NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Extreme submarine
Ross, Spahiu, Brown and Little present new charts
for use in the design of small submarines to
descend to the bottom of the deep ocean.

Carl T.F. Ross

Astrit Spahiu

Graham X. Brown

Who should read this paper?

The paper should be read by designers and manufacturers of cylindrical
structures such as submarines or autonomous underwater vehicles that
may be subject to external hydrostatic pressure. Under external pressure,
circular cylinders normally collapse at pressures which are often a small
fraction of those to cause the same vessels to collapse under uniform
internal pressure. This mode of failure is called shell instability.
Why is it important?
The work reported here is innovative in that it presents a new design
chart for circular cylinders collapsing under external hydrostatic pressure
based on both theoretical and experimental data. The design chart
consists of two straight lines, rather than the more complex curves
typical of well-known codes. The design chart also allows the designer
to design much shorter and thicker vessels than the standard codes do.
The authors contend that this will enable engineers to design pressure
vessels that can dive to a much greater depth than previously known.
Currently, most large submarines can only dive to a maximum depth of
about 400 m (0.25 mi.), but the maximum depth of the oceans is some
29 times deeper than this.
About the authors
Carl Ross is Professor of Structural Dynamics at the University of
Portsmouth, UK, where he has been employed since 1966. His research
interests include the statics, stability, and dynamics of submarine
pressure hulls.
Astrit Spahiu was a mechanical engineering student at the University of
Portsmouth, UK, where he researched on the collapse of model
submarine pressure hulls under external hydrostatic pressure. Currently
he works for Pall Europe, Ltd., Portsmouth, UK.

Andrew P.F. Little

Graham Brown is Chief Mechanical Engineer at Sonardyne International

Ltd., Yateley, Hampshire, UK. His interests are in the design,
construction, and testing of pressure vessels under external hydrostatic
pressure.
Andrew Little is Principal Lecturer at the University of Portsmouth in
the UK. His interests lie in the statics, stability, and dynamics of
submarine pressure hulls, which he has been researching since 1989.

84 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

BUCKLING OF NEAR-PERFECT THICK-WALLED CIRCULAR CYLINDERS
UNDER UNIFORM EXTERNAL HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Carl T.F. Ross1, Astrit Spahiu1, Graham X. Brown2, and Andrew P.F. Little1
1 University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom (www.port.ac.uk)
2 Sonardyne International Ltd., Yateley, Hampshire, United Kingdom (www.sonardyne.com)

ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to produce design charts to predict inelastic collapse pressures for
thick-walled circular cylinders under uniform external pressure because the existing charts were
out of the range for shorter and thicker vessels. Both theoretical and experimental investigations
were carried out on 15 stainless steel models, which were tested to destruction and reported for
the first time. A theoretical investigation was also carried on other models, tested by previous
researchers, to give more points and more credibility to the design chart.
The theoretical investigation was based on an analytical method because previous work proved
that, in general, it was superior to numerical methods for this particular problem. It was hoped
that the details from the current series of models, together with the new design chart, would
enable some smaller submarines to descend to the bottom of the Marianas Trench (11.52 km or
7.16 mi); one of the models collapsed at a pressure of about 1000 bar, which was equivalent to a
submarine diving to a depth of about 10 km (6.2 mi).
The analytical solution adopted the von Mises buckling analysis via a home produced computer
program called MisesNP, which also calculated the Windenburg thinness ratio (). By plotting
the reciprocal thinness ratio against the plastic knockdown factor (PKD), where the PKD was
obtained by dividing the theoretical buckling pressure by the corresponding experimentally
obtained buckling pressure for each vessel, a useful design chart was produced.
INTRODUCTION
Research has found that the oceans contain
large quantities of precious metals and
minerals and Dickens et al. [1997] have
estimated that there are about 10,000 billion
tonnes of frozen methane hydrates buried
underground in the deep oceans. In monetary
terms, the total value of this gas is about
$7,500 trillion. Some people believe that we

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

should leave this methane where it is, but

the authors of this paper believe that the
temptation for humankind to mine this fossil
fuel will be much too great.
Currently a large submarine can only dive to a
depth of about 400 m (0.25 mi) and this is one
of the reasons why the present study has been
conducted. Submarine pressure hulls are
usually composed of a combination of circular

Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 85

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

cylinders, cones, and domes, especially the
former. Under external pressure, circular
cylinders normally collapse at pressures, which
are often a small fraction of those to cause the
same vessels to collapse under uniform
internal pressure. This mode of failure is called
shell instability [Ross, 2001; Bryan, 1888; von
Mises, 1914;
Windenburg and
Trilling, 1934;
Bryant, 1954], or
lobar buckling,
where the vessel
Figure 1: Shell instability (The TVR
collapses around
Series).
its circumference in
the form of a
number of
circumferential
waves or lobes; it
is shown in Figure
Figure 2: Ring-stiffened circular
cylinders.
1, where it can be
seen that the
number of lobes
was six for the
models shown. It
is an undesirable
Figure 3: General instability of ringmode of failure, as
stiffened circular cylinders.
it is structurally
inefficient and one way to improve its
structural efficiency is to ring-stiffen its flank,
as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 4: Axisymmetric collapse.

implodes inwards, keeping its circular form

while collapsing, as shown in Figure 4.
In this paper, we will only consider the shell
instability and axisymmetric modes of failure.
THEORETICAL ANALYSES
Axisymmetric Failure
As described earlier, one mode of failure is
called axisymmetric deformation. For
un-stiffened thin-walled circular cylinders
[Ross, 1999] under uniform pressure, the
membrane principal stresses for this mode of
failure are given by:
H = Hoop Stress = pR/h
L = Longitudinal Stress = pR/(2h)

(1)

where
If the ring-stiffeners are not strong enough, the
entire ring-shell combination can collapse
bodily, as shown in Figure 3 [Ross, 2001;
Bryant, 1954; Nash, 1995]. This mode of
failure is known as general instability.
Another mode of failure is known as
axisymmetric deformation [Ross, 2001; Ross,
1999], where the circular cylindrical shell

86 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers

P = Pressure
R = Internal Radius
h = Wall Thickness
We will need the Hoop Stress formula of
equation (1) to show how the Windenburg
thinness ratio [Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]
is derived.

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Previous researchers have found that shell instability [Ross, 2001; Bryan, 1888; von Mises,
1914;
Windenburg and Trilling, 1934] is the However,
most important
failure
mode
of pressure
the above
theories
are for
thin near-vessels
Shell Instability
Previous researchers have found that shell

perfect vessels that buckle elastically. In

under
external
because
circular many
cylinders
have
no resistance to
practice,
shorter
and little
thickerorvessels
instability
[Ross,pressure
2001; Bryan,
1888;thin-walled
von
buckle inelastically at pressures that are a
Mises, 1914; Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]
small fraction of the predictions of elastic
is the most important failure mode of pressure
theory. A thick-walled circular cylinder was
vessels under external pressure because thindefined by Wilson [1956] as one where h/R >
walled circular cylinders have little or no
1/30.
the present
h/R=1/9.3.
resistance
this mode
of failure.
One
of thetofirst
buckling
analyses by this mode
of For
failure,
whereseries,
the end
boundary conditions
Attempts to analyse the thicker and shorter
corresponded
that of
simple-supports,
presented
by von
Mises
[1914], as
One of the first to
buckling
analyses
by this mode was
types
of vesselsinby1914
so-called
exact
theories
of failure, where the end boundary conditions
have not been successful. This is because
follows:
corresponded to that of simple-supports, was
many models give rogue results where vessels,
presented in 1914 by von Mises [1914], as
which one would expect to have a higher
follows:

this mode of failure.

2
4

R
h

Eh
1

L
R

+
p=
+ 2
2
2
2
R 2 1 R
12 1
R

2
n + n +
2 L

circular
L = unsupported length of the
cylinder

2
2 R 2
n +
L

(2)

(2)

where

buckling resistance than similar thinner

models, do not always follow the expected
n
=
the
number
of
circumferential
waves
or
where
common sense behavioural patterns. In the
= Poissons ratio
lobes that the vessel buckles into
present paper, the problem of reduced buckling
L = unsupported length of the circular cylinder pressures due to inelastic instability is
E = Youngs modulus
addressed with the aid of the Windenburg
nAnother
number
of
circumferential
waves
or
lobes
that the
buckles
into
== the
Poissons
ratio
simpler formula for elastic shell instability
is vessel
from
the
Taylor Model Basin
thinness ratio
; this
hasDavid
been successfully
achieved in previous publications [Ross, 2001;
Another simplerand
formula
for elastic
shell
[Windenburg
Trilling,
1934];
that is, theLittle
DTMB
formula
is asetfollows:
2008; Ross
al., 2008]. In the
4 et al.,
instability is from the David Taylor Model
case of the present paper, this facility has been
Basin [Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]; that is extended so that shorter and thicker vessels are
as follows:
catered for. The importance of this is that
thicker walled submarine pressure hulls can
dive deeper into the oceans.
5

E = Youngs modulus

h 2

2.42 E
L

p=
3
1
1 2 4 L
h 2
0.45

2 R
2 R

(3)

One attempt to numerically analyse initially

imperfect thick-walled circular cylinders was
by Bosman et al. [1993]. However, the initial
out-of-circularity of the model of Bosman et

(3)

Maritime andthat
Port Security,
Vol. 4, elastically,
No. 2, 2009 87 but in
Copyright Journal
Ocean Technology
2009
However,
theof above
theories
are for thin near-perfect vessels
buckle

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

al. was some 50 times of that of the present
series and, whereas they obtained good results,
it cannot be considered here.

(Note: Windenburg and Trilling [1934]

squared in the above calculation, so that for
most intermediate length vessels the value of
would be approximately one.)

Derivation of the Windenburg Thinness Ratio

Experiments on circular section tubes of
It should be noted that in the above analyses,
intermediate and shorter lengths when the
the general instability mode of failure was not
thinness ratio, namely [Ross, 2001; Windenburg considered.
and Trilling, 1934], has a value of less than
MODELS AND SPECIMENS
about 1.3, have shown that they fail somewhere
in-between the pressures of equation (1) and
Material Properties
(3). Windenburg and Trilling [Ross, 2001;
The material selected to carry out this study
Windenburg and Trilling, 1934] argued that if
Or = [(L/d)2 / (h/d)3]0.25 * (yp / E)0.5
we equated equations (1) and (3), we can get a was Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) UNS
thinness ratio relating these two modes of failure, S31803, which was produced by extrusion. It
is a kind of Cr22 ferrite-austenite, supplied by
which will enable us to precisely predict the
N.B.
Windenburg
and
Trilling
squared

in
the above
that for
most
Forfab
Limited,calculation,
Scotland, viasoSterling
Tubes.
collapse pressures for intermediate circular
cylinders. They called this their thinness ratio . The chemical composition is given in Table 1.
intermediate length vessels the value of would be approximately one.
Now if we examine equation (3), we can see in Alloying elements affect properties and the
microstructure of DSS in various ways, thus
the denominator on the right hand side of
It
should(2)
be that
noted
in thelarger
abovethan
analyses, the
general
instability
mode
of failure
was not
each
must be
understood
in order
to maximise
equation
L/dthat
is much
the effectiveness and to prevent the alloying
0.45*(h/d)0.5, thus if we neglect 0.45*(h/d)0.5
considered.
and assume that = 0.3, we can simplify
element from becoming harmful and instead
equation (3) to the form:
being beneficial to the marine application.
MODELS
AND 2.5
SPECIMENS
/ (L/d) ,
Pcr = 2.6*E*(h/d)

The Present Series of Models

Fifteen Duplex stainless steel tube specimens
where d = 2R.
with a wall thickness of 3.07 mm were tested;
their geometrical properties are shown in Table
Material Properties
Equating (1) and (4), we get yp*(2h) / d =
2. From Table 2, it can be seen that the ratio of
2.5
The
material/ selected
Duplex
Steel (DSS)
(L/d) to carry out this study wasthe
2.6E*(h/d)
initial Stainless
out-of-circularity
to theUNS
wallS31803,
(4)

Or yp*h/d = 2 * E*(h/d)2.5 / (L/d)

thickness of these vessels varied from 0.016 h
which
was produced by extrusion. It was a kind of Cr22 ferrite-austenite, supplied by Forfab
Or 2=(L/d) / (h/d)-1.5 * (yp / E)
to 0.029 h, where h = the wall thickness. That
2 / (h/d)3]0.25 * (yp / E)0.5
Or = [(L/d)
is, the
vessels were
geometrically
Limited,
Scotland,
via Sterling Tubes. The chemical
composition
is nearly
given in
Table 1.
Table 1: Chemical Composition of SAF2205 Duplex Stainlesss Steel (%).

C
Si
Mn
Cr
Ni
Mo
0.018
0.45
0.79
22.16
5.34
3.11
Table
1:
Chemical
Composition
of
SAF2205
Duplex
Stainlesss
Steel
(%).
Note: The data was provided by the suppliers in their Material Test Certificate.

N
0.182

N.B. The data was provided by the suppliers in their Material Test Certificate.
88 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Overall
Unsupported
Length Lo
Length L
AS 1a
40.06
30.06
AS 1b
40.09
30.09
AS 2a
50.02
40.02
AS 2b
50.01
40.01
AS 3a
60.04
50.04
AS 3b
60.04
50.04
AS 4a
70.42
60.42
AS 4b
70.02
60.02
AS 5a
80.36
70.04
AS 5b
80.03
70.03
AS 6a
100.32
90.32
AS 6b
100.36
90.32
AS 7a
149.96
139.96
AS 7b
149.99
139.99
AS 8
199.96
189.96
Table
2:
Models
Data
(mm).
Table 2: Models' Data (mm).
Models

O/D
60.17
60.02
60.01
60.31
60.16
60.18
60.16
60.24
60.18
60.15
60.17
60.17
60.17
60.17
60.16

Mean
Out of
Radius Circularity (e)
28.6
0.0796
28.6
0.0884
28.6
0.0876
28.6
0.0733
28.6
0.0753
28.6
0.0722
28.6
0.0571
28.6
0.0884
28.6
0.0756
28.6
0.0685
28.6
0.0861
28.6
0.0654
28.6
0.0581
28.6
0.0564
28.6
0.0466

perfect when compared with the charts of

Outer Diameter = 60 mm
references 11 and 12, where the vessels had a
Wall Thickness = 3.07 mm
To
seal
each
tube
due
to
the
effects
of
external
hydrostatic pressure, two end bungs were
maximum initial out-of-roundness of up to
0.16 h, or more than five times those of the
To seal each tube due to the effects of external
manufactured. The end bungs were made of mild steel and were fitted with O-ring nitrile
present series. Thus, it is fair to refer to the
hydrostatic pressure, two end bungs were
present
series
as being
of near
The end bungs
of
gaskets
to seal
against
any perfect
water ingress thatmanufactured.
may have occurred
whilewere
the made
specimens
were
circularity, based on their e/h values, where e
mild steel and were fitted with O-ring nitrile
hydrostatic pressure; see Figuregaskets
6.
=under
initial external
out-of-circularity.
to seal against any water ingress that
may have occurred while the specimens were
The initial out-of-circularity was measured by
under external hydrostatic pressure; see
a Mitutoya Co-ordinate Measuring Machine,
Figure 6.
The chosen unsupported length L and the actual overall length Lo, of each model is shown in
where the out-of-circularity was defined as the
maximum
point
chosen
unsupportedtolength
L and the
Figure 7,deviation
where itfrom
can an
be inward
seen that
thetovalue The
of L
was considered
be between
the O-ring
an outward point, on a mean circumference.
actual overall length Lo, of each model is
gaskets.
The
mean circumference was obtained from a
shown in Figure 7, where it can be seen that
least squares fit at mid-bay.
the value of L was considered to be between
the O-ring gaskets.
The material was supplied in the form of a
Tensile Testing
long extruded tube of length of about 1300
Tensile Testing
mm;
tube strength
was cut to
The with
tensile
strength
of the
material and
was its Youngs
Thethis
tensile
ofthe
therequired
materiallengths,
was obtained
two
uniaxial
specimens
as shown in Figure 5.
obtained with two uniaxial specimens and its
modulus was obtained with a circular ring specimen; see Figure 8.
Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 89

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Figure 5: Test models and end bungs with O-Ring nitrile gaskets.

Youngs modulus was obtained with a circular

ring specimen; see Figure 8.
Figures 9 and 10 show the load-extension
relationships for two uniaxial tensile tests from
which the yield stress and the ultimate tensile
strength were determined. Figure 11 shows the
load-deflection relationship for the ring
specimen, which was used to obtain the
Youngs modulus of Duplex stainless steel.

Figure 6: Details of the end bungs (mm).

90 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers

The ring specimen was loaded diametrically in

compression and the resulting diametrical
deflection was automatically recorded. The
relationship can be seen in Figure 11. From
this relationship, the experimental Youngs
modulus was calculated from Roarks formula,
Table 17 and [Young, 1989].
Whereas Figures 9 and 10 are Load-Deflection
relationships and it may have been preferable

Figure 7: Assembly view of the models with the end bungs.

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Figure 8: Specimens used to obtain the mechanical properties.

Figure 9: Uniaxial tensile test results (first test). Tensile test to find yield stress and UTS; = 24 mm.

Figure 10: Uniaxial tensile test results (second test). Tensile test to find yield stress and UTS; d = 24 mm.

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 91

relationship, the experimental Youngs modulus was calculated from Roarks formula, Table

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

17 and [Young, 1989].

Whereas Figures 9 and 10 are Load-Deflection relationships and it may have been preferable
to have plotted Stress-Strain relationships, Figures 9 are 10 were automatic computer outputs
from the tensile testing machine.

The measured and the manufacturers values of the material properties are given in Table 3.
Figure 11: Non-destructive O Ring test to obtain E. O-Ring testing results to find Young Modulus E; = 1 mm.

Young
Modulus E
(GPa)

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength UTS
(MPa)

Yield
Stress YP
(MPa)

Experimental
158
713
Data
Manufacturers
756
Data (1) & (2)
739
Table 3: Mechanical Properties of Duplex Stainless Steel.
Table 3: Mechanical Properties of Duplex Stainless Steel.
to have plotted Stress-Strain relationships,
THEORETICAL
Figures
9 are 10 wereINVESTIGATION
automatic computer
outputs from the tensile testing machine.

Poissons
Ratio

(Assumed)
543

0.3

589
554

can be used on most personal computers and at

present it is supplied free of charge.

The buckling pressures are based on the David

The measured and the manufacturers values
Taylor Marine Basin (DTMB) formula and
MisesNP: Buckling Predictions
of the material properties are given in Table 3. also the von Mises formula [Windenburg and
1934].buckling
The following
input for
dataperfect
was
The computer program MisesNP calculatesTrilling,
the elastic
pressure
circular
THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION
used for this program:

cylinders subjected to uniform external pressure and simply supported at their ends together

MisesNP: Buckling Predictions

Unsupported Length; from Table 2
The
computer
program MisesNP
calculates
the[Windenburg
Shell Thickness:
3.07 1934].
mm This program can be
with
the Windenburg
thinness
ratio
and Trilling,
elastic buckling pressure for perfect circular
Mean Radius; from Table 2
cylinders
to uniform
external and at present
Young
Modulus free
E; from
Table 3
used onsubjected
most personal
computers
it is supplied
of charge.
pressure and simply supported at their ends,
Poissons Ratio; from Table 3
together with the Windenburg thinness ratio 10
Yield Stress yp; from Table 3
[Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]. This program

92 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

The buckling pressures are based on the DTMB formula and also the von Mises formula
[Windenburg and Trilling, 1934]. The following input data was used for this program:
Equipment Used
The specimens were tested in a high-pressure
tank supplied by Sonardyne Limited (Yateley,
Unsupported Length; from Table 2 Hampshire, United Kingdom) with a
maximum working pressure of 1200 bar; see
Shell Thickness: 3.07 mm
Figure 13. The equipment was pressurised by a
hand-driven hydraulic pump; thus, line losses
Mean Radius; from Table 2
were negligible. The hydrostatic pressure was
Figure 12: Output of the computer program MisesNP.
measured by a Bourdon Tube pressure gauge.
Young Modulus E; from Table 3
A screen dump of the output of MisesNP is
shown in Poissons
Figure 12 and
the from
resultsTable
are shown
Ratio;
3 in Experimental Procedure
Table 4; it is a very easy program to use and the 1. Each specimen was sealed off with
Yield
Stress
ypgiven
; frominTable
instructions
for using
it are
[Ross,32001]. the end bungs.
2. Each model was submerged in turn
in the pressure tank, which was filled
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
with water.
A screen dump of the output of MisesNP is shown in Figure 12 and the results are shown in
The main aim of the experimental investigation 3. The tanks closure plate was screwed
down.
was
to determine
collapse
pressurestoofuse
the and
Table
4; it is a the
very
easy program
the instructions
for using it are given in [Ross,
4. The trapped air in the tank was pumped
Duplex stainless models. The models were
2001].when the end bungs were fitted together out through the closure plates bleed hole
sealed
and then the bleed hole was sealed.
with their O-ring gaskets.

Model
AS1a
AS1b
AS2a
AS2b
AS3a
AS3b
AS4a
AS4b
AS5a
AS5b
AS6a
AS6b
AS7a
AS7b
AS8

MisesNP
No Lobes
Pcr1(MPa)
643.82
634.51
462.87
460.65
355.12
356.19
278.61
287.53
232.29
232.13
187.03
187.03
110.76
110.72
74.19

Table 4: Theoretical results for the present series.

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2

DTMB

Pcr(MPa)
644.55
646.84
458.11
455.93
352.23
352.99
289.42
288.66
242.26
242.29
184.00
184.00
115.82
115.82
84.34

1/
0.381
0.381
0.440
0.440
0.492
0.492
0.539
0.539
0.582
0.582
0.661
0.661
0.823
0.823
0.958

2.625
2.625
2.273
2.273
2.033
2.033
1.855
1.855
1.718
1.718
1.513
1.513
1.215
1.215
1.047

11
Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 93

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Figure 13: High Pressure Tank (material of construction: Stainless Steel).

5. The hydrostatic pressure was raised by a

hand-driven hydraulic pump connected
by a flexible hose to the tank.
6. The collapse pressures of each model
were noted; each models failure was
accompanied by a bang and a
corresponding drop in the hydrostatic
pressure.
7. The tank was depressurised via the bleed
valve located in the closure plate after
each model collapsed.
8. After each model collapsed, it was
removed from the test tank and
examined closely by the naked eye.
9. The material of the models, when
observed by the naked eye, did not
appear to have suffered from visual
fractures or other microstructure failures
during the experiment.

94 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers

Experimental Results
Table 5 gives the experimentally obtained collapse
pressures Pexp, together with other observations.
Although strain gauges were not used, the
vessels appeared to fail plastically. This type of
failure was assumed in the experiments
because of the massive plastic deformations
that took place when each vessel collapsed. If
the vessels collapsed elastically, then they may
have regained their shape, partially or fully,
because of the hydrostatic pressure drop that
was accompanied when each vessel collapsed.
It is true some vessels that collapse elastically
suffer from post-failure plastic deformation,
but in general this plastic deformation would
normally be relatively small due to the
experimental procedure.

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Model
AS 1a
AS 1b
AS 2a
AS 2b
AS 3a
AS 3b
AS 4a
AS 4b
AS 5a
AS 5b
AS 6a
AS 6b
AS 7a
AS 7b
AS 8

Overall
Unsupported
Pressure Pressure
Post-Failure Remarks
Length Lo
Length L
Pexp (MPa) Pexp (bar)
(mm)
(mm)
40.06
30.06
93
930 Perfect Axisymetric Failure
40.09
30.09
100
1000 Perfect Axisymetric Failure
Plastic Buckling Partially
50.02
40.02
84
840
Axisymetric
Lobar Buckling Partially
50.01
40.01
84
840
Axisymetric
60.04
50.04
71.5
715 Inelastic Buckling
60.04
50.04
70.5
705 Inelastic Buckling
70.42
60.42
66.5
665 Inelastic Buckling
70.02
60.02
65.0
660 Inelastic Buckling
One Sided Failure over its
80.35
70.04
66.0
650
length
80.30
70.03
65.0
650 Inelastic Buckling
One Sided Failure over its
100.32
90.32
61.8
618
length
One Sided Failure over its
100.36
90.32
61.8
618
length
One Sided Failure over its
149.96
139.96
57.5
575
length
One Sided Failure over its
149.99
139.99
57.5
575
length
One-sided Failure over its
199.96
189.96
58.0
580
length

Table 5: Experimental results for the present series.

The collapsed models are shown in Figure 14,

where it can be seen that many suffered
considerable plastic deformation.
DESIGN CHARTS
This section brings together the theoretical and
experimental results from the proceedings of
present series with the results from other
experiments to present a design chart that can
cater for a wider geometry than previous
design charts. Similar design charts for
geometrically imperfect circular cylinders
[Ross, 2001; Little et al., 2008; Ross et al.,
2008] have been produced elsewhere.

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

Design Chart for the Present Series

First the Plastic Knockdown Factor (PKD)
must be calculated in order to produce the
design chart. This is defined between the
relationship of theoretical and experimental
buckling pressures presented on previous
sections through investigations.
Hence: PKD =

Pcr 1
Pexp

Pcr1 = von Mises Theoretical Buckling Pressure

Pexp = Experimental Buckling Pressure
The plastic knockdown factors are listed in
Table 6 together with the thinness ratios

Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 95

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Figure 14: Plan view of the collapsed AS Series of models together with the end bungs and the nitrile O Rings.

Unsupported
Pcr1 MisesNP Pexp

1/
PKD
Length (mm)
(MPa)
(MPa)
AS1a
30.06
0.381
2.62
643.82
93
6.92
AS1b
30.09
0.381
2.62
634.51
100
6.35
AS2a
40.02
0.440
2.27
462.87
84
5.51
AS2b
40.01
0.440
2.27
460.65
84
5.48
AS3a
50.04
0.492
2.03
355.12
71.5
4.97
AS3b
50.04
0.492
2.03
356.19
70.5
5.05
AS4a
60.42
0.539
1.86
278.61
66.5
4.19
AS4b
60.02
0.539
1.86
287.53
66
4.36
AS5a
70.04
0.582
1.72
232.29
65
3.57
AS5b
70.03
0.582
1.72
232.13
65
3.57
AS6a
90.32
0.661
1.51
187.03
61.8
3.03
AS6b
90.32
0.661
1.51
187.03
61.8
3.03
AS7a
139.96
0.823
1.22
110.76
57.5
1.93
AS7b
139.99
0.823
1.22
110.72
57.5
1.93
AS8
189.96
0.958
1.04
74.19
58
1.28
Table:
6 Plastic
Factors
Table:
6 Plastic
KnockdownKnockdown
Factors for the present
series.for the present series.
Model

Results Obtained from Other Geometrically Perfect Circular Cylinders

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009
COLLAPSE PRESSURES OF STURMS THIN-WALLED CIRCULAR CYLINDERS

96 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Table 7: Theoretical and Experimental results of Sturm.

* Denotes Reynolds
inelastic lobar buckling of
circular cylindrical shells
under external hydrostatic
pressure.
Table 8: Collapse of ring reinforced cylinders by Ross and Reynolds.

calculated from the computer program

MisesNP.
Results Obtained from Other Geometrically
Perfect Circular Cylinders
Collapse pressures of Sturms thin-walled
circular cylinders
The work carried out in Sturms study [Sturm,
1941] in Table 7 was on eight carefully
manufactured models. The models were
manufactured through extrusion. They were
made very precisely in aluminium alloy; their
out-of-circularity was not given.
Collapse pressures of other models
The results carried by Ross [1965] and

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

Reynolds [1960] on machined stiffened models

are given in Table 8. These models were found
to have failed by inelastic shell instability.
Models 1 to 3 were machined from aluminum
alloy and their initial out-of-circularity was
less than 0.08 mm. Models U12 and U22 were
machined at the David Taylor Model Basin;
they were made from high-strength steel, but
their initial out-of-circularity was not given.
Table 9 shows the results obtained from Ross
Model 7 [Ross, 1965], which was compared
with the experimental buckling pressure of this
isotropic model and the David Taylor Model
Basin formula. The model was machined from mild
steel and its initial out-of-circularity was 0.1 mm.

Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 97

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

TVR-1 had the largest ring stiffeners at the ends of the shell and TVR-3 had the smallest ring
stiffeners at the ends of the shell. The models of Tables 10 to 12 were carefully machined
Lobar Buckling, Thin-Walled Cylinder, Ross [1965]
from mild steel and their
initial o-o-c was less than PKD
0.13 mm, where the initial o-o-c was
DTMB
Model
1/
Experimental
formula
(Pcr/Pexp)
measured with the aid of a Talyrond Machine.
7
1.424 0.70
427
568
0.75
Table
9: Pressure
Buckling
of Model Number 7.
Table
9: Buckling
of ModelPressure
Number 7.
Buckling Pressures with Boundary Conditions, Ross and Johns [1971]
In another study, Ross and Johns [Ross and Johns, 1971] believed that boundary conditions
von
PKD
Model
1/
Experimental
Mises
(Pcr/Pexp)
play an important role in the experimentally
obtained buckling
pressures for many vessels.
TVR-1
1.629
0.61
245
320
0.77
Fixed
boundaries
are
found
to
produce
larger
collapse
pressures
than
those with simplyTVR-2
1.629
0.61
245
316
0.78
TVR-3
1.747
0.57
244
304
0.80
supported edges. This proof comes from testing to destruction (see Table 10) of three
Table 10: Buckling Pressures for TVR Series; see Figure 1.
Table 10: Buckling Pressures for TVR Series; see Figure 1.
machine-stiffened circular cylinders under uniform external pressure (see Figure 1), where
Ross et al. [1995]
TVR-1 had the largest ring stiffeners at the ends of the shell and TVR-3 had the smallest ring
von
PKD
The
theoretical
and experimental
buckling
pressures
obtained by
Ross et al. [1995] based on
Model

1/
Experimental
(Pcr/Pexp)
stiffeners at the ends of the shell. Mises
The models of Tables 10 to
12 were carefully machined
the
shell
instability
of
circular
cylinders
is
given
in
Table
11.
1
0.599
1.67
198.67
60
3.31
from
mild
steel
and
their
initial
o-o-c
was
less
than
0.13
mm,
where the initial o-o-c was
2
0.532
1.88
273.77
63.24
4.34
3
0.482
2.07
326.1
71.72
4.55
measured with the aid of a Talyrond Machine.
Table
11: Pressures
Buckling
based on shell Instability.
Table
11: Buckling
based Pressures
on shell Instability.
In another study, Ross and Johns [1971] believed where the initial out-of-circularity was
Buckling
Boundary
Johns
[1971] Machine.
19 Ross
measured
with and
the aid
of a Talyrond
that
boundaryPressures
conditions with
play an
important Conditions,
According to Ross [2001] and Kimber, there may be a connection between plastic shell
role in the experimentally obtained buckling
von
PKD
Model

1/
Experimental
The of
theoretical
and circular
experimental
bucklingunder uniform
pressures
for many
vessels. axisymmetric
Fixed boundaries
Mises
(Pcr/Pexp)
instability
and plastic
collapse
machined
cylinders
pressures obtained by Ross et al. [1995] based
are found to produce larger collapse pressures
TVR-1
1.629
0.61
245
320
0.77
on the and
shellexperimental
instability of circular
cylinders isof buckling
than
those with
simply-supported
edges.
This
external
pressure.
The results
from
theoretical
investigations
TVR-2
1.629
0.61
245
316
0.78
given in Table 11.
proof comes from testing to destruction (see
TVR-3
1.747
0.57
244
304
0.80
pressures
showed
this
(see
Table
12).
Table 10) of three machine-stiffened circular
Table 10:
Buckling
for TVR
see Figure
1. [2001], there may be a
According
to Ross
cylinders
under
uniformPressures
external pressure
(seeSeries;
connection between plastic shell instability and
Figure 1), where TVR-1 had the largest ring
plastic axisymmetric collapse of machined
stiffeners at the ends of the shell and TVR-3
Plastic
Axisymmetric
Buckling
of
Thin-Walled
Cylinders,
circular Circular
cylinders under
uniform external
had the smallest ring stiffeners at the ends of
The
theoretical
and
experimental
buckling
pressures
obtained
by Ross et al. [1995] based on
Ross
[1996]
pressure. The results from theoretical and
the
shell.
The models of Tables 10 to 12 were
experimental
investigations
carefully
fromofmild
steel and their
von
the shellmachined
instability
circular
in Table
11. PKDof buckling
Model

1/ cylinders is given
Experimental
Table 12).
initial out-of-circularity was less than 0.13Mises
mm, pressures showed this (see
(Pcr/Pexp)

4
0.476
2.10
420.69
97.24
4.33
5
0.406
2.46
642.00
111.72
5.75
98 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers
Copyright
Journal
of
Ocean
Technology 2009
6
0.336
2.98 1084.34
131.72
8.23
Table 12: Plastic axisymmetric buckling pressures of machined cylinders.

pressures showed this (see Table 12).

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Plastic Axisymmetric Buckling of Thin-Walled Circular Cylinders,

Ross [1996]
Model

1/

von
Mises

Experimental

PKD
(Pcr/Pexp)

4
0.476
2.10
420.69
97.24
4.33
5
0.406
2.46
642.00
111.72
5.75
6
0.336
2.98 1084.34
131.72
8.23
Table
12:axisymmetric
Plastic buckling
axisymmetric
buckling
pressures of machined cylinders.
Table
12: Plastic
pressures of machined
cylinders.

Inelastic and elastic stability of ring stiffened shells, Hom and Couch [1961]
DTMB
PKD
In Table 13
stiffened
circular cylinders tested to
Experimental
Model
the results are
1/ listed from ten machined
formula
(Pcr/Pexp)
destruction under0.855
external hydrostatic
pressure by Hom975
and Couch [1961].
12
1.17
1786
1.83The cylinder

65
0.893
1.12
2969
1695
1.75
were designed with geometries so that they would collapse in the lobar buckling range and
13
0.986
1.01
1807
1160
1.56
22
1.035
0.97 hardened
963steel. The models
735 of Table 13 were
1.31 machined by
they were machined
from strain
62
1.111
0.90
4628
1335
3.47
the
DTMB,
but
their
initial
o-o-c
was
not
given.
Table
14
gives
the
results
54
1.34
0.75
616
695
0.89of Seleim and
23
1.354
0.74
665
705
0.94
Kennedy [1990]. These models were machined in aluminium alloy and their maximum initia
55
1.358
0.74
651
730
0.89
56
0.69
654
725
0.90
o-o-c was 0.9 mm.1.443
73
1.671
0.60
387
475
0.81
Table
13:ofResults
of [Ross
Hom
[Ross and Johns, 1971].
Table
13: Results
Hom and Couch
and and
Johns, Couch
1971].
20

Updated Design Chart Including the Present

In Table 13 the results are listed from ten
machined stiffened circular cylinders
Pcr tested to Series
Pexp The updated
PKDdesign chart, which allows for
destruction
under
external
hydrostatic
pressure
Model
1/
MisesNP
(MPa)shorter and
(Pcr/Pexp)
thicker vessels to be analysed, is
by Hom and Couch [1961]. The
cylinders were
(MPa)
shown
15. This design chart adopts
designed
with geometries
would
1
0.62so that they
15.5
14.6 in Figure1.06
the results of the present series of models
collapse in the lobar buckling range and they
2
1.11
22.76
12.3
1.85
were machined from strain hardened steel. The together with those of similar near-perfect
Table 14: Results of imperfection sensitivity of stiffened cylinders [Ross et al., 1995].
circular cylindrical shells that collapsed under
models of Table 13 were machined by the
external hydrostatic pressure. The linearity of
DTMB, but their initial out-of-circularity was
not given. Table 14 gives the results of Seleim the chart in the plastic zone, where the PKD
is much
greater than unity, appears to indicate
and
Kennedy
[1990].Chart
These Including
models werethe Present
Updated
Design
Series
that it will prove a very useful design tool for
machined in aluminium alloy and their
industry.
maximum
initial design
out-of-circularity
was 0.9allows
mm. for
The updated
chart, which
shorter and thicker vessels to be analysed, i

shown in Figure 15. This design chart adopts the results of the present series of models
Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 99

together with those of similar near-perfect circular cylindrical shells that collapsed unde

Table 13: Results of Hom and Couch [Ross and Johns, 1971].

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Pcr
Pexp
PKD
MisesNP
Model
1/
(MPa)
(Pcr/Pexp)
(MPa)
1
0.62
15.5
14.6
1.06
2
1.11
22.76
12.3
1.85
Table
14:ofResults
imperfection
sensitivity
of stiffened cylinders [Ross et al., 1995].
Table
14: Results
imperfectionof
sensitivity
of stiffened cylinders
[Ross et al., 1995].

Updated Design Chart Including the Present Series

The updated design chart, which allows for shorter and thicker vessels to be analysed, is
shown in Figure 15. This design chart adopts the results of the present series of models
together with those of similar near-perfect circular cylindrical shells that collapsed under
external hydrostatic pressure. The linearity of the chart in the plastic zone, where the PKD is
Figure 15: Design chart for geometrically perfect circular cylindrical shells.

much greater than unity, appears to indicate that it will prove a very useful design tool for

The
design chart was obtained from models
industry.
made from mild steel, high-tensile steel, stainless
steel, and aluminium alloys; thus, the chart
should be suitable for structural design in such
metals. The elastic portion of the chart is to
the left of the vertical line and the plastic portion
is above the long inclined line; that is, where
the reciprocal thinness ratio is greater than 0.8.
How to Use the Design Charts
Determine the design diving depth of a circular
cylindrical section of a submarine pressure
hull with the following particulars:

Mean diameter = 14m

Wall thickness = 7.5 cm
Unsupported length L = 1m
Youngs modulus = E =200 GPa
Yield stress = yp = 500 MPa
Poissons ratio = =0.3
Safety Factor = SF= 3

100 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers

Inputting the above data into the computer

program MisesNP, we get the following:
Theoretical buckling pressure = Pcr = 26.21
MPa, with n = 13 lobes & = 0.675.
Therefore 1/ = 1.48 and, from Figure 15,
Plastic
21 Knockdown Factor = PKD = 4.2.
Therefore the predicted collapse buckling
pressure = 262.1 bar/4.2 = 62.4 bar.
Design buckling pressure = 62.4/SF =
62.4/3 = 20.8 bar.
Design Diving depth = 208 m = 682 ft.
To enable the vessel to dive to a greater depth,
it will be efficient to decrease the value of the
unsupported length between frames (i.e. L
should be made smaller).

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

(Note: The use of the Safety Factor effectively
gives us a lower bound.)
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The theoretical and experimental results are
summarised in Table 6 for all models from the
current series. The experimental results from
Table 5 could be divided mainly into three
categories. The shorter models AS1a and AS1b
failed in the form of axisymmetric failure, while
the slightly longer models AS2a and AS2b
failed in the form of combined plastic shell
instability and a plastic axisymmetric collapse.
The mid-range models collapsed by an inelastic
buckling mode. The remaining six models
(AS5a, AS6a/b, AS7a/b, and AS8) suffered
from one sided failure mode over their length
(i.e. ovalling). Tested models from present
series were found to have only minor geometrical
imperfections overall; these models were thus
nearly geometrically perfect. Previous work
carried out by others suggests that such
imperfections can influence experimental results.
The theoretical investigation produced a consistent
relationship between the length and the buckling
pressure when applying the computer program
MisesNP.
Furthermore, the experimental results were also
encouraging in terms of consigned buckling
pressure results. In summary, from all the
investigative proceedings considered in this paper,
a useful design chart was successfully produced.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The buckling resistance of the vessels
was reduced because, in general, plastic
shell instability took place.

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

2. All the models in this paper failed either

axisymmetrically or by plastic or
inelastic lobar buckling.
3. The design chart for use of cylindrical
shells, including those made from Duplex
Stainless Steel, was successfully produced.
4. The theoretical buckling pressures by
MisesNP were higher than the
experimentally determined ones because
the theory was based on elastic theory;
however, the models failed plastically at
much-reduced pressures.
5. The present series of models produced
additional points on the graph (see
Figure 15), which gave the graph more
credence than the previous one [Ross,
2001]. It also allowed shorter and thicker
vessels to be analysed than could be
done previously so that submarine
design can include vessels that can dive
to much greater depths of water.
6. It is true that the British Ministry of
Defences (MOD) design charts
[Defence Procurement Agency, 2001] are
used very successfully to design these
vessels. However, when the AS series of
models was plotted on the MOD chart,
it showed that the MOD chart
underestimated the collapse pressures of
Models AS1a and AS1b by circa 50%.
This is in contrast to the design chart of
Figure 15, which underestimated the
collapse pressures of Models AS1a &
AS1b by only circa 5%.
7. In the case of BS5500 [British Standards
Institution, 1980], it was even more
conservative than the MOD chart when
analysing short thick models, such as
AS1a and AS1b. Here, it underestimated
the collapse pressures of these vessels by
circa 100%.

Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 101

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Compartments. (International Symposium
on Naval Submarines 4, RINA, London,
United Kingdom.)
British Standards Institution [1980]. BS 5500
British Standard Specification for Unfired
Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels, Issue 5.
(United Kingdom: British Standards
Institution.)
Bryan, G.H. [1888]. Application of the Energy
test to the collapse of a long thin pipe
Under External Pressure. (Proceedings of
the Philosophical Society, pp 287-92,
Cambridge, United Kingdom.)
Bryant, A.R. [1954]. Hydrostatic Pressure
Buckling of Ring-Stiffened Tubes.
(Report, Naval Construction Research
Establishment, R-306, Dunfermline, Scotland.)
Defence Procurement Agency [2001]. SSP74
Design of Submarine Structures. (United
Kingdom: Defence Procurement Agency,
Sea Technology Group.)
Dickens, G.R., Paull, C.K., Wallace, P., and
the ODP Leg 164 Scientific Party [1997,
January]. Direct measurement of in situ
quantities in a large gas-hydrate reservoir.
Nature, Vol 385.
Hom, K. and Couch, P. [1961]. Hydrostatic
tests of Inelastic and Elastic Stability of
Ring-stiffened cylindrical shells Machined
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
from Strain-hardening steel. (DTMB
Report 1501, pp 2-11.)
The authors would like to thank Mr. Jack
Little, A.P.F., Ross, C.T.F., Short, D. And
Murray of Forfab Limited for supplying the
Brown, G.X. [2008]. Inelastic Buckling of
material of construction of the models.
Geometrically Imperfect Tubes under
External Hydrostatic Pressure. Journal of
REFERENCES
Ocean Technology, Vol 3 No 1, pp 75-90.
Nash, W.A. [1995]. Hydrostatically Loaded
Bosman, T.N., Pegg, N.G., and Kenning, P.J.
Structures: The Structural Mechanics,
[1993, May]. Experimental and Numerical Analysis and Design of Powered
Determination of Non-Linear Overall
Submersibles. Exeter, United Kingdom:
Collapse of Imperfect Pressure Vessel
BPC Wheatons Limited.
8. Many practising structural designers
have complained to the present authors
of the conservativeness of BS5500 when
designing circular cylinders to withstand
shell instability under external
hydrostatic pressure. Many prefer the
Design Chart of Ross [2001] and have
used it successfully over many years and
have saved a lot of money. The present
design chart extends Ross design chart
to cater for shorter and thicker circular
cylinders.
9. Moreover, the use of BS5500 to
determine the buckling pressure of a
circular cylinder, in comparison with
using the method presented here, is very
time consuming. This is because for
BS5500 the von Mises buckling pressure
has to be determined for every value of
n from another set of charts in order to
obtain the minimum value of the
theoretical buckling pressure. This is in
contrast to Ross computer program,
namely MisesNP, which determines the
minimum buckling pressure and the
Windenburg thinness ratio in just a few
seconds. Instructions on how to use this
program are given in [Ross, 2001].

102 The Journal of Ocean Technology Reviews & Papers

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION

Reynolds, T.E. [1960, August]. Inelastic Lobar
Buckling of Cylindrical hells Under
External Hydrostatic Pressure. (DTMB
Report Number 1392.)
Ross, C.T.F. [1965]. The Collapse of Ring-
reinforced Cylinders Under Uniform
External Pressure. Trans. Royal Institution
of Naval Architects, Vol 107, pp 375-94.
Ross, C.T.F. and Johns, T. [1971]. The Effect
of Stiffener size on Interframe Shell
Instability of Ring-reinforced Circular
cylinders. Journal of Ship Research, Vol 1,
pp 141-3.
Ross, C.T.F., Haynes, P., Seers, A. and Johns,
T. [1995]. Inelastic Buckling of Ring-
stiffened Circular Cylinders Under
Uniform External Pressure. (International
Conference Proceedings on Structural
Dynamics and Vibration, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, P.D. Vol
70, pp 207-215.)
Ross, C.T.F. [1996]. Plastic Axisymmetric
Buckling of Thin-walled Circular cylinders
Under Uniform External Pressure.
(International Conference Proceedings on
Engineering Technology, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Book
IV.)
Ross, C.T.F. [1999]. Mechanics of Solids.
Chichester, United Kingdom: Horwood
Publishing Limited.
Ross, C.T.F. [2001]. Pressure Vessels: External
Pressure Technology. Chichester, United
Kingdom: Horwood Publishing Limited.
Ross, C.T.F., Little, A.P.F., Brown, G.X. and
Nagappan, A. [2008]. Inelastic Shell
Instability of Geometrically Imperfect
Aluminium Alloy Circular Cylinders under
Uniform External Pressure. Marine
Technology, SNAME, Vol 45, No 3, pp
175-181.

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2009

Seleim, S.S. and Kennedy, J.B. [1990].

Imperfection Sensitivity of Stiffened
Cylinders Subjected to External Pressure.
Computers and Structures, Vol 34, No1, pp
63-69.
Sturm, G.R. [1941]. A Study of the Collapsing
Pressure of Thin-walled Cylinders.
(University of Illinois Bulletin Series, No
329, pp 1-77.)
von Mises, R. [1914]. Der Kritische
Aussendruck Zylindrischer Rohre.
Zeitschrift Verienger Deutchscher
Ingenieur, Vol 58, pp 750-755.
Wilson, L.B. [1956, December]. The
Deformation under Uniform Pressure of a
Circular Cylindrical Shell Supported by
Equally Spaced Circular Ring Frames.
(NCRE Report No. 337B, Dunfermline,
United Kingdom.)
Windenburg, D.F. and Trilling, C. [1934].
Collapse by Instability of cylindrical shells
Under External Pressure. Trans. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol 11,
pp 819-25.
Young, W.C. [1989]. Roarks Formulas for
Stress and Strain. New York, United States
of America: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Maritime and Port Security, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009 103