Paper Title: Significance of Fatigue Testing Parameters in Plastics versus Metals

Authors Name: Mehrdad Zoroufi

Organization: Element Materials Technology, New Berlin, Wisconsin, USA
Fatigue behavior of plastics has seen a growing attention in the past few years in automotive,
aerospace, medical, and other leading industries. New testing techniques and standards are being
developed to address this rapidly increasing industrial and scientific need. On the other hand,
metal fatigue, its various aspects, testing techniques and scientific details have been practiced
and documented significantly in the past few decades.
Plastics are affected differently by fatigue test parameters than metals, and this fact necessitates
specific approaches that, in many cases, are different from those of metals. In fatigue testing,
plastics have shown more sensitivity to many parameters including geometry, loading mode,
stress or strain amplitude, mean stress, stress or strain rate, R-ratio, frequency, moisture and
temperature. The effect of many of these parameters, like strain rate, frequency and temperature
are more pronounced than metals.
This study intends to address the distinctions between plastics and metals with respect to fatigue
testing parameters. Common applicable fatigue test standards are compared, the significance of
each standard is elaborated, and differences are magnified. Fatigue crack initiation characteristics
including stress-based and strain-based methods as well as fatigue crack propagation methods
and standards are discussed. A number of experimental results are also presented to further
distinguish the distinctions with respect to frequency.
Outline
Introduction - Plastics and Fatigue Testing
Effective Parameters in Fatigue Behavior of Plastics
Standards in Fatigue Testing of Metals versus Plastics
Case Study Frequency Effects on Fatigue Life of a Polymer
Conclusions
References

Introduction - Plastics and Fatigue Testing

Experimental fatigue investigation of engineering plastics or polymers is a newer subject of
researches compared to metals. Many of the established test methods for metals were adopted in
plastics fatigue testing. They are to be distinguished from that of other categories of materials,
especially metals, due to the differences in microstructure, proximity of test temperature and
melting point, temperature increases associated with testing, craze development, and large
differences between tensile and compressive strengths. Several factors such as temperature
susceptibility even at room temperature, large inelastic deformation and cyclic softening are
among factors to be considered for plastics fatigue testing [1]. Two main mechanisms have been
observed in fatigue failure of many plastics, depending on force (stress) level and frequency;
thermal fatigue failure that involves thermal softening (yielding) and mechanical fatigue failure
that is due to the conventional fatigue crack initiation and propagation under cyclic loads [2].
The experimental fatigue study of plastics should consist of a multi step procedure; first, a
consistent laboratory condition should be maintained for all of the tests that a comparison is
targeted. Second, a proper test control method should be selected, i.e. force, displacement or
strain. Third, the effects of significant parameters that influence fatigue behavior of plastics
should be assessed. These may include (but not limited to) mean stress, stress concentration,
waveform, frequency, environment, and thermal effects due to cycling. If a part or component
test is aimed, a set of material tests are to be completed by an analysis and life prediction, as well
as a (limited) number of full scale part or component test. These full-scale tests, though in many
cases complicated and costly, provide significant confidence to the engineer with regard to the
combined material testing and analysis he already performed.
Effective Parameters in Fatigue Behavior of Plastics
Temperature is one of the most influential factors in plastics fatigue and the temperature increase
due to hysteresis loss plays an important role in this regard. In general, under cyclic loading, part
of the strain energy generated in the material converts into heat and, depending on the thermal
conductivity of the material, increases the body temperature. Plastics, in general, have low
thermal conductivity that makes them more susceptible to this phenomenon. Parameters like
stress level, frequency and type of loading directly affect the hysteresis loss.
The shape of hysteresis loop differs in various plastics. For instance, it has been shown [3] that a
relatively symmetric loop could be obtained under fully reversed cyclic loading of acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene (ABS), while the portion of the loop for high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) in
tension is much larger than the compressive portion. This is attributed to the difference in failure
mechanism of the material. While ABS undergoes shear yielding, HIPS fails under crazing that
requires a tensile component of stress.
Mean stress is a significant parameter affecting fatigue life of plastics. Increasing mean stress
results in increasing or decreasing crack propagation rate in plastics depending on their failure
mechanism. In general, plastics that are more susceptible to crazing, chain scission, or cross-link
rupture, experience an increase in crack propagation rate with increasing mean stress. On the
other hand, some plastics with a molecular structure susceptible to hysteretic loss or capable of
structural reorganization during crack propagation exhibit decreased crack propagation rate with
increasing mean stress.

Tensile and compressive overloads could result in increased or decreased fatigue crack
propagation and life depending on the structure of the polymer or the propagation mechanism.
Increase in residual stresses, crack closure and blunting are some of the influential mechanisms.
Compressive residual stresses generated at the crack tip as a result of unloading following a
tensile overload, decrease the crack propagation rate in amorphous polymers [4]. Crack closure,
also, induces compressive residual stresses at the crack, reducing the crack propagation rate.
Crack tip blunting could be categorized as thermal and plastic blunting mechanisms. Plastic
crack tip blunting occurs as the crack propagates and the crack surfaces move with respect to
each other, more pronounced in ductile polymers. Thermal crack tip blunting occurs due to
energy dissipation and local heating, which reduces the stress intensity factor range and retards
the fatigue crack propagation [3].
Fatigue strength is generally unaffected for most metallic materials in the regime of 0.01 to 100
Hz [5]. If heating and corrosion effects are negligible or controlled, frequencies ranging from 1
to 200 Hz have only a small effect on S-N behavior for most structural metals [6]. On the other
hand, increasing frequency and loading/straining rate have detrimental effect on fatigue life of
most plastics, which are mostly due to viscoelastic structure of these materials. Pronounced
sensitivity to strain rate was reported for a number of polymers [7].
Standards in Fatigue Testing of Metals versus Plastics
ASTM methods or practices for fatigue testing of metals have been developed and are widely
used in industry and academia. In addition, a number of ASTM guidelines are developed for
analysis of the test data. Test methods for plastics are newer and limited, although a number of
those developed for metals can be extended and used in plastics fatigue testing. Table 1 list the
major ASTM standards or guidelines related to fatigue testing, as well as their usage and scope.
Test methods for force controlled fatigue testing of plastics have been developed. The methods
and practices available for strain controlled fatigue, fatigue crack growth, thermomechanical
fatigue, creep fatigue and creep fatigue crack growth testing can be used for plastics. Fretting
fatigue testing of plastics has not been addressed directly yet. However, fatigue of plastics
involves the effects of a number of parameters that either are not significant in metals, or affect
the fatigue life with a different mechanism. These may include temperature, hysteretic effects,
frequency and force/strain rate.

Table 1 Applicable ASTM standards for fatigue testing

Practice/
Method
Title
Usage
Number
Applicable ASTM Standards for Fatigue Testing
E466
Standard
Practice
for Force controlled,
Conducting Force Controlled metals
Constant Amplitude Axial
Fatigue Tests of Metallic
Materials
E606
Standard Test Method for Strain controlled;
Strain-Controlled
Fatigue homogeneous
Testing
materials

E647

Standard Test Method for

Measurement of Fatigue
Crack Growth Rates

Force controlled,
no
material
limitation

E2368

Standard Practice for Strain

Controlled
Thermomechanical Fatigue
Testing

E2714

Standard Test Method for

Creep-Fatigue Testing

E2760

Standard Test Method for

Creep-Fatigue Crack Growth
Testing

Strain
and
temperature
controlled,
no
material
limitation
Force or strain
controlled,
nominally
homogeneous
materials
Force
controlled,
nominally
homogeneous
materials

E2789

Standard Guide for Fretting

Fatigue Testing

Fretting
loading
(controlled forces
and displacements),
metallic materials

Specific ASTM Standards for Fatigue Testing of Plastics

D7791
Standard Test Method for Force
controlled,
Uniaxial Fatigue Properties of plastics
Plastics

D7774

Standard Test Method for

Flexural Fatigue Properties of
Plastics

Force
controlled,
plastics

Comments

Strains are predominantly elastic

Air and room temperature
Covers testing of unnotched and notched specimens, not full scale
components
Uniform axial gage section or hourglass specimens (round or flat)
Inelastic strain (mechanical or thermal) is significant compared to elastic
strain
Applicable to failure in relatively low cycles (<105 cycles), although it
could be used for higher cycles as well
Important for components that undergo overloads
Cyclic hardening or softening can be determined
Strain rate, relaxation and creep effects can be derived
Uniform axial gage section or hourglass specimens (round or flat), not full
scale components
Originally specified for metals, has also been applied to polymer
No material limitation, specimens should be large enough to ensure
predominantly elastic loading and avoid buckling
No limitation on specimen type
Residual stresses and crack closure are not addressed
In-phase and out of phase independent control of strain and temperature
Uniform axial gage section specimens, not full scale components
Specimen geometries similar to those of ASTM E606, tubular specimens
are preferred
Fatigue testing at strain rates or with cycles involving sufficiently long
hold times to be responsible for the cyclic deformation response and cycles
to crack formation to be affected by creep (and oxidation).
Round bar uniform gage section specimens subjected to uniaxial loading,
not full scale components
Constant-amplitude load-controlled tests with controlled loading/unloading
rates or hold-times at the maximum load, or both
Applicable to temperatures and hold-times for which the magnitudes of
time-dependent inelastic strains at the crack tip are significant in
comparison to the time-independent inelastic strains
Compact tension specimens
Two types of creep-ductile (dominant creep strains) and creep brittle (creep
strain is less than elastic strains at crack tip)
Uniform gage section specimens subjected to uniaxial loading, not full
scale components
As a system response, instead of a material response, depends on both the
material of the fatigue specimen and fretting pad, the geometry of contact
between the two, and the method by which the loading and displacement
are imposed
Point, line, or area contact setups
Uniaxial loading
Stress and strain levels below proportional limit, relatively elastic
Fatigue tests in tension, compression fatigue tests only for rigid plastics
Frequency: 1-25 Hz, less than 5 Hz recommended
Uniform gage section specimens subjected to uniaxial loading, not full
scale components
Specimens cut from sheets/plate or molded
Density measurement needed
3 specimens at each of the four stress or strain level to be tested
Specimen may need conditioning
Temperature and media rather than room temperature and air not
addressed.
Fully reversed testing in flexure
Rigid and semi rigid plastics
Stress and strain levels below proportional limit, relatively elastic
Frequency: 1-25 Hz, less than 5 Hz recommended
Three or four point bending systems are used, not intended for full scale
components

Case Study Frequency Effects on Fatigue Life of a Polymer

To investigate the effects of frequency, as one the influential parameters on fatigue life of
plastics, uniaxial force controlled tests were performed on a polypropylene material based on
ASTM D7791 [8]. Uniform cross section specimens according to ASTM D638 [9] were molded,
machined and conditioned. A servo hydraulic load frame and matching controller was used for
the tests. The tests were performed at two to seven force levels (depending on the frequency of
test), at a minimum force of 10 pounds, maximum force ranging from 210 to 310 pounds, and R
(minimum force/maximum force) ranging from 0.033 to 0.048. The maximum forces were
selected not to exceed the specimen yield force of 330 pounds. A sinusoidal waveform was used.
No specimen temperature control was implemented during the tests due to the requirements
defined for the testing program.
The tests were ran at frequencies of 1, 2, 5 and 10 Hz. Higher frequencies were attempted, but no
stable force amplitudes could be maintained. Plots of maximum stress versus the logarithm of the
number of cycles to failure (Nf) at the four frequencies tested are provided in Figure 1. A power
law curve fit based on the least squares method was implemented to draw the S-N (stress versus
life) lines. Similarly, the strain versus life data and the r-N curves are plotted in Figure 2.
Comparison of the S-N curves shows that significant decrease in fatigue strength occurs with the
increase in frequency. For instance, at 4,200 psi maximum stress, fatigue life decreases more
than an order of magnitude as the frequency increases from 1 to 5 Hz. In addition, at shorter
lives, the frequency effect is more pronounced than at longer lives. The scatter of data increases
with the increase in frequency, possibly indicating the interference of other parameters like
manufacturing parameters and surface finish in the material fatigue strength.
Photographs of typical failed specimens at different frequencies are provided in Figure 3. The
increased plastic deformation with the increase in frequency could be clearly observed, as the
fracture mode changes from mostly brittle with limited deformation at 1 Hz to mostly ductile
with large deformation at 10 Hz. It was also observed that the area at the vicinity of final fracture
section that experienced color change becomes smaller with the increase in frequency. This
indicates that the deformation at lower frequencies is spread over the gage length, while at higher
frequencies is localized at the weakest section of the gage length. It could be concluded that
materials fatigue strength plays the main role in specimens resistance to failure at lower
frequencies, while other parameters such as manufacturing parameters could also play a
significant role in fatigue strength of the specimen tested at higher frequencies. This could also
be attributed to the viscoelastic nature of the plastics and the fact that at higher frequencies, the
material does not basically have enough time to respond to the cyclic loading condition.
The frequency effect in plastics is in many ways attached to temperature. Fatigue loading, due to
its fluctuating nature, results in an increase in body temperature, especially in plastics with their
molecular and structural specifications. As the frequency increases, this temperature effect
becomes more pronounced and, inevitabaly, affects fatigue life by easing material flow and
increasing ductility. If an application involves plastics parts under relatively higher frequency
cyclic loading, the body temperature of the part should be controlled or contained in order to
gain longer lives. On the other hand, for a fair comparison of fatigue strength at different
frequencies, if the body temperature is contained in the real application, measures should be

exercised to maintain specimen body temperature within a specified range at different

frequencies.
Conclusions
1- Fatigue investigation of plastics should be distinguished from that of metals to include
parameters such as temperature, hysteritic loop, frequency, overloads, residual stresses and
crack closure. The experimental procedures should include the effects of these parameters as
well as the simulation of real life full scale component tests.
2- Standards need to be reviewed and new standards need to be developed to address the
parameters specific to plastics. This may involve design of new specimens, development of
new test methods, and applying new limitations.
3- Frequency showed to be a major player in fatigue life of plastics. The case study exercised in
this study shows significant decrease in fatigue strength with the increase in frequency in the
polypropylene material tested.
4- Due to entanglement of temperature and frequnecy in fatigue crack initiation and propagation
of plastics, measures should be taken to control the body temperature of the specimen or part
during fatigue testing.
References
1- S.S. Manson and G.R. Halford, Fatigue and Durability of Structural Materials, ASM
International, 2006.
2- Moet and H. Aglan, Fatigue Failure, in Engineering Plastics, Vol. 2, Engineered Materials
Handbook, ASM International, 1988.
3- L.A. Pruitt, Fatigue Testing and Behavior of Plastics, in ASM Handbook, Vol. 8,
Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, ASM International, 2000.
4- L.A. Pruitt, R. Hermann, and S. Suresh, Fatigue Crack Growth in Polymers Subjected to
Fully Compressive Cyclic Loads, Journal of Materials Science, Vol. 27, Issue 6, pp 16081616, March 1992.
5- ASTM E466-07, Standard Practice for Conducting Force Controlled Constant Amplitude
Axial Fatigue Tests of Metallic Materials, ASTM International, 2007.
6- R.I. Stephens, A. Fatemi, R.R. Stephens, and H.O. Fuchs, Metal Fatigue in Engineering,
2nd Edition, Wiley Interscience, 2000.
7- R.W. Hertzberg, J.A. Manson, and M. Skibo, Frequency Sensitivity of Fatigue Processes in
Polymeric Solids, Polymer Engineering & Science, Vol. 15, Issue 4, pages 252260, April
1975.
8- ASTM D7791-10, Standard Test Method for Uniaxial Fatigue Properties of Plastics,
ASTM International, 2010.
9- ASTM D638-10, Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics, ASTM
International, 2010.

Figure 1 Maximum stress versus life for different frequencies.

Figure 2 Maximum strain versus life for different frequencies.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 3 Photographs of typical failed specimens after fatigue tests at (a) 1 Hz, (b) 2 Hz, (c) 5
Hz, and (d) 10 Hz.