Maximilian Lackner

Alternative Ignition Systems

Verlag ProcessEng Engineering GmbH

Alternative Ignition Systems

ISBN: 978-3-902655-05-9
Editor: Dr. Maximilian Lackner MBA
Cover design: Nicole Hannig
Layout: Martin Dorn
2009 by ProcessEng Engineering GmbH. All rights reserved.

Preface
Dear Reader,
Ignition is the process of starting combustion. As such, it plays a critical role in all
technical combustion systems. Reliable ignition is important both for stationary and
mobile combustors. Ignition is known to affect the overall combustion process in
terms of pollutant formation, combustion efficiency and heat release.
This book is dedicated to ignition in technical systems, predominantly engines.
The electric spark plug has been used in appliances that rely on induced ignition for
more than 100 years, e.g. in Otto engines. Auto-ignition has been used for the same
time span, e.g. in Diesel engines.
In this book, alternative ignition systems are presented.
Leading authors from industry and academia describe promising, novel approaches
to induced ignition and also to auto-ignition.
Plasma jet ignition and laser plasma ignition are presented as potential future
systems for induced ignition. HCCI (homogeneous charge compression ignition)
combustion is discussed as a possible new technology for auto ignition in engines
based on a homogeneous charge, hence bridging the gap between Otto and Diesel
engine. Skip cycle ignition and HDDI (hot diluted diffusion ignition) mild combustion
are also discussed.
Laser ignition is presented for applications on a large-scale (cryogenic rocket
engines) and in micro-combustion. Finally, cool flames and ignition are discussed.
This book offers a technology update on selected alternative ignition technologies
with high relevance and a good potential of maturing to commercial use.
Hopefully this book offers new insights and stimulates new thoughts.
Maximilian Lackner
Editor

Table of contents

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Introduction
1.1 Fundamentals of combustion
1.2 Fundamentals of ignition
1.3 Fundamentals of ignition systems
1.4 Electric spark plug and historic development
1.5 Alternative ignition systems
1.6 Alternative ignition systems in this book
1.7 References
Plasma jet ignition
HCCI combustion
Skip cycle ignition
Laser plasma ignition for cryogenic rocket engines
Laser ignition in microcombustion applications
HDDI mild combustion
Cool flames and ignition
Glossary
Further reading

5
5
7
10
11
12
12
13
17
41
63
85
97
133
151
173
195

Introduction

Ignition, as the initiating step of a combustion reaction, has several aspects. It can be

intended
undesirable

(e.g. to start combustion in technical applications)

(e.g. in the case of auto-ignition of combustible gas/air or dust/air
mixtures, leading to unwanted explosions and fires).

The term ignition is also used in the semiconductor industry for the start of a plasma reactor
[1] and in nuclear fusion for the point in time when the reaction can sustain itself without
external energy supply [2].
In the following section, some fundamentals on ignition and combustion are outlined.
1.1

Fundamentals of combustion

In a combustion process, fuel and oxidizer (comburent) are involved. The fuel is oxidized
(increase in oxidation state, loss of electrons), whereas the oxidizer is reduced. This is
shown schematically in equation 1 below:
C + O2 CO2

(eq. 1)

In equation 1, the oxidation state of carbon (C) increases from 0 to +4. Therefore,
combustion processes are a subset of oxidation reactions. Combustion can be defined as
an oxidation process that occurs fast and gives off heat. The fuel can be gaseous (e.g.
methane), liquid (e.g. gasoline) or solid (e.g. wood). It can be derived from a fossil source
(coal, oil), from waste or from biomass. The oxidizer is typically air (21% oxygen) or pure
oxygen. A combustion process can occur at various speeds, ranging from gentle oxidation
reactions such as wood combustions to fast deflagrations and detonations.
Fuel and oxidizer can be premixed or non-premixed prior to combustion. In the latter case,
combustion is said to be diffusion-controlled. A flame can be laminar or turbulent. Examples
are given in Table 1.

Flow type
Turbulent
Mixing type
Premixed
Otto engine
Non-premixed Diesel engine

Laminar
Bunsen burner
Candle, burning
piece of wood

Table 1 Types of flames and typical examples.

Apart from these flames, the following special combustion modes exist [3]:

Catalytic combustion
Combustion in the solid phase
Cool flames
Glowing combustion
Smouldering combustion

An important concept of combustion is stoichiometry, described by the air/fuel

equivalence ratio (fuel equivalence ratio = 1/). A condition with < 1 is said to be
fuel-rich (fat), whereas a condition with >1 with an excess of air is termed fuel-lean.
Fig. 1 shows a fuel-rich (left) and fuel-lean (right) methane/air flame.

Fig.1

Fuel-rich and fuel-lean combustion.

Flames can further be characterized by the laminar flame speed and the adiabatic flame
temperature.
Typical values are ~1950C (CH4/air) to ~2100C (H2/air), both at atmospheric pressure and
at = 1 [4]. The highest flame temperature is reached by dicyanoacetylene (carbon
subnitride, NC-CC-CN) burning in oxygen: 4990C [5]. Combustion processes are
radical chain reactions [6].
Common pollutants from combustion processes are unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) including
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), CO, NO x , SO2, soot and particulate matter (PM, fine
and ultrafine particles) [6]. Carbon dioxide (CO2), due to global warming concerns, is also
seen as a pollutant [7]. Another ubiquitous combustion product, water (H2O), can contribute
to global warming, too, under certain conditions [8].
Dioxins [9] and corrosion-promoters such as alkali metals and chlorine can also be seen as
pollutants. Pollutant abatement strategies work

pre-combustion,
during combustion or
post-combustion.

Pyrolysis [10], a special case of thermal decomposition (thermolysis) is a high temperature

process under the exclusion of oxygen. Gasification [11], cracking and reforming are similar
processes.
Combustion accounts for approx. 85% of the worldwide primary energy production. For use
for over 1,000,000 years, it is the oldest technology of mankind [6].
It can be carried out on various scales, ranging from small domestic cooking places to large
industrial boilers.
Combustors can be stationary (e.g. waste incineration plant, powder production plant) or
mobile (external and internal combustion engines; Examples of the latter are reciprocating
engines, and gas turbines).
Large-scale combustors are often of the travelling grate, rotary kiln, or fluidized bed type.
In technical applications, combustion is used to generate heat (e.g. in a boiler) or energy
(e.g. electricity in a turbine). Co-generation exploits both, thereby boosting the efficiency.
Novel technologies do not (only) use the energy from combustion processes, but rather their
reaction products, see combustion synthesis [12] and polygeneration [13].
A fire [14] is an unwanted combustion process. Explosions [15] can be grouped into
deflagrations and detonations.

A recent trend in combustion research is carbon dioxide capture and storage or carbon
capture and storage (CCS) [16], a variety of technologies to remove CO2 from combustion
and to dispose of it, e.g. under the ground. This CO2 sequestration [17], combined with
attempts to burn biomass-based or biomass-derived fuels (e.g. gas-to-liquid process
(GTL), biomass-to-liquid (BTL), etc.), should make combustion more environmentally
friendly and sustainable.

1.2

Fundamentals of ignition

Combustion can be started by

auto-ignition or
induced ignition

A key parameter for auto-ignition is the (auto-) ignition temperature. A typical value is
632C for methane in air and 556 C for methane in oxygen [15].
For induced ignition, the minimum ignition energy (MIE) is important. For gases, it is on the
order of ~1 mJ, whereas for dusts, it is typically ~ 1J (methane: 0.29 mJ; hydrogen: 0.03 mJ)
[15]. MIE is a function of temperature, pressure and stoichiometry.
For liquids, one can make a distinction between flashpoint and fire point.
Explosive substances are a category for themselves. They are instable compounds that
react easily.
Hypergolic mixtures ignite spontaneously upon contact of the respective fuel and oxidizer.
For each combustible fuel/air mixture, there is an upper and a lower flammability limit
(explosion limit). In between, in the so-called flammability range (explosion range ), the
combustion reaction can be started.
For instance, the flammability range of methane stretches from 5-15%. For hydrogen, is goes
from 4-74.2% in air and from 4-94% in oxygen, all at ambient pressure (the higher the
pressure, the wider the flammability range becomes) [15].
Another important concept is quenching. By quenching, the deactivation of radicals can be
understood. It can occur in the gas-phase (homogeneous quenching, eq. 2) on the surface of
e.g. a vessel wall (heterogeneous quenching, eq. 3).
H. + OH. + M H2O + M
H. + H. H2

(eq. 2)
(eq. 3)

Heterogeneous quenching can be observed on a miners lamp, where the flame cannot
penetrate a fine wire mesh. This phenomenon is also exploited by flame arrestors in the
petrochemical energy, where the MESG (maximum experimental safe gap) defines the
maximum gap, measured in mm, between two metal plates in a specified experimental setup that will prevent the passage of flame from one side to the other (which of course
depends on pressure, temperature and gas composition).
M in eq. 2 is a third body.
A lot about ignition can be learnt from the pT explosion diagram, which is shown for the
H2/O2 system below.

Fig. 2

pT explosion diagram for H2/O2. Modified from [6].

At point 1 (~800K, ~ 5 mbar), there is no ignition, but only a slow reaction. Radicals that are
formed can diffuse the the vessel walls, where they are quenched. According to Ficks law of
diffusion, the flux of radicals J, expressed in mol/(m*s), is given by equation 4:
J= D*c/ t

(eq. 4)

The diffusion coefficient, D, is inversely proportional to the pressure (equation 5).

D~ 1/p

(eq. 5)

Hence at low pressures, diffusion wins over the radical chain branching mechanism
necessary for ignition.
When the pressure is increased, up to point 2 in Fig. 2, the 1st explosion limit is surpassed.
As diffusion losses cannot keep pace with the formation of new radicals in the gas phase,
spontaneous ignition occurs. This regime is characterized by a competition of chain
branching in the gas phase and quenching of the radicals at the vessel wall. Therefore, the
vessel wall plays a significant role in this regime.
When the pressure is further increased to over 100 mbar (800 K), see point 3, spontaneous
ignition ceases, as the 2nd explosion limit is passed.
In this new regime, the competition of chain branching and chain termination reactions in the
gas phase determines ignition.
At low pressures, the following reaction is favoured (equation 6):
H. +O2 OH. +O.

(eq. 6)

When the pressure increases, the reaction in equation 7 starts dominating:

H. +O2+M HO2. +M

(eq. 7)

As the HO 2. radical is relatively stable, this step corresponds to a chain termination. M is a

third body that can absorb the recombination energy, and trimolecular reactions are favoured
at elevated pressures.

At even higher pressures, see point 4 in Fig. 2, the 3rd explosion limit is reached.
Here, thermal ignition occurs. This regime is characterized by a competition between heat
formation (~x) and heat losses (~ x).
The pT explosion diagram of hydrogen/oxygen shows that ignition is a complex, non-linear
phenomenon. For hydrocarbons, one also encounters cool flame regions. For details, the
reader is referred to the pertinent literature [6].
Further important terms related to ignition are
Ignition delay
The time span between ignition and the spotting of actual combustion is termed ignition
delay. Since a radical pool needs to be formed before the bulk of a combustible fuel/air
mixture starts burning with a noticeable increase in pressure and temperature, a certain time
elapses. There exist several definitions for the ignition delay time, e.g. 5% of fuel consumed
or 10% of maximum pressure increase reached [6].
Ignitability
As it is known from the phenomenon of engine knock, some fuels are more prone to ignition
than others. This behaviour can be described by the octane number for gasoline fuels, the
cetane number for diesel fuels and the methane number for gas engines [6].
Flashover
If a fire occurs in a confined space, e.g. in a domestic building, the combustion gases will be
partly combustible and accumulate at the ceiling of the room. Due to the lack of oxygen at
the location of the fire, pyrolysis yields these combustible gases which, suddenly, can ignite
(typically around 500C) [18].
Backdraft
This phenomenon is similar to a flashover. When hot combustion gases, which are partly
combustible, have accumulated in a closed room, the opening of a door or window leads to
fresh oxygen delivery into that room, resulting in an explosion-like start of combustion [18].
Flashover and backdraft are potential dangers for fire fighters.
Loss of containment and fires
When liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons are accidentally released in, for instance, a
petrochemical installation, they can ignite at an ignition source, leading to pool fires or jet
fires. A very severe fire hazard in the gas-processing industries is a so-called BLEVE [19].
BLEVE stands for boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion. It can occur when a vessel that
contains liquefied gas is ruptured under the action of an external fire.
Fire protection
An important aspect of fire protection is to make combustible materials resistant to flames.
The concept is often to retard ignition and combustion.
Fire protection [20] is not discussed here, as this would go beyond the scope of this book.
Prevention of ignitions
Undesired ignitions of combustible gas/air [21] or dust/air mixtures [22] can lead to severe
explosions in industry. The European Union has created the ATEX directive1 [23] to
increase workplace safety in this respect by setting minimum standards.
1

ATEX 95 equipment directive 94/9/EC: Equipment and protective systems intended for use in
potentially explosive atmospheres; ATEX 137 workplace directive 99/92/EC: Minimum requirements
for improving the safety and health protection of workers potentially at risk from explosive
atmospheres.

Explosion protection measures can be primary (prevention of explosive atmosphere),

secondary (prevention of ignition sources) or tertiary (mitigation of the effects, e.g. pressure
venting, pressure confinement, ignition suppression).
The following table 2 lists the 13 types of ignition sources that can lead to explosions:

No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Ignition source
Hot surfaces
Flames, hot gases
Mechanically generated sparks
Electrical machinery
Leaking currents, cathodic corrosion protection
Static electricity2
Flash of lighte ning
Electromagnetic fields (9kHz-300 GHz)
Electromagnetic radiation (300-3*106 GHz, 0.1-1000 m)

10
11
12
13

Ionising radiation
Ultrasound
Adiabatic compression, shock waves, gas flows
Chemical reactions
Table 2 Ignition sources.

1.3

Fundamentals of ignition systems

Technical combustion systems are in widespread use. They cover various applications,
some of which are

Stationary combustors (heat and energy generation from gaseous, liquid or solid fuels
derived from fossil sources, waste or biomass).
Engines
Low-tech stoves for domestic use

Engines, for instance span from microcombustors (catalytic combustion processes with
powers of a few mW) [24] up to 80 MW for ship diesel applications [25]. Large combustion
power plants can exceed a power output of 1000 MW [26]. All these combustors need to
have a reliable ignition source. Technically, this is solved by the installation of a so-called
ignition system.
Ignition systems [27] have the task to reliably start combustion either infrequently (e.g. in a
power plant) or repetitively (e.g. in engines with induced ignition).
Internal combustion engines can be grouped into those relying on

induced ignition
auto-ignition

(Otto or gasoline engines)

(compression ignition in Diesel engines)

In between, there is controlled auto-ignition (e.g. HCCI, homogeneous charge

compression ignition [28] or hot bulb engine [29]).

Propagating brush discharges are a rare and hence often overlooked type of undesired ignition
hazards.

10

An Otto engine is characterized by a homogeneous fuel/air mixture which is ignited by an

ignition source, mostly an electric spark plug.
The homogeneous fuel/air mixture (premixed combustion) can be obtained in various ways.
Old engines used a carburettor and supplied a premixed fuel/air mixture directly to the
cylinders of the engine. New models use direct fuel injection.
A Diesel engine, on the other hand, is characterized by auto-ignition of a fuel spray injected
into the combustion chamber (diffusion flame). Fuel injection can occur directly into the
combustion chamber. It is also feasible to use a pre-chamber with a more fuel/rich mixture to
produce a pilot flame jet to ignite the main chamber.
Gas turbines and aero engines typically also use electric spark plugs. In addition, they
require a flame holder to prevent flame blow-off.
Other important terms for internal combustion engines are

Knock, the uncontrolled auto-ignition of fractions of the fuel/air mixture in Otto

engines [30].

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), the recycling of a part of the exhaust gases back
into the combustion chamber, e.g. to use the heat, dilute the fuel/air mixture for better
mixing and lower combustion peak temperatures for lower thermal NO x emissions or
CO2 enrichment [31].

Turbulence , an important aspect in combustion engines to increase the speed of

combustion and hence to optimize the efficiency by minimizing heat losses [32].

1.4 Electric spark plug and historic development

Today, electric spark plugs [33] are state-of-the-art for igniting the fuel/air mixture in
numerous technical applications, ranging from reciprocating internal combustion engines
(Otto engine, Wankel engine) to gas turbines [34]. A typical spark plug is depicted in Fig. 3
below.

Fig. 3

Electric spark plug with platinum electrode for use in automotive engines. Modified from [39].

11

Early patents on spark plugs were filed by Nikola Tesla (US 609250,/1998), Frederick
Richard Simms (GB 24859/1898), Robert Bosch (GB 26907/1898) and Sir Oliver Lodge (GB
2162/1903). Today, over 300 patent applications relating to spark plugs are published every
year [40]. An electric spark plug generates a plasma [41] in the combustion chamber which is
characterized by high pressures and temperatures. Free electrons and radicals from that
plasma can ignite the fuel/air mixture.
1.5 Alternative ignition systems
Despite their advantages, electric spark plugs are no ideal ignition sources. For instance,
wear of the electrodes necessitates frequent maintenance and replacement especially in
high-pressure applications such as gas engines [35].
Also, with spark plugs it is only possible to ignite the fuel/air mixture at the side of a
combustion chamber, although the ideal location would be in the middle. This is not feasible,
as the spark plug would then prevent proper fuel distribution by interfering with air turbulence
and would lead to excessive radical quenching and pollutant formation.
Therefore, attempts are made to develop alterative ignition systems. Table 3 provides an
overview of selected alternative ignition systems.

Standard
ignition process
Electric
spark
ignition
using a coil

Alternative ignition processes

currently under
Investigated earlier,
investigation
but obsolete
Electric
Laser-induced
Ignition with
spark
ignition
glowing
ignition using
HCCI
particles
a capacitor.
Microwave ignition
Electric
Corona ignition
spark plug
High frequency
using
ignition
alternating
Shock wave ignition
current
Plasma jet ignition

in practical use

Table 3 Overview about alternative ignition systems (selection).

This concludes the brief section about some important concepts of combustion and ignition.
For details on combustion and ignition, the reader is referred to the references given above
and to the pertinent literature, e.g. [36], [37], [38].

1.6 Alternative ignition systems in this book

In this book, the following concepts for alternative ignition systems are discussed:

Plasma jet ignition

Laser plasma ignition for cryogenic liquid rocket engines
Laser-ignition in microcombustion applications
HCCI combustion (homogeneous charge compression ignition)
Skip cycle ignition
HDDI mild combustion (hot diluted diffusion ignition)
Cool flames and ignition

12

The selection was made according to the following principles: Technology that

arouses interest in the research community

has a potential to be applied in a technical combustion system

In addition, target applications of different size, ranging from microcombustors and

automotive engines to rocket engines, were picked.
1.7 References
[1]

Robert Doering, Yoshio Nishi, Handbook of Semiconductor

Technology, CRC, Second Edition, ISBN: 978-1574446753 (2007).

[2]

Jeffrey P. Freidberg, Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy, Cambridge University

Press, ISBN: 978-0521851077 (2007).

[3]

Vytenis Babrauskas, Ignition Handbook: Principles and Applications to Fire Safety

Engineering, Fire Investigation, Risk Management and Forensic Science, Fire
Science Pub, ISBN: 978-0972811132 (2003).

[4]

Charles E. Baukal, Jr., The John Zink Combustion Handbook, CRC, ISBN: 9780849323379 (2001).

[5]

A. D. Kirshenbaum, A. V. Grosse, The Combustion of Carbon Subnitride, C4N2, and a

Chemical Method for the Production of Continuous Temperatures in the Range of
50006000K, Journal of the American Chemical Society 78 (9), 2020 (1956).

[6]

J. Warnatz, U. Maas, R.W. Dibble, Combustion: Physical and Chemical

Fundamentals, Modeling and Simulation, Experiments, Pollutant Formation, Springer,
4th edition, ISBN: 978-3540259923 (2006).

[7]

Tyler Volk, CO2 Rising: The World's Greatest Environmental Challenge, The MIT
Press, ISBN: 978-0262220835 (2008).

[8]

H. Nojoumi, I. Dincer, G.F. Naterer, Greenhouse gas emissions assessment of

hydrogen and kerosene-fueled aircraft propulsion, International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy 34(3), 1363-1369 (2009).

[9]

Adrian M. Cunliffe, Paul T. Williams, De-novo formation of dioxins and furans and the
memory effect in waste incineration flue gases, Waste Management 29(2), 739-748
(2009).

[10]

Thomas P. Wampler, Applied Pyrolysis Handbook, CRC, 2nd edition, ISBN: 9781574446418 (2006).

[11]

Christopher Higman, Maarten van der Burgt, Gasification, Second Edition, Gulf
Professional Publishing; 2nd edition, ISBN: 978-0750685283 (2008).

[12]

Kashinath C. Patil, S. T. Aruna, Tanu Mimani, Combustion synthesis: an update,

Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science 6(6), 507-512 (2002).

[13]

Pei Liu, Efstratios N. Pistikopoulos, Zheng Li, A mixed-integer optimization pproach

for polygeneration energy systems design, Computers & Chemical Egineering 33(3),
759-768 (2009).

13

Manufacturing

[14]

John F. Coleman, Managing Major Fires, Fire Engineering Books, ISBN13: 9780912212968 (2001).

[15]

Bernard Von Elbe, Guenther Lewis, Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases,
Cambridge At the University Press (1938).

[16]

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), Carbon Dioxide Capture and

Storage: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
Cambridge University Press, ISBN: 978-0521685511 (2005).

[17]

Luigi Marini, Geological Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide, Volume 11:

Thermodynamics, Kinetics, and Reaction Path Modeling, Elsevier Science, ISBN:
978-0444529503 (2006).

[18]

J.E. Floyd, K.B. McGrattan, Extending the mixture fraction concept to address underventilated fires, Fire Safety Journal 44(3), 291-300 (2009).

[19]

Tasneem Abbasi, S.A. Abbasi, The boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion
(BLEVE) is fifty and lives on!, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries
21(4),485-487(2008).

[20]

NFPA, Fire Protection Handbook, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 20th
edition, ASIN: B001AR4LMA (2008).

[21]

ISO 13702:1999, Petroleum and natural gas industries -- Control and mitigation of
fires and explosions on offshore production installations -- Requirements and
guidelines, ISO TC 67/SC 6/WG 1 (1999).

[22]

Rolf Eckhoff, Dust Explosions in the Process Industries, Gulf Professional Publishing,
3rd edition, ISBN: 978-0750676021 (2003).

[23]

http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/atex/index_en.htm (2009).

[24]

K.C. Jiang, H. Yang, P.D. Prewett, Design and analysis of a micro reciprocating
engine for the timemultiplexed deep etching process, Microelectromechanical
Systems Conference, 87 90 (2001).

[25]

http://www.wartsila.com/Wartsila/global/docs/en/ship_power/media_publications/tech
nical_papers/sulzer/low_speed_engines_continuing_progress.pdf (2005).

[26]

Platts UDI World Electric Power Plants Data Base, http://www.platts.com/ (2009).

[27]

Robert Bosch GmbH, Ignition Systems for Gasoline Engines: Bosch Technical
Instruction, ISBN: 978-0837610481 (2003).

[28]

Markus Kraft, Peter Maigaard, Fabian Mauss, Magnus Christensen, Bengt

Johansson, Investigation of combustion emissions in a homogeneous charge
compression injection engine: Measurements and a new computational model,
Symposium (International) on Combustion 28(1), 1195-1201 (2000).

[29]

http://www.oldengine.org/members/diesel/Marine/othmarin.htm (2009).

[30]

M.M. Ettefagh, M.H. Sadeghi, V. Pirouzpanah, H. Arjmandi Tash, Knock detection in

spark ignition engines by vibration analysis of cylinder block: A parametric modeling
approach, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 22(6), 1495-1514 (2008).

14

[31]

Erjiang Hu, Zuohua Huang, Bing Liu, Jianjun Zheng, Xiaolei Gu, Bin Huang,
Experimental investigation on performance and emissions of a spark-ignition engine
fuelled with natural gashydrogen blends combined with EGR, International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy 34(1), 528-539 (2009).

[32]

Norbert Peters, Turbulent Combustion, Cambridge University Press, ISBN: 9780521660822 (2000).

[33]

Robert Bosch GmbH, Spark Plugs: Engine Management for Spark-Ignition Engines :
Edition 98/99 : Technical Instruction, Bentley Publishers, ISBN: 978-0837604787
(1999).

[34]

Claire Soares, Gas Turbines: A Handbook of Air, Land and Sea Applications,
Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN: 978-0750679695 (2007).

[35]

Mark Meincke, The Complete Guide to Stationary Gas Engines, BookSurge

Publishing, ISBN: 978-1419625695 (2007).

[36]

Combustion Institute, http://www.combustioninstitute.org/ (2009).

[37]

International Flame Research Foundation, http://www.ifrf.net/ (2009).

[38]

M. Lackner, F. Winter, A. Agarwal (editors), Handbook on Combustion, Wiley VCH (in

preparation, 2009).

[39]

http://www.ngksparkplugs.com/products/spark_plugs/laser_platinum.asp?mode=nml#
(2009).

[40]

Patents: Basic Facts. UK Intellectual Property Office, http://www.ipo.gov.uk/pbasicfacts .pdf (2004).

[41]

Claire Tendero, Christelle Tixier, Pascal Tristant, Jean Desmaison, Philippe Leprince,
Atmospheric pressure plasmas: A review, Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic
Spectroscopy 61(1), 2-30 (2006).

15