Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
DOI 10.1007/s10457-010-9303-1
Received: 11 February 2009 / Accepted: 3 April 2010 / Published online: 23 April 2010
The Author(s) 2010. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
E. Prihastanti
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences,
Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
D. Holscher M. Kohler
Department of Tropical Silviculture and Forest Ecology,
Burckhardt Institute, University of Gottingen,
Busgenweg 1, 37077 Gottingen, Germany
S. Tjitrosemito
Faculty of Biology, Bogor Agricultural University,
Jalan Padjajaran, Bogor 16144, Indonesia
L. Schwendenmann
School of Environment, The University of Auckland,
PB 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
D. Leitner
Department of Landscape Ecology, Institute of
Geography, University of Gottingen, Goldschmidtstr. 5,
37077 Gottingen, Germany
B. Michalzik
Department of Soil Sciences, Institute of Geography,
University of Jena, Lobdergraben 32, 07743 Jena,
Germany
123
172
Introduction
Cocao (Theobroma cocao L.), one of the worlds most
important perennial crops, is primarily used for chocolate production, with an estimated global output of
3.5 m t of beans being produced in 2006 (ICCO 2007).
The area of cocao plantations has increased greatly
during the last decade in Indonesia, now the largest
cocoa producer in South-east Asia, following the
decline in production in Malaysia 20 years ago. Cocoa
is cultivated in Indonesia and elsewhere using three
different cropping systems, i.e. (i) traditionally under the
shade of selectively thinned forest, (ii) under planted
shade trees such as Gliricidia sepium or Cocos nucifera,
and (iii), increasingly, under unshaded conditions. In
some of the Outer Islands of Indonesia, cocoa is
currently the most important cash crop, having replaced
cultivation of paddy rice for subsistence purposes and
fostering the conversion of forest to arable land.
Droughts related to El Nino Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) events represent irregularly occurring hazards
to intensive cocoa cultivation in Borneo, Sulawesi and
other regions of South-east Asia, and are predicted to
increase in severity with expected climate warming in
the equatorial region (Timmermann et al. 1999;
Sheffield and Woods 2008). A recent socioeconomic
assessment of the consequences of ENSO-related
droughts on cocoa production in Central Sulawesi
revealed that bean yield may be reduced in ENSO years
to 62% of its normal level (Keil et al. 2008).
As cocoa is cultivated in South-east Asia not
only in humid to perhumid regions, but increasingly
in semi-humid climates with an annual rainfall
\1200 mm and a marked dry season (Cadima
123
173
Study site
The cocoa agroforest examined was located close to
the village of Marena in the Kulawi Valley, Bolabapu
District, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, 3 km from the
western border of Lore Lindu National Park, a large
area of pre-montane to montane rainforest (UTM
coordinates: 51 M, 0168354, 9828202). Cocoa saplings were planted in December 2000 on former rice
and maize fields, together with young plants of the
woody legume Gliricidia sepium and a limited number
of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera L.) as shade trees.
When the study began in September 2006, the cocoa
and shade trees were ca. 6-years-old and 5.4 to 811 m
in height. With ca. 1,000 cocoa trees and 300 shade
trees ha-1, the plantation was representative of a
common agroforestry system in the region.
2002
1893 mm
2003
2441 mm
2004
The plantation was located 585 m a.s.l. on a midslope Cambisol (811 inclination) over 30 m above
the nearest main river. The soil consisted mainly of
sand (ca. 60%) and silt (2030%) with intermediate
layers of gravel; clay content decreased with soil
depth, while the sand content increased. Gravel
content (grain size [2 mm) was 13% at depths of
050 cm and 3033% at 50200 cm. pH (KCl)
ranged between 3.8 and 4.7.
The study area has a hot perhumid climate with no
distinct dry season. Between 2002 and 2006, annual
mean temperature at Gimpu meteorological station
(5 km south of Marena at 417 m a.s.l.) was 25.5C
and annual mean precipitation was 2,092 mm
(Fig. 1). Mean monthly rainfall exceeded 100 mm
for all months except July, when an average of ca.
80 mm was recorded (Kreilein, Oltchev and Gravenhorst, pers. comm.). Climatic measurements above
the tree canopies at the Marena plantation between
2442 mm
2005
2175 mm
2006
1508 mm
2007
500
300
100
40
80
30
60
20
40
10
20
0
b
Throughfall reduction (%)
100
Dessication period
80
60
40
20
0
-20
M A M J
J A S O N D J
2007
F M A M J
2008
123
174
123
175
123
176
123
Desiccation period
60
40
20
0
0.5
0.4
0.3
177
0.2
Control
Roof
10 cm
0.5
1/4/07
1/7/07
1/10/07
1/1/08
1/4/08
1/7/08
1/7/07
1/10/07
1/1/08
1/4/08
1/7/08
0.4
0.3
0.2
75 cm
0.5
1/4/07
0.4
0.3
Statistical analyses
0.2
Results
Soil moisture
Volumetric water content (h) was consistently high in
the control plots (0.380.48 m3 m-3 at depths of 10
and 75 cm, and 0.300.37 m3 m-3 at 150 cm;
Fig. 3). Rainless periods exceeding 2 weeks occurred
only in January 2008. The roof plots showed a
progressive decrease in h from March 2007 to reach a
minimum in January and February 2008, when h was
150 cm
0.1
F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J
2007
2008
123
9.5 0.03
Overall
Mean
9.4 0.1
4.7 0.03
1,100
R
6
986
1,114
979
986
R
R
2
3
1,014
C
1
Trees ha
123
Means SEM are shown for tree height (m), stem diameter (cm) 80 cm above ground level and leaf area index (LAI) derived by P. Propastin and S. Erasmi (unpubl.) from
hemispherical photographs. N/A represents not applicable
14
43
64
8.0 0.3 13.4 0.1
293
9.6 0.1
9.3 0.1
4.6 0.04
4.4 0.02
364
329
0
0
27.8 0.2
9.7 0.3
21
11.0 0.2 12.7 0.2
264
9.7 0.1
Tree
height
Stem
diameter
Tree
height
Trees
ha-1
Stem
diameter
Tree
height
4.6 0.04
Cocoa
Total
Trees
ha-1
Stem
diameter
LAI
Coconut
Gliricidia
-1
Cocoa
Roof/
control
Plot
Table 1 Stand structure of six agroforestry plots containing cocoa in Marena, Kulawi Valley, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, prior to the desiccation treatment
178
179
Table 2 Comparison of biomass fractions (Mg ha-1 SEM, n = 3) for cocoa and Gliricidia trees in the control and roof plots
prior to the drought treatment
Biomass fraction
Control
Roof
Cocoa
Leaves
Stem ? branches
Roots
Total
Gliricidia
3.76 0.26a
22.32 0.99
5.74 1.42
31.80 2.15
Total
1.00 0.05A
4.17 0 .78
2.52 0.39
7.69 1.18
Cocoa
Gliricidia
Total
4.76 0.43a
4.37 0.32a
1.03 0.07A
5.40 0.53a
21.35 1.48
5.36 1.06
26.72 2.63a
7.21 1.76
3.12 0.54
10.33 2.08a
32.89 2.32
9.51 1.64
42.45 3.68a
26.49 2.09
8.26 1.69
39.51 3.26
Since fine and coarse root biomass remained constant over time and no significant drought treatment effect was detected, the table
presents the detailed root biomass data for cocoa determined after the drought period at different distance classes from the stem base
(050 cm, 50100 cm, \100 cm; n = 6). Different letters indicate significant differences between roof and control plots (P \ 0.05;
lower case letters: cocoa, upper case letters: Gliricidia, Greek letters: total biomass)
123
180
Roof plots
50
100
150
200
250
Start of experiment
End of experiment
300
0
10
20
40
50
60
70
80 0
10
20
40
50
60
70
80
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
8 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0
-2
-1
8 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
treatment, although this difference was not significant, but exhibited a significant reduction of ca.
53% in the roof treatment relative to control trees
123
181
0-50 cm
50-100 cm
>100 cm
20
40
60
80
100
120
Control
140
Roof
0
50
100
50
100
50
100
500
1000
150
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0
500
1000
500
1000
1500
Discussion
Drought responses at leaf and stem levels
During the 13-month desiccation period, almost 80%
of the throughfall which would normally have
123
182
Control plots
Roof plots
50
100
150
200
250
Start of experiment
End of experiment
300
0
10
15
20
10
15
20
25
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
50
100
150
200
250
300
Fig. 6 Vertical distribution of fine (a ? b) and coarse roots (c ? d) of Gliricidia sepium at a minimum distance to the nearest tree
of 1 m before (December 2006) and after (June 2008) the desiccation period in the control and roof plots. Mean values SEM
123
Gliricidia
Cocoa
Roof Control
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
Control
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
-1.4
-1.6
Roof
183
100
80
60
40
20
0
Feb 07 Jul 07 Aug 07 Sep 07 Mar 08
Table 3 Components of net primary production by cocoa and Gliricidia trees between March 2007 and February 2008 in the roof
and control plots (Mg ha-1 year-1 SEM, n = 3)
Biomass production
Control
Roof
Cocoa
Leaves
Gliricidia
2.77 0.09a
Total
3.91 0.32A
Cocoa
Gliricidia
Total
6.26 0.23a
2.98 0.24a
3.87 0.41A
6.85 0.24a
0.67 0.03
N/A
0.67 0.03a
2.43 0.90
2.20 0.09
N/A
2.20 0.09a
0.74 0.18
2.43 0.90
Stem ? branches
1.81 0.21a
1.20 0.22A
3.01 0.32a
2.35 0.21b
0.97 0.31A
3.32 0.47a
0.71 0.08
0.93 0.08
1.40 0.21a
8.46 0.14
9.13 0.57
14.44 0.53a
Cocoa beans
Roots
Total
N/A
0.74 0.18
N/A
0.59 0.11
5.70 0.32
1.30 0.14
13.74 0.41
0.47 0.15
5.31 0.66
Different letters indicate significant differences between roof and control plots (P \ 0.05; lower case letters, cocoa; upper case
letters, Gliricidia; Greek letters: total biomass). N/A represents not applicable
123
184
60
50
Control
40
Roof
30
20
10
0
March
May
July
Sep
2007
Nov
Jan
March
May
July
2008
123
185
123
186
123
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