
Large mammals have a breeding cycle of 2 years or more.
Large mammals are territorial and area specific.
If they kill the mother, the infant is likely doomed to die! - Infants
cannot survive on their own below the age of 1 year.
Infant chimps, drills, gorillas, do not survive without their mother
or a carer if younger than 2 years.
Trading live endangered species is illegal, including infants.
Cercopan and Pandrillus will take orphaned animals for free to
rehabilitate them in enclosed controlled breeding programmes.

86

Consequences of Doing Nothing.

Silent forest syndrome.
No regeneration of the forest or its products.
What will their sons hunt?
Fishing.
) Banning poisoning.
) Seasonal fishing.
) Fish Sanctuaries usually needs
to be understood as a practical
experience.
Afang/Hot Leaf.
) CLOSE or control access to afang
harvesting.
) Control or stop farm expansion
) Control bush fires.
) Rotational harvesting let an area
regenerate.
) Enrichment planting of river
banks, and headwaters.
) Seasonal collecting a period of
the year with No Collecting.
) Harvesting control who trains
the children or outsiders, and
when.

What are the

Endangered Species
likely found in Cross
River State?
Otter shrew
Pangolins
Golden Potto
Red Colobus
Preusss guenon
Crowned guenon
Mangabeys
Chimpanzees
Drills
Cross River Gorilla
Cats, large or small
Wild dog
Otters
Forest Elephants
Giant forest hog
Rock Python
Parrots
Eagles
(see CITT act, ch. 108)

Consequences of Doing Nothing.

No regeneration of afang and
loss of the plant from their area.
What will their daughters
collect?
Bush Mango.
) Control bush burning on the farms.
) Ban the felling of bush mango trees.
) Control harvesting.
) Enrichment Planting boundaries, farms.
87

) Grafting of bitter bush mango.

) Planting to protect riverbanks and headwaters Microwatershed management.
) Processing and Storage.
Chewing Sticks.
) Control access.
) Control harvesting, and only
allow mature stems to be
cut.
) Enrichment planting in
farms.
) Rotational harvesting.
) Set aside.
) Paying for each stick.
) Village processing.
Cattle Sticks.
) Control who has access.
) Control harvesting.
) Enrichment planting
boundaries, farms.
) Rotational harvesting.
) Set aside.
) Species protection.
) Paying by the stick.
Cane Rope and Rattans.
) Control bush burning.
) Control the harvesting
so only mature stems
are cut.
) Enrichment planting/
rattan farming.
Medicine.
) Areas protected for
medicinal
plant
collection.
) Policies to protect
important species from bush burning and logging.
88

Timber.
) One original consent form for one permit.
) One stump, one permit, one
Hot Issue - BOUNDARIES
payment for the tree.
) Hammer wood within the
Boundaries are potentially
village so they get the royalty.
explosive issues.
) Put contracts down in writing.
Clarify how forest
) Name areas where timber
boundaries are
dealers can log.
decided.
) Name areas where timber
Check with
dealers cannot log!
neighbouring villages
as to where they think
) No burning of valuable timber
the same boundaries
species when farms are
lie.
opened.
) Valuable timber species in
Some communities draw
farms is the priority lumber
boundaries as open dashed
for the timber dealers.
or dotted lines to show that
) Identify where the community
the resources around it are
can have an inventory plot.
shared.
) Identify an area for
sustainable timber harvesting no farming.
) Areas of no logging.
Forest.
) Areas of cultural
significance sacred
) Forest Regeneration areas.
) Forest for exclusive
NTFP gathering.
) Protection of headwater
forests.
) Areas for Reforestation.
) Protection of Mother
Trees.
Farming.
) Limiting opening up farms to acquire land.
) No farming areas.
) No farming on riverbanks or too near the riverbank.
) Identify farm expansion areas.
89

5.2.

Water.
) Establish buffer zones of natural vegetation along riverbanks.
) Protect headwaters.
) Banning the use of agro-chemicals along rivers used for
drinking.

Decision Mapping
Purpose.
To secure local commitment
to changes in resource
management practices.
To put local decisions on a
map as zones that will guide
resource management.

Explanation.
State the need to have
another separate layer that
integrates their discussions
and decisions.
Ensure local leaders are
present, including those from the Egbe society, age grade
groups and women.
5.2.1 Mapping Activities
There are two ways that the decision map can be developed, it
depends upon the time available, and whether it is facilitated as a
one session process or over several sessions.
1. Only one session for management decision making and
mapping.
After the discussions and decisions for each resource
layer have been completed, lay a blank plastic sheet on
the place map.
Ask the leaders to draw the forest management zones on
the plastic one by one (do not forget to ensure that the
common feature is also copied).
90

Use your notes to remind the group of the decisions they

made earlier that relate to the zone being discussed.
For each forest management zone ask the leaders and
community to share what management options have been
chosen for the zone.
Clarify if there are any management options they want
for individual resources, such as Bush Mango or Afang.
Ask the group to share the plans for other activities that
may affect the forest and farms and that they want
included in their plan (eg. those resulting from earlier
land use planning activities)

2. Two or more sessions for

decision making and mapping
preferred process.
Lay each layer down
and reach a local
consensus decision for
each resource in each of
the named zones.
Remind the community
of problems that they
identified earlier and
have yet to make a
decision to address.
Schedule the return date
so that they can draw
their decisions on the
map.
On the return visit lay a
blank sheet of plastic
over the base map and
remind them of their
decisions resource by
resource, asking people
to draw the forest
management zone in a
separate colour.
For each zone discuss in
91

Rope Game
This is ideal for planning
activities. The participants
are split into several groups.
They are given 10 minutes
to plan together to create a
square using a piece of rope
and every member of the
team.
When ready they are taken
outside and given the long
rope. Then all members of
the group are blindfolded
and turned round. They are
lead to a space to make their
square.
The winners are those that
make a complete square
first. The purpose is to show
them the situation changes
and they must be able to
respond to unexpected
situations working as a
team.

detail what activities are allowed and not allowed, the

penalty for infraction and how the activities will be
monitored.
For each resource check what is allowed and not
allowed, the penalty and how it will be monitored.
Check for contradictions.

Let the People Explain.

Nothing is more powerful than ideas communicated to local
people by their own leaders or members.
Local people are able to explain concepts in terms that are
culturally meaningful and grounded by their situation and
experience.
It enables you to assess how well concepts have been
understood.
Allow people to discuss things in their local dialect without
translation so that their discussions flow and are meaningful
to them.
Using the local dialect emphasise the importance of local
cultural dynamics and knowledge.
Using the local dialect increases comprehension and
communication of
ideas.
Exhaustion Factor.
Many of the
meetings may last
several hours.
People are not used
to long meetings.
The type of
thinking required by
people is also new
to many and
therefore the meeting may be exhausting.
You may get decisions made that are motivated by a desire to
close the meeting and rest rather than those that indicate what
is actually wanted.
92

Where local people themselves increase the length of the

meeting by including ceremonious activities (such as singing,
and speeches) you may need to split the meeting up and
transfer decision making to the next morning.
Decisions made whilst people are tied are unlikely to be
implemented because they were made without real
commitment.
Verification minimises the effects of tiredness on decisionmaking as it asks communities to rethink the consequences of
their decisions and confirm what they wanted.
Inconsistencies in data across meetings may indicate that
false decisions were made.
Factor in relaxing exercises or meaningful ice breakers like
the rope game.
Palm Wine Factor.
Although palm
wine has ritual
implications for
many communities,
it may cause several
problems.
Tapping down is
unsustainable and
will reduce the
availability of oil
palm wine and other products.
DO NOT ALLOW
The morning wine is mildly
PALM
WINE TO BE
alcoholic however, by the evening
DRUNK
BEFORE
or over night wine is very strong.
ACTIVITIES.
The community may be used to
drinking heavily during particular
Drinking needs
times of the day (Sunday afternoon
to be left to the
for example), therefore scheduling
end of the day!
needs to consider this.
Palm wine is disruptive of mapping
activities, as people are aggressive, argumentative and do not
put the symbols anywhere indicative.
If necessary do an ice breaker.
93

5.2.2 Rules and Regulations

The rules and regulations will be drawn out during the decision
mapping process, however, they will still need to be documented
separately. This is a basic checklist to ensure all the elements
have been included.

Existing Institutions.
New rules and regulations must be approved both by civil
and tribal organisations in the villages.
Where possible ensure the tribal leadership or Egpe society
confirms the suggested penalties and assists in their
implementation.

Needed for Each Resource, and Management Zone.

Management decisions related to clear and doable
timeframes, for example we will stop collecting afang
in this place for two years.
Identification of those responsible for the action - when
they will do it, how
often and how will it
be reported.

New Institutions, ie. FMC or CBO.

Clarify the role of the FMC members.
Ask whether local residents are involved in some of the
activities and ensure the FMC know why this is important.
Clarify when the FMC link with the FC and other
government agencies or NGOs.
Ensure there is equal representation between multiple
villages.

Monitoring.
Who is going to do what,
when and how often.
Question local decisions by
asking for doable examples
that illustrate points being
made and thus help make
the decisions real in
peoples minds.
Ensure
monitoring
is
realistic, so that it does not
cost too much or place too
much potential for abuse of
power in the hands of a few
local residents.

Verification.
Examine the local decisions after each visit if there are data
discrepancies, data gaps, errors in data or contradictions then
you will need to return to the community and verify the
decisions made.
Feedback data form the small group discussions to support
sustainable resource management options and resolve
contradictions.

Penalties.
Where possible penalties need to be culturally meaningful
and may include material things such as fines (gallon of palm
wine) rather than just money.
Ensure that the cultural fine does not contradict the new rules
(for example a lap of bush meat demanded when there is no
hunting).
94

Explanations and Reminders.

Point out why there is a need to review certain decisions by
identifying the gap, error, contradiction or discrepancy in the
data.
For Every Zone the
Community Identified
Ensure you know:
Activities Allowed.
Activities Not
Allowed.
Who Shall Monitor.
What is the Penalty.
How is it enforced.
95

5.3.
Implementation
Key to any plan is its implementation. In order to implement many of
these activities residents may need more skills, micro finances, and
encouragement.
5.3.1 Identifying Training Needs
Those Locally Identified.
Ask for suggestions on the training activities resource users
think they need.
Allow local people to suggest how training opportunities
should be divided among their own community.
Ensure there is equitable distribution of training opportunities
between men and women, old and young try to train a pair
and build a group because AIDS eliminates individuals.
Ensure the numbers of people for training reflect those the
community are able to support in a training activity and not
the number they would like to be
supported
by
an
outside
BEWARE
organisation.
By suggesting
Training trainers ensure there is a
training opportunities
system in which those trained will
you are implying that
be obliged to train at least two other
these will be
people in the village.
supplied. Be clear to
stress that these are
only ideas and they
may not happen. It
depends on the
available budget.

Training Recommended.
Suggest possible training needs that
resource users could benefit from
and relate them to specific
problems, or resources identified in
earlier mapping, discussions or interviews.

5.3.2 Revenue Generation

The plan is more likely to be implemented if it incorporates ways
of generating income or is self financing or benefits individuals
and the community. During the many activities you need to have
gathered some of this information during informal discussions
with small groups during the evening. This may require another
visit to finalise.
96

For What and For Whom.

Discuss with the leaders
and community their
development aspirations
as concrete projects.
Examine with the group
how they intend to pay
for these projects and
who benefits.
Analyse together who
benefits from the new
rules and who does not are
benefits distributed fairly?
Ensure people understand that the
value of resources needs to be
reflected in the prices paid to use
them; this includes the road,
bridges and water.
Locally Generated Funding.
With the group of hunters, women
and NTFP users analyse the
potential income generated given
new rules that govern exit fees
etc.
Together estimate the possible
incomes from sustained resource
management as compared with
farming from the same size of
land.
Timber Exploitation and Potential
Community Income.
With the community analyse how
timber is currently being exploited
and what the difference would be
to the community if they followed
the single-tree permit guidelines.
Together examine with how much
97

MICRO CREDIT

Women are more

likely to pay back

smaller amounts,
building a credit
reputation, before
they take out a large
loan ensure people
establish credit
worthiness.
Asking people to
match funds may be
a way of inculcating
responsibility.
Beware of nepotism
the nonpayers that
are friends of elected
officials.
Ensure the system
does not allow
anyone to run away
with the cash.
It fails if people use
the money for things
that do not generate
cash such as hospital
expenses, weddings,
and school.

the community gains from sustainable timber extraction or

NTFP gathering as compared with farming from the same
land.
Try and link the royalties to a savings/loan mirco-credit
system. This may include Food and animal banks, which may
be easier for some to manage and
are a good way to distribute
benefits. The micro-credit system
could stimulate various income
generation schemes in the village.

The Inventory Plot.

Where inventory plot data is
available estimate the potential
income
from
sustainable
management of the plot.
Assume the harvestable rate is
locally possible with hand held
tools, thereby work with minimal
harvesting rates, for example one
truckload of timber per week.

SSTTEEPP 66

6 Endorsement
There are several ways the plan can be endorsed such as legally,
technically and officially. The endorsement process requires
integration with existing laws, maps, scientific data, land use plans
and policies.
With or without integration it is advisable to digitise the community
maps and management plans to obtain their official stamp of
approval. As a minimum, digitise the management plan.

Digital copies are easier to edit and will easily incorporate

desired changes.
Digital copies are easier to store, and reproduce, both for
reports and for the communities.
The map looks professional and makes communities more
likely to take their work seriously, because the project has
done so.
Forestry Commission is more likely to sign off on the
agreement when a digitised community management plan
map is presented with it.
98

99

This is likely to be the first time that the local people have had their
plans reproduced through the computer environment, this is an
important event, do not loose it as an opportunity to emphasise the
importance of their work and the importance of implementation. The
first endorsement the community will need is approval from Cross
River Forest Commission in the form of a Community Forest
Management Agreement.

6.1
Community
Forest
Management Agreements
Intention.
To show a relationship
of mutual commitment
and support between the
communities and the
Forestry Commission to
manage
community
forest
resources
sustainably.

An example of a format used is given

in appendix 2.

Essential Elements
of an Agreement
The agreement needs to
refer to the management plan, rather than to a set of joint
management activities. Thus providing concrete commitment
to the implementation of the plan and whilst still allowing the
communities the flexibility to adapt their plan as new
circumstances arise.
Some support activities can be provided in the normal
Forestry Commission budget. For example the Commission
can provide technical training on inventorying and
developing sustainable harvesting plans.
Other training and support needs to specify that it will be
provided only where funds allow. Thus ensuring the Forestry
Commission does not over commit itself, but ensures when
new projects start they will provide implementation support
for the plans.
100

GPS
Global Positioning System

Always mark the position

Integrating the CFMA into
when you have four
Local By Laws
satellites locked in
Through the management
position.
planning process the
Take three readings at
community decided upon
every point marked.
rules to guide the
Write down your results
management of forest
UTM, name, and
description.
resources. To be a sustainable
Mark your first position
process these local policies
name it, leave a marker.
need pass into the local by
Be patient wait for the
law system to be recognised
signals to be strong.
by local government.
If you cannot get a signal
The forest rules need to be
due to cloud or forest
approved by the local village
cover, pace out a distance
council (also the local Egbe
to the nearest clearing,
society or its equivalent).
then note the angle and
distance of the desired
A set of rules and regulations
point, form your actual
with the accompanying map
position.
needs to be passed to the local

Photo where you take the

magistrate and local
points
government officer.
Close the survey loop so
Both local magistrates and
the last position is at the
local government officers
same place as your first.
need to be briefed on the legal
precedence of these local regulations.

6.1.2

6.1.1

It clarifies the role and responsibility of the Forestry

Commission, Community leaders and the Forest
Management Committee thus clarifying that the FMCs are
not part of the Forestry Commission but an integral part of
the communities committee system.
Provide a copy of the community map of their decisions and
zones.
Confirm the natural boundary markers such as hills, rivers
and joint forests.

101

6.2

Copies of the rules should be posted at the community

boundary points for neighbours to become aware of them.
A joint meeting must be facilitated between neighbouring
leaders and those who have proposed the new rules.

Technical Integration Geo referencing Data

Intention
To
geo-reference
essential
elements on the community
sketch maps so they can be
integrated with other technical
data
in
a
Geographical
Information System GIS.
6.2.1 Spatial Integration
A Geographical Information
System (GIS) a decision
support system involving the
integration of spatially
referenced data in a problem solving environment (Cowan,
1988).
This assumes you have data already in a computer, either as a
topographical map, satellite image or aerial photos and you
have both the software and hardware to support integration.
Location data using a Global Positioning System (GPS) to
identify key areas (for example places of cultural
significance and points of river confluence) on the
community map.
Digitise the community map any software will do for this
(AUTOCAD, ARCINFO, GRASS).
Find the same rivers, hills and roads/tracks on the
topographical map (1:50.000 scale).
Merge the local data onto the topographical map using the
natural features as reference points (ESSC 1998). If the
topographical map is not available then use geo-referenced
aerial photos or satellite images
Verify this map with the community and by ground truthing
the data (eg. going out to the field with the integrated data to
check the data point matches the real location).
102

6.2.2 Merging the Decision Map

The decision map is initially drawn as a final layer on the
place map, it may be placed onto the topographical map
later.
For a more technically accurate process, the topographical
map needs to be digitised, with contours every 10 or 20
meters. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) can then be
produced with suitable software.
If available, satellite data can be floated over the DEM so
that features and forest blocks are more easily recognised by
the community (see google earth for images).
Various views of the DEM can be produced and the
community draws their proposed zones onto the features
shown in 3D by the DEM. If a
DEM is not available then a
physical 3D model of the
landscape can be used instead
(See www. iapad.org).
This technical merging then
becomes a final verification
process for the management
plan.
6.2.3
Forest Inventory Plots
With or without a GIS, forest
inventory plots can be a point of
technical integration; the analysis
can be carried out in a spreadsheet
(see Dunn and Otu 1996).
The forest commission
provides training and
assistance with the fieldwork.
The 50 ha plot is divided into
ten strips and with trained
community members, the trees either side, systematically
noted, in terms of size (dbh), species name (common and
scientific) and height.
103

Once the trees are plotted spatially a harvesting plan can be

developed mature trees only are harvested, rivers and
mother trees are protected, cutting cycle is at least 40 years.
Once the harvestable species of each tree has been assessed
these form part of the data base that can then estimate the
harvestable broad feet (with a GIS this report can be
produced automatically).
Similar inventory plots and harvesting plans can be
developed with rattan and other non-timber forest products.

6.2.4 Indicative Surveys

To extrapolate the abundance data to the broader landscape
conduct indicative surveys to ground-truth the communitys
abundance symbols on the maps.
Indicative surveys can be transect walks, nested clusters,
nested circular plots or various combinations, depending
upon the skills of the local community conducting the survey
(see Carter 1996).
With resource volume estimates for the broader landscape,
other areas of permanent and sustained forest product
extraction can be identified.
More methods to estimate non timber forest yields can be
found in Stockdale 2005.

104

SSTTEEPP 77

7.

Making Links

To implement effectively a community forestry management plan the

community will aim to make links with all or some of the following
support organisations, such as:
Local Government.
Forest Commission.
National Government Agencies.
Not For Profit (NGP) Community Development
Organisations.
NFP Conservation Organisations.
Other Community Forest Organisations (Ekuri
Initiative).
Small Forest Based Enterprises.
Rather than simply networking however, the Forest Organisation and
Community Leaders need to be sure what they want from the
relationship they are trying to establish. Their time and resources are
limited so the links they make need to count for something.
Experience with other communities in the state has shown that there
are approximately four key benefits communities are seeking when
they make links, such as;
To exchanging experiences information, knowledge,
know how.
Obtain training technical, management, financial and
leadership skills.
Local Projects sustain community involvement.
Financial support - sustain implementation of wise forest
resource use and management.
From previous experience the two benefits that determine whether
community forestry is implemented or not once project funds and
people have gone are local projects and financial support. They are
factors if present, that can sustain activities without external
intervention.
105

7.1

Local Projects
Desired Outcomes.
To ensure the community receives tangible benefits.
To motivate the community and its leaders to continue
to implement their management plan
The community in general must be able to see some benefits of
all this planning activity and not only that well placed individuals
gain. Furthermore there will be many individuals in a community
that do not see connections between their wellbeing and a healthy
forest. The objectives of the management plan need to be linked
to achieving common goals that are set by the community.
Every community has a local project they want completed; often
they will work together on it during communal workdays. It may
have nothing to do with community forestry. However, if
communities see that by implementing the community forest
management plan they will achieve development or
improvements in their village then they sacrifice time and energy
on sustaining activities.
7.1.1
Examples From the Field
The following are some of the projects local communities were
aiming to fund from the timber royalties from logging in their
community forests. The examples also
show the type of links communities
tried to make to achieve their common
goal and the role community forestry
played.
Etara/Ekuri Eyeing: There were two
key projects, rebuilding the school and
building two bridges. The National
Park supplied the cement to make the
bricks for the school and also lent a
bulldozer to widen the access road.
Initially the FMC chairman negotiated
with a timber dealer to cut 30 mimisop
trees in exchange for building a
106

bridge. Although the dealer initially agreed, later he asked for a

contract to cut in the community forest for one year. The
community refused to sign this deal and instead obtained
assistance from Local Government for one of the bridges. They
continued to look for a dealer to build the other bridge for 30
mimisop trees. The local
government
official
asked
assistance from the National
Park to improve their road. The
grader went in and widened the
path considerably so that
vehicles could pass, which
enabled the people to construct
their bridge.
Bashu and Owai also wanted
new bridges. Both areas are cut
off during the rainy season.
Bashu in particular is the main
trading
access
for
several
Cameroon villages but from July
to October it is only possible to
cross the river by canoe. The three
Bashu villages had not started
logging, because they found it
difficult to control the traders. The
national park forest is closer than
their community forests. The
FMC wanted to cut the
timber themselves but the
lack of a bridge and
seasonal access increased
transportation costs. They
then tried to obtain a grant
as part of a World Bank
project and in anticipation
prepared their building
materials.
107

Owai, on the other hand has

allowed logging in its large
community forest for quite a
while. However, due to bad
contracts with timber dealers
and corrupt practices the
community did not receive the
royalties it needed. The FMC
wanted to save enough funds
from royalties over several
years of sustainable forest
management to build a bridge
to give them access all year.
Unfortunately the logging
trucks deteriorated the track to
the
main
road,
which
increased the need for more
funds to maintain access during the rainy season.
The womens group of Ekuri Initiative, the forest organisation of
Old and New Ekuri, applied for a small grant from an
international womens organisation to use as seed money for a
micro credit scheme for women. Many of the proposed livelihood
activities related to processing forest and farm products, such as
oils. The Ekuri villages were one of the few areas that obtained a
bridge by asking for assistance from the National Park. Ekuri
Initiative has continued to cut wood from its community forest
using the harvest plan.
It was contracted by a
local
conservation
organisation
that
wanted
to
use
sustainably managed
wood to construct an
eco-tourism walk way
in a nearby wildlife
sanctuary.
108

These examples illustrate the key role local leaders play in

achieving common goals and
the various linkages each
community has managed to
make.
7.2 Financial Support
The implementation of the
Community
Forestry
Management Plans will need
some sort of financial support, whether large or small. The
royalties from single tree felling are released in the financial year
following the activity if there are no bureaucratic delays or
misappropriation of the funds. In the meantime the community
leaders need to learn to engage various organisations to obtain
financial support.
Increasingly local government is being asked to prepare landuse
plans as a means to direct donor development initiatives. It has
been shown in Southeast Asia, Philippines and Cambodia in
particular that local Community Forestry Management Plans
(CFMP) need to be integrated into a local government land use
planning process, both in terms of the map, land use policies and
finances for community projects.
It is the community projects that provide the link between local
government and the community with community forestry
activities providing the communitys contribution. However, to
access the financial support of local government the community
needs to learn to navigate local politics and guard against
financial failure.
Local Politics.
Local politics can impact on the implementation of the
management planning and agreement process in several ways.
The support of local politicians will be required to integrate
the finalised community forestry rules as local by-laws. The
local magistrate will more likely act accordingly to support
the local resolutions. The fines, exit fees and other fees
109

incorporated in the CFMP rules can form an important source

of income generation for the community.
Prepare community development projects as part of the forest
management plan so they can be packaged for possible
support by the governor or other politicians.
There are possibilities to obtain local government funds to
assist in the implementation of local development plans, such
as bridges or schools. Thus taking the pressure off the
community to access large amounts of funds quickly which
leaves them subject to pressure from outside loggers.
On the whole it is advisable to remain politically neutral
when facilitating the process, otherwise if a supporting
candidate looses, the support for the community forest
management plan may also be lost and any financial help that
went with it.
If local politicians are supported by logging interests their
commitment to sustainable forest management is likely to be
lip service unless they can see the grass roots support, which
will translate to votes at the next election.

Implementation Failure.
Follow on activities that seek to
implement the community forest
management plan need to build up
local capacities, especially those in
relation to management and financial
accountability. There are usually key
areas where local organisations fall:
Lack of effective communication
skills.
Bad financial management and
book-keeping.
Bad loans given to known associates, and not those with a
capacity and commitment to repay the loan (poor women pay
back loans if they are small).
Underestimation of the bribes required to facilitate the
marketing of products.
Setting production targets to market demands rather than to
levels that the resource can sustainably produce.
110

Lack of transparency for all activities so that the community

is not clear what activities are being carried out on their
behalf.
Leaders of the forest organisation leave the village initially
to facilitate market links, but later if they stay in the city they
become too distant from the daily activities of the
community, and seeds of distrust are sown.
External Funds.
The lure of trying to obtain external funding to implement the
CFMP is very tangible. However some funding organisations are
more sympathetic to community organisations than others. If the
community wants to apply directly for funds they may need to do
so as a legally identifiable institution. The options are to apply
through the local government or to register the Forest
Management Committee as cooperative or a Non Governmental
Organisation (NGO) or seek an alliance with a not-for-profit
organisation that is a registered NGO. The community can do a
lot by simply legally registering its FMC as a cooperative. Some
of the options are outlined below:
Womens groups can apply to international womens
organisations for small funds, either for livelihood or
educational or to implement their forest management
activities such as nurseries for afang.
Ford Foundation provides funds for institutional
development of community organisations the community
forest organisation may be required to register as an NGO.
IUCN and UNDP provide small grants that relate forest
conservation, to sustainable use and development activities
Embassy grants (British, Netherlands, Danish, Spanish and
Australian) often have small funds available to support local
projects.
Think small - do not ask for more than can be easily managed by
the local organisation. It is often better to obtain local funds first,
manage it well and then seek external assistance. The levels of
accountability, transparency and communication are higher for
external funding organisations.
111

SSTTEEPP 88

8 Monitoring, Evaluation and Adaptation

There are two ways to
think about this step; one
that is integral to the
process of planning and is
essentially carried out by
the project manager, and
the other that is integral to
the performance of the
plan, and the facilitating
team. There are benefits
for the community in both
the process and the
performance.
Aim in the Planning Process:
To monitor the activities in each step.
Evaluate how well the goals are being achieved.
Adapt the activities to improve performance and achieve
the goals more effectively.
Aim in the Plan/Project Performance:
To monitor the action, output, outcomes, impacts and
lessons.
Evaluate how well the outcomes are being achieved
within the desired timeframes, their impacts, changes and
lessons.
Adapt the activities to improve outputs, outcomes,
impacts and their delivery timeframe.
Look for and understand the un-intended consequences,
impacts or changes, both negative and positive.
Understand the broader context in which the planning
process was conducted and what its achievement means.
These aspects will be discussed in more detail by looking at
monitoring, evaluation and adaptation.
112

8.1 Monitoring
Purpose.
To measure progress in the process and performance so
that learning takes place and adjustments can be made to
improve outcomes.
Elements of implementation process monitoring to measure
how well the planning process went.
Description of the resource status and community socioeconomic situation.
Identify what is the minimum to be achieved at steps 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 in the timeframe available.
Collect data on what went into the activities, the
activities and what they achieved.
Documentation/reporting on the activities and
achievements after each step.
Identify what outputs have been achieved after
completing steps 1, 2, and 3.
Review improvements in the community forest
organisation in step 4.
Identify the achievements possible in steps 5, 6, and 7
Collect data on the outputs of steps 4 to 7.
Elements of performance monitoring to measure how much
difference the plan has made.
Description of the resource status and community socioeconomic situation.
Indicators of the agreed outcomes, see below.
Collect data on the management plan outputs to see
whether they achieve the desired outcomes.
How do local people see the changes that have occurred
during and after the activities? What do they feel they got
out of it? How well do they think your team performed?
Report on the outputs, impacts, changes and lessons
learnt.
Identify the unexpected changes/consequences that
occurred, the contribution the planning process made and
the elements that were outside the context of the
community or the process.
113

What to Monitor.
Action, Timeframe, outcomes.
Problems, solutions, changes.
Benefits, who what and how?
Wellbeing, stress, sickness, envy, contentment, learning.
Poverty (women, children, old people).
Unexpected consequences.
Take Note

How to Monitor it Simply.

Not everything worth
Maps.
doing is easily
) The maps are not a static record
measured.
they can be used to update the local
situation. Some communities may
Keep monitoring simple,
even specify a timeframe for the
relevant and give
review of results and to change of
feedback quickly.
the plans
) The base map if stored correctly
People learn by
experience allow them
can be used again in later mapping
to make a small mistake
sessions. However the plastic does
so they will remember
harden eventually and may crack
the lesson. Remember
and break. It is therefore
to link the lesson to
recommended that the maps be
other similar situations
digitised so that large formats can
or resources.
be reproduced for monitoring or
for developing revisions.
Surveys.
) Surveys need to be conducted with the communities so they
know how to gather data and analyse it.
) Extensive time is needed for participatory surveys, hence
indicative surveys are quicker, easier for communities to do
and provide enough information for local management
purposes.
Indicators these will need to be verified with the
community.
Determining the indicators to use to measure the impact and
outcome of activities will need to be determined with community
and their organisations. These are some examples that have been
used.
114

) Forest/trees: Forest line, timber available, stumps, stamped

timber.
Water quality: clean river, springs, availability, seasonality.
Animals: numbers rate of breeding, ease of hunting.
NTFPs: regeneration, harvesting, value.
Farms: area opened/maintained, number of domestic
animals.
) Committee:
communication, action,
fairness.
) Community funds:
Growth, legitimate/non
legitimate use, non
repayment.
) Benefits: individual
incomes, children in
school, bridge, road, post
harvest storage, training,
skills, decisions.
) Poverty: children with
blond hair/extended
stomachs, diarrhoea, death
rate of new borns, death
during childbirth, death rate, loans, credit level, food
availability during the year, opportunities, social support
network.
Meetings.
) The frequency of the meetings will depend upon the length
of the project, the resources put into meetings and the
motivation of the participants.
) What they will need to discuss are the outputs, outcomes
and changes experienced, as well as what the following
groups think key lessons have been.
Local community: Leaders, traditional, women,
youth and elders, groups of resource users.
Project: Facilitating team, Forestry Commission,
Donor.
Stakeholders: NGOS, other government agencies,
traders.

)
)
)
)

115

8.2 Evaluation
Purpose.
To assess the quality of the Community Forest
Management Plan and the overall project performance so
that it achieves its goals and has a positive impact for the
community and its resources.
Five evaluation questions need to be asked (see IFAD 2002).
Meeting needs: Relevance to whom does the plan
deal with community forest management priorities?
Doability: Effectiveness are the plans doable, does it
make sense are the steps to
achieve the desired outcomes
Take Note
adding up, how can things be
A head count is not
improved?
participation!
Resource Use: Efficiency are
available resources being used
Who is
in the best possible way,
participating, when,
villagers are a resource too.
how, and why?
What can be improved?
Changes: Impact to what
Who is not
extent is the forest being
participating?
managed sustainably or wisely.
What and how can improvements be made?
Self running: Sustainability how will activities
continue without project support. Accountability do
relationships of trust exist,
how can they be improved?
Participation

who
participated when? Was it
meaningful for all groups?
8.2.1

Participation

Participation is often monitored and

concerns the donors, but more
importantly your team must assess the
quality of participation of various
groups in the community.
116

These are based on the examples we encountered in Cross River

Villages, so it is only a guide.
There is often at least one
type of hierarchy in a
community.
Therefore
certain groups may have
marginal access to political
power,
socio-economic
status or physical resources.
Four
examples
are
discussed below because
they were common in the
communities in Cross River
State,
however,
when
beginning work with a
community be open minded
about who are the marginal
groups and what type of
marginality exists.
Women.
Women may be sociopolitically
or
cultural
marginalized
in
the
community as a whole,
however:
The powerlessness of
women
cannot
be
assumed.
Observe how women
influence decisions in
local gatherings.
Ensure women have an
opportunity to work
exclusively on their
own. One man present
from their community
changes the dynamics

Etara Women
Although seemingly of lower status
than men because they did not pick
up the pens and draw in mixed
mapping sessions, the women
formed a strong group respected by
the men (especially the leaders).
Consequently these observations
were made during the meetings.
When a young man took
charge of the pens and drew
resources the women used,
they shouted at him.
They pointed out where he
should draw and criticized what
he was drawing.
The young man shouted back
to the women but the clan head
reprimanded him for this.
The women continued to shout
at the youth saying what he
should and should not draw!
When the women were drawing on
their own, it became evident that
the more literate women from Etara
had the higher status, however
there was a generosity between the
women and those that could not
draw advised from the side. A
husband of one of the young
women leaders insisted on staying,
but he was given a specific task to
do as he immediately started to
boss the women, some of whom
then stopped drawing.

117

and the women may be less expressive.

Some women may be more equal than others and marginality
may not be experienced by all age groups in the same way.
You may not be able to change anything but you need to be
aware of what the gender dynamics are.
Focusing too many
BASHU ELDERS
activities on women
may increase the gender
Bashu elders first thought that the
rivalry
within
the
community forest management
community if men feel
planning activity would give more
threatened
by
the
of their forest to the National Park
empowerment of their
and were not supportive. By
womenfolk
(see
involving the whole community in
Schoeder 1999).
the activities they came to realise
Domestic violence is
that this was not the case.
always present in a
Although they could not draw, on
community in one form
the maps, once finished, the
or other, be aware of its
maps were sung to them. The
possibility, you can
elders and community gave their
walk away from the
approval. Consequently the FMC
village, the women
leaders they felt they had the
often cannot.
support of the whole community.
Limited Literates.
Literacy skills are not
even in the community
and usually fall along
age groups, with the
elderly
either
not
having the skills or not
having the eyesight to
enable them to draw.
Encourage illiterates to
draw with the pens by
giving them the pen.
If they form a small
group in the community
hold a separate meeting
with them get them to

talk about or draw the past situation.

It is likely they may have
specialist knowledge; hunting,
herbalists, farming or forest
plants,
draw
out
this
knowledge and ensure the
community supports their
expertise.
Elders.
Elders are a key group in the
community, even if it is
seemingly modern.
Participation may be limited
due to hearing or sight
difficulties or limited
mobility, if this is the case
they can be involved in
verification.
Elders need to be
consulted and information
verified with them.
Hold a separate meeting
with elders or seek
informal discussions with
them to get a sense of the
place.
Elders take time to
engage, so do not rush
them, but take things
slowly.
They will be able to share
myths, stories and say why the places have the names they
do.
Local Leaders.
There will be several existing organisations in the
community with their own leaders.

118

119

 Sub-groups like hunters will also have natural leaders that are
willing to speak out.
Find out who are the various leaders and ensure that they
understand fully the purpose of the activities.
Leaders can help draw in other local participants.
There may be resentment between old leaders and those
coming forward, so try and facilitate a training orientation for
old leaders so they feel they are not neglected but have an
important role in supporting new blood.

) Different communities have individual experiences and by

)

bringing them together to learn from each other, experiences

can be more effectively processed.
However, just because there is a visit between local
farmers/foresters does not automatically mean there has
been an effective learning and exchange activity. Processing
and questioning of the experience needs to be focused and
aim at exchanging on key learning points, eg consequences
of bad communication within the community.
The best way to test what has been learnt is to ensure those
who went on the visits feedback their experience to a
broader local audience.

8.3.1
Adaptations to the Planning Process
Without doubt you will meet situations that will require you to
adapt the planning process. These are some of the adjustments
we had to make along the way.

8.3 Adaptations
Purpose.
To respond to new situations as
they are evaluated, make
adjustments in the planning
process and project performance
that will lead to improved
progress to learn.

Critical Reflection
What is happening
that we did not
expect?
Why is it happening?

Sharing the Lessons.

So what does it mean?
) Circumstances change in the
communities and the
Now what do we do?
management plan should be
revised at least every two years for effective implementation
and processing of what has been learnt.
120

Dominant Mappers.
How to Identify them they are
the ones who often:
Grab the pens.
Keep the pens so no one
else can use them.
Rub out the work of
others,
deemed
less
worthy, or less correct.
Loudly ask for things to
be done correctly.
Why the Need to Manage them.
Where one or two people from a
community dominate the mapping activities the map only
represents the perceptions of a few elites. Although others may
be present, unless the dominating few are managed, the broader
community will hardly participate in any meaningful way. The
general community may not want to comply with decisions taken
based on the maps produced made by a few elites.
121

Typical Dominating Characters.

Geography Graduates.
Graduates.
Non Government
Individuals.
FMC/CBO members.
Youth.
Strategies for Managing
Dominating Characters.
Give them something
important to do away
from the main mapping
activity; the legend, or the
attendance list. Whilst
recognising their extra
skills, say this is the time
for those less skilled to
share what they know.
Give
them
extra
explanations so they feel
part of an exclusive
Use the Ekuri Initiative as an
knowledge club.
example to illustrate what happens
Ask
them
not
to
if leadership gets too far ahead of
participate and explain
the community (see below).
that everyone has a role.
Emphasise:
Stress the need to involve
A gap between the leader and
all the community in the
community can mean mutual
trust gets lost and the project
activity so that they will
falls into the gap!
implement
the

These activities are an

management plan.
opportunity
for the leader to
Get them to leave the
explain fully to everyone their
room as a last resort, for
vision for development.
example physically block
Everyone uses the forest so
dominating
behaviour,
everyone needs the
always favour the other
opportunity to be involved.
person, or taking the pen
away and give it to
someone else this is a last resort.
122

These strategies have to be facilitated carefully so as not to

alienate the domineering person. If they do decide to leave the
room, then when they return they get a special job or you spend
time giving more in-depth explanations of the importance of
them leaving and giving others a chance to participate.
Ekuri Initiative
New and Old Ekuri where assisted by the National Park and
Forestry Commission to develop an inventory plot so local people
could sustainably cut their own timber rather than outsiders (see
Dunn and Otu 1996). This was so successful that the community
organisation formed itself into a Peoples Organisation, the Ekuri
Initiative to access more international assistance.
Although everything was going to plan, two factors created
problems for the villages. First the Clan head wanted to sell timber
cutting rights to an outside company and he managed to gain
support from one of the villages but not the other. Secondly the
leader of the Ekuri Initiative who was for self-cutting and
sustainable management moved the organisations management
operations outside the village down into the city of Calabar.
These two factors combined to create fissures between the sister
communities. The Clan head and his supporters tried to divide the
communities to allow the loggers to cut in exchange for a road, but
the Ekuri Initiative campaigned against the the loggers and
eventually dethroned the clan head. However because the
Initiatives management operations were outside the village it was
easy to accuse the staff of misappropriating funds. The local
organisation had increasingly tried to professionalise but in doing
so it had distanced itself from the broader community who no
longer knew where the royalty money was being kept or for what
purpose it was used. The counter accusations resulted in a court
case between the Clan head and the Initiatives leader. All forestry
activities were stopped. The court case used all the community
funds and consequently both the clan head and the local leader
left the villages. The Ekuri Initiative recently started again with new
leadership and for the moment keeps its main operations in New
Ekuri.

123

Missing Big Men.

Generally at least one member of the community has
managed to elevate himself socio-economically; as such they
are local big men.
Where these local big men are not present during part or all
the activities, they may stall proceedings once they realise
something has gone on without them.
They may be motivated to stop or change the agreed
processes for the following reasons.
They feel guilty that they were not in the village when
they feel they should have been.
They feel that the activities are not valid because they
were not there to represent their people.
They may feel that their interests are threatened by the
local decisions made.
Strategies Used.
Stop the process and take time to
explain what has been going on,
to ensure trust is built up.
Ensure that the community has an
opportunity to explain to the big
man what and why they have
made the decisions they have.
8.3.2

Refection on Performance

There are key questions that can

facilitate reflection on the adjustments
and adaptations that may need to be
made to the planning process or its
implementation performance.
Whats working and whats not?
Why is it not working?
What can we do to improve the situation?
What are the consequences of doing nothing?
What are the obstacles to making an adjustment?
How can the obstacles be overcome?
124

The adjustments need to be incorporated into the implementation

process as the diagram shows (Guijt & Moiseev 2001).
Evaluate
results
Adapt
activities

Monitor
progress
Seek to improve results

Plan/
Preparation

Implement
changes

Implement
activities

For each step in the planning process the facilitation team

will need to go through this learning loop.
Equally at every stage of the plans implementation, the
community needs to be prepared so that it can go through a
similar learning loop.
This learning loop is how many cultural norms or regulations
have been developed in the past. Its a natural learning loop,
however the team needs to work with community to ensure that
the loop functions with existing organisations, monitoring and
communication systems that are active.
8.3.3

Points to Ponder

Participatory activities are not problem free (see Cooke and

Kothari 2001), but where the difficulties are recognised and
understood, they can be mitigated.
Participatory activities are not quick, but they can be
grounded in the local cultural dynamics, if facilitated
meaningfully.
The purpose of participation is not to make activities look
good for the project, but to ensure there is local commitment
to their implementation.
125

 Participatory planning needs to translate into local action!

There are always unforeseen consequences to participatory
activities that are truly successful because empowerment
works on levels of relations that cannot be controlled or
anticipated (see Lawrence 2002).
Be aware of the consequences of these activities and discuss
changes or non-change as part of the verification and
feedback process or in separate discussions.
Allow local people to learn; therefore let them make
manageable mistakes these can become points of learning
for the whole community if processed within reasonable
timeframes.
Meaningful participation requires government agencies to
trust local people to
make technically valid
decisions based on local
experiences.
Local involvement in
prescribed activities is
not
meaningful
participation.
People
need time to think,
question and have ideas
in a process that they
can share and be
respected.
We used the time
between
formal
activities to interact
informally with local
people and groups, to
root
the
planning
processing in dialogue,
learning and listening.

TYPICAL SCHEDULE
Phase 1
Day 1
pm
Introductions
Day 2
am
Place Mapping
Day 2
pm
Resource Mapping
Day 3
am
Investigation
Day 3
pm
Sustainability Discussion
Problem Mapping
Or vice versa
Phase 2
Day 1
Day 2
Day 2
Day 3
Day 3
Day 4
Day 4
Day 5
Phase 3
Day 5
Day 6
Day 6
Day 7
Day 8
Day 8
Day 9

pm
am
pm
am
pm
am
pm
am

Explanations, scheduling
Women
Hunting
Dominant NTFPs
Timber and Medicinal Areas
Forest and Farms
People explain to the community
Investigation:
Community
Discussion
Internal

pm
am
pm

Investigation or talks with FMC

Investigation or talks with FMC
Decision Mapping
Verify the zones and decisions
Activities allowed/not allowed in each Zone
Monitoring and Penalties
Action

am
pm
am

HAVE FUN When you enjoy the activity so will the Community!

126

127

9.2 Appendix 2 Forest Management Agreement

FOREST MANAGEMENT AGREEMENT

9 Appendices
9.1 Appendix 1 Mapping Process Steps for PAs

This is an agreement between the Cross River State Forestry

Commission and the communities of --------- based in --------- LGA
for the wise management of their community forest.
The ------------ community forest is about --------- hectares. The
community forest is bounded to the north by --------. ------------ and ------- communities are joint landlord communities of the reserve
forest ---- with the communities of -----------. The Southern boundary
is the Cross River National Park. To the east there is a common
boundary with -------- community and to the west a common
boundary with the ------- people of Old and New villages (see Map).
The communities of --------------- and ------------- agree to:
1. Manage the community forest according to the rules and regulations
set out in the Community Forest Management Plan.
2. Enforce community agreed penalties on all indigenes and nonindigenes who break the rules and regulations set out in the
management plan.
3. Ensure that all third parties contracted or registered to harvest timber,
cattle sticks and chewing sticks have the required forestry
commission permits and comply with sustainable harvesting
techniques.
4. To ensure that as stated in the plan at least ------ people from each
village will be assigned to training activities provided by the FC and
they must be willing to implement their training and train others in
the ------- communities.
5. Request assistance from the Community Forest Support Unit to
update aspects of their management plan where it is deemed
necessary, but to review the plan at least every two years.
6. Monitor who enters the Cross River --------- Forest Reserve and
report wrongful activities to the Forestry Commission.
7. That all activities in the CR --------- Forest Reserve are banned except
for Non-timber forest collection as set out by the management plan
for the reserve.

128

129

The Cross River State Forestry Commission agrees to:

1. Provide technical advice on all forestry, watershed and wildlife
matters.
2. Provide assistance to update and/or review their Community Forest
Management Plan at least every two years.
3. Ensure the correct procedures and processes for issuing permits for
timber and non-timber forest products are adhered to and monitor
compliance of the permit holder as set out in forestry commission
guidelines and laws.
4. Support the implementation of community rules and regulations as
set out in their management plan.
5. Respond quickly to reports of illegal timber harvesting or other
illegal activities in either the community forest or the CRS -------Reserve forest.
6. Support the FMC by attending meetings and activities.
7. Provide training and equipment support as outlined in the community
forest management plan where funds allow.
8. Where possible develop linkages with outside organisations that may
assist the communities meet their community development
aspirations.
9. Where there is an application from a company to log in the ------Forest Reserve, ensure the two communities have understood and
agree to timber harvesting operations and the monitoring
requirements specified.
10. Monitor whether companies properly comply with the forestry laws
as set out in concession agreements.
Signed by:
Clan Head

Permanent Secretary
Cross River State
Forestry Commission

Village Head

Witnessed by:
FMC Chairman

Project Manager

FMC Vice Chairman(s)

Signed this day of ****, month of **** the year of ****.

130

9.2 Appendix 3 Glossary

A
BM
CBO
CFMA
CFMP
CRS
CR
dbh
DEM
EI
FC
FMC
FO
GIS
GPS
IUCN
LGA
NGI
NGO
NFP
NTFP
PAs
R
UNDP

Afang, Salad
Bush Mango
Community Based Organisation
Community Forest Management Agreement
Community Forest Management Plan
Cross River State
Cross River
Diameter at breast height
Digital Elevation Model
Ekuri Initiative
Forest Commission
Forest Management Committee
Forest Organisation
Geographic Information System
Global Positioning System
International World Conservation Union
Local Government Area
Non Government Individual
Non Government Organisation
Not For Profit
Non Timber Forest Product
Protected Areas
Rattan
United Nations Development Programme

Scientific Names of Resources

Common Name
Bitter Bush
Mango
Sweet bush
mango
Salad/Afang-soft
Salad/afang hard
Rattan big
Rattan medium

NTFPS
Scientific name
Irivngia wombulu

Timber Species
Common Name
Scientific name
Apa
Afzelia bipindensis

Irvingia gabonensis

Apa

Afzelia sp

Gnetum Africanum
Gnetum buchholzinam

Raintree/acacia
Ukpo

Albizia sp
Alstonia congensis

Laccosperma robustum
Laccosperma
secundiflorum

White iroko
Mimusop

Antiaris africana
Baillonella
toxisperma

131

Cane rope
Cattle stickhausa
Bitter Chewing
stick
Randia chewing
stick
Alligator pepper
Wrapping leaf,
moi moi
African oil bean
Bush pepper
hot leaf
Bitter leaf

Eremospatha macrocarpa
Carplobia abla

Ikpa Nya
Cotton tree

Garcinia manni

Achi

Massularia acuminata

Eben etidong

Aframomum spp.
Thaumatococcus daniellii

Silk cotton wood

Udara

Pentaclethra macrophylla
Piper guineensis

Uno idim
Usin Eto

Gonronema latifolium

Edat

Bitter stick
Mimusops

Enantia chlorantha
Baillonella toxisperma

Ebony
Eto afia

Achi

Brachystegia spp.

Mahogany large leaf

Red Camwood

Pterocarpus osun

Awana Nka

Pandan palm
Oil palm
Rafia palm
India bamboo

Pandamus spp.
Elaeis guinensis
Raphia vinifera
Bambosa spp.

Chewing stick
Afia ikpok Eto
Chewing stick
Bush mango
Small fruit mahogany
Uyo Ekpo

Berlinia globiflora
Bombax
buonoponzense
Brachystegia
eurycoma
Canaruim
schweinfuthii
Ceiba pentandra
Chrysophyllum sp

Bush mahogany

Coelocaryon sp.
Combretodendron
macrocarpum
Cylicodiscus
gabunensis
Diospyros sp
Distemonanthus
benthamianus
Entandrophragma
cylindricum
Erythrophleum
guineese
Garcinia sp
Guarea sp
Homalium sp
Irvingia sp
Khaya ivorensis
Klainedoxa
gabnensis
Lannea welwithii

Animals
Scientific name
Thryonomys swinderianus

Iron wood
Cedar

Lophira alata
Lovoa trichilioides

Atherurus africanus

Edeng

Mammea africana

Pangolin
Cricetomys gambianus
Potamochoerus porcus

Wrapping leaf
Iroko
Uno

Cephalophus spp.
Tragalaphus scriptus
Tragalaphus euryceros

Opepe
Eto wyaya
Ukana

Buffalo

Syncerus caffer

Small leaf

Elephant

Loxodonta africana

Poga

Mitragyna spp.
Milicia excelsa
Musanga
cecropoides
Nauclea diderrichii
Parkia bicolor
Pentclethra
macrophylla
Piptadeniastrum
africanum
Poga eleosa

Common Name
Cutting grass/
grass cutter
Chuku chuku/
porcupine
Pangolin
Rabbit/ giant rat
Bush pig/ wild
bore
Diukers/ Blue
Antelope

132

Slow bush baby/

Angwantibo or
Potto
Long tailed
monkey/
Mangabey
White spot
monkey/ Mona
guenon
White nose
monkey/ Putty
nose guenon
Red colour
monkey/ Redeared guenon
Drill
Gorilla/
chimp
Gorilla/ Cross
River
Pithon/bua/ Rock
python
Cobra/ Gabon
viper
Snail

Arctocebus calabarensis

Camwood

Pterocarpus
erinaceus

Cercocebus torquatus

Red Camwood

Pterocarpus osum

Cercopithecus mona

White camwood

Pterocarpus
soyauxii

Cercopithecus nictitans

Aqua miri

Pycanthus
angloensis

Cercopithecus erythrotis

Nsukakara

Spondia mombin

Mandrillus leucophaeus
Pan troglodytes

Stautia
White afara

Stautia stipitata.
Terminalia ivorensis

Gorilla gorilla diehli

Black Afara

Terminalia superba

Python sebae

Obche

Bitis spp.

Kerosene wood

Triplochiton
scleroxylon
Uapaca guineese

Adiachinata maginata

Molave,
Eto mmon eba

133

Vitex sp

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