CONCRETE

B L O C K PA V I N G
1 Introduction

A walk-over in cost, looks and

durability for Concrete Block Paving

CONTENTS
SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY

SECTION 2

APPLICATIONS OF CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

Roads
Commercial Projects
Industrial Areas
Domestic Paving
Specialised Applications

SECTION 3

LABOUR-BASED CONSTRUCTION

SECTION 4

PATTERNS IN CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

SECTION 5

COMPARISON OF CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING WITH

OTHER TYPES OF PAVEMENT

SECTION 6

FUTURE OF CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

1 INTRODUCTION
Segmented concrete paving is a system of individual
shaped blocks arranged to form a continuous hardwearing surface overlay.
Over the past two decades, paving composed of
segmental blocks has become a feature of our towns
and cities. It is to be found in commercial industrial
and residential areas, in the paving malls, plazas,
parking areas and bus stops. It has been successfully
used for embankment walls, slope protection
and erosion control. During this period, extensive
research has been carried out on the engineering
characteristics and structural performance of
segmental block paving. Existing pavements subjected
to heavy bus traffic and industrial loads have
been monitored and their service life shown to be
satisfactory. The South African Bureau of Standards
has published specifications relating to the quality
of concrete paving blocks and required standards
of construction. The Committee of Urban Transport
Authorities has published a catalogue of designs for
segmental block pavements.
The engineering and specification aspects have
been satisfactorily solved, and this type of paving
has a proven performance and service record.
But the aesthetic use of segmented paving and
the contribution it can make to improve our urban
landscape is only now being appreciated.

HISTORY
Although pavers made out of concrete may be a
new product, the use of paving blocks as a surfacing
material is anything but new. The first record of stone
paving dates back to 4000 BC in Assyria and by 2000
BC, flagstones were being used to pave village streets.
Cobblestones were the traditional method of stone
paving, being uncut and often water-worn stones or
large pebbles about 150mm in size. Later hand-cut
stone blocks were introduced.
Road-making using brick was common in Mesopotamia
in 2000 BC and clay brick paving was in use in
India in 300 BC. It was the Romans who introduced
hexagonal-shaped flagstones as a surface course, so
the concept of shaped, rather than rectangular blocks,
is certainly not new.

Roman road built 2000 years ago using segmented paving.

These are still in existence today.
Concrete paving blocks were first manufactured in
the Netherlands in 1924. It was probably World
War II that led to the growth of concrete blocks as a
paving material. Large areas of the Netherlands were
destroyed during the War and, because clay bricks
were in short supply (and what was available was
being used to rebuild housing), concrete blocks were
introduced as an alternative. Subsequently, concrete
block paving (cbp) became recognised as a paving
material in its own right.
The research carried out by Shackel in the late 70s
and early 80s remains the most comprehensive yet
conducted into the performance of concrete block
paving. A hierarchy of block shapes was developed, the
existing design curves were examined, the role of the
bedding and jointing sands was investigated in earnest,

Perhaps the most famous of all Roman roads is the

and various base and sub-base materials were tested.

Appian Way, built by Roman engineers in 312 BC.

Most of the research by Shackel was carried out at

The 377 kilometre road was surfaced with tight-fitting

the CSIR in South Africa. This has resulted in South

paving stones that still carries traffic between Rome

Africa being recognised as a world leader in concrete

and Italys south-eastern port of Brindisi.

block paving.

2 APPLICATIONS OF CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

Concrete pavers are a versatile paving material,
which due to the availability of many shapes, sizes and
colours, has endless streetscape design possibilities.
The use of concrete block paving can be divided into

Indoor areas
Places of worship

INDUSTRIAL AREAS

the following categories:

Factories and warehouses

ROADS

Container depots

Main roads

Military applications

Residential roads

Mines

Urban renewal

Wastewater reduction works

Intersections

Quarries

Toll plazas

Airports and harbours

Pedestrian crossings

DOMESTIC PAVING

Taxi ranks

Pool surrounds

Steep slopes

Driveways

Pavements (sidewalks)

Patios

COMMERCIAL PROJECTS
Car parks

Townhouses and cluster homes

SPECIALISED APPLICATIONS

Shopping centres and malls

Cladding vertical surfaces

Parks and recreation centres

Stormwater channels

Golf courses and country clubs

Embankment protection under freeways

Zoos

Roof decks

Office parks
Service stations
Bus termini

The change in texture of the road

surface at intersections produces
an audible change in road noise,
thereby alerting drivers to the
fact that they are approaching
the intersection. The surface
characteristics of the blocks offer
a greater resistance to skidding
in wet weather, largely due to the
chamfered joints of the blocks and
the rapid dissipation of surface
water. Should remedial work be
necessary, e.g. on underground
services, blocks can be removed
and replaced without impairing
the overall appearance of the road
pavement. The use of red blocks
on roads at the approaches to the
intersection produces a distinct
visual difference, thereby promoting
care and awareness among drivers.

Major road construction using

concrete block paving. A technically
excellent surfacing, which also
provides community upliftment in
the form of job creation during
construction (see section3).

At pedestrian crossings , a
designer can place a different
texture or colour from that of
the street or parking area. This
distinguishes pedestrian areas from
vehicular areas, providing a safe
haven for the pedestrian, especially
those with physical handicaps.

ROADS
Sidewalks accommodate foot traffic
and other activities such as vending
public art, outdoor cafes, etc.

Toll plazas By using concrete block

paving differing in colour from that
of the conventional road surfacing,
the pay toll section becomes highly
visible, even from a distance,
alerting the driver to the pay point.
Differences in texture resulting from
the shape and laying pattern of the
blocks produces changes in the
noise level, further increasing driver
awareness.
The concrete block paving also
provides a safer road surface for
braking than conventional surfacing
materials.

ROADS
Concrete block paving is the ideal
material for use in the construction
of steep slopes.

Concrete block paving has been

used successfully on a number
of urban renewal projects (both
locally and overseas) to uplift the city
centre.

Concrete block paving is used to

enhance the most prestigious
residential areas.

INDUSTRIAL AREAS
At factories and warehouses
concrete block paving has the ability
to withstand concentrated heavy
loads and to resist the wheel loads
of off-road vehicles such as cranes
and forklifts.

INDUSTRIAL AREAS
Even the tremendous forces induced
by the slewing and turning of tanks
in military applications do not
damage concrete block paving.

Mechanised mining requires a hardwearing surface capable of carrying

extremely high loads and a surface
that can be laid and opened to
traffic immediately. Concrete block
paving is the logical choice.

INDUSTRIAL AREAS
Airports and harbours use
concrete pavers because they
halve the construction time when
compared to removing and replacing
asphalt. Pavers can be used to
mark a distinct location for the pilot
to park. Chamfers on the pavers
contribute to their ability to shed
surface water quickly.

3 LABOUR-BASED CONSTRUCTION
The Reconstruction and Development Programme
(RDP) sets out many goals aimed at bringing about
fundamental change in South Africa. Amongst these
goals are:
Development of infrastructure
The creation of employment
The development of entrepreneurial skills and
empowerment of the people.

The construction of roads using concrete block

paving provides benefits to the community, which
extend much further than the provision of roads
and the creation of employment. It develops
a sense of pride and ownership amongst the
community. As a result, the sidewalks are grassed,
houses painted and the entire area is uplifted. This
is a phenomenon observed not only here in South
Africa, but also overseas in countries such as

The construction of roads using concrete block paving

(cbp) satisfies many of the goals of the RDP. Concrete
block paved roads are more labour-intensive and less
capital-intensive than alternative methods of surfacing.
The construction process is relatively straightforward
and can be divided into a number of tasks.
Furthermore, the skills acquired can be used not only
for paving, but for other building and masonry work.

Australia and Colombia.

The advantage of constructing roads using concrete

block paving is that the methods of construction do
not need to be adjusted to make it labour-intensive, it
already is so.

block roadway, 2540% of the total project cost

A number of major projects in South Africa have

already been successfully completed, and the
improvement in the community and the neighbourhood
is remarkable.
Experience has shown that where the community is
involved in the planning and construction of a concrete
will remain in the community. This will help spawn
secondary and tertiary industries resulting in an
economically self-sufficient community.

Township roads being constructed

in Ntuzuma, near Durban, using
concrete block paving. Not only does
this provide a high-quality long-lasting
road with low maintenance, but the
construction of roads using concrete
block paving creates employment
and develops a sense of pride and
ownership in the community.

Concrete block paving provides an

attractive, long lasting maintenance
free road. Belabela is a good
example of what can be achieved.
Besides the obvious visible benefits
that a road brings to a township,
where the people have been involved
in the reconstruction of these roads,
there is a sense of ownership and
pride in the neighbourhood, resulting
in a total upliftment of the area as is
evident from these photographs in
Belabela, taken two years after the
road was completed.

4 PATTERNS IN CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

Concrete block pavers come in a variety of shapes and
sizes (See Figure 2 for a list of shapes available).
If we consider for a moment the aesthetics of concrete
block paving, three fundamental aspects present
themselves:

No amount of text or visual material could do full

justice to these options; accordingly, this selfexplanatory presentation serves purely to stir the
imagination regarding the limitless possibilities of
concrete block paving.
Indeed, based on the above technical elements,
together with aesthetic and economic criteria,
producers worldwide and in South Africa undertake
continuing research to develop new concrete paving
products that enlarge these choices further.

Shapes
Colours
Patterns
Applying just a few variables to each aspect presents a
myriad of options from which even the most discerning

Only a few of the shapes available to the South African

market are presented here and details of those not

client may happily choose.

shown may be obtained from the manufacturers.

SHAPES
The illustration below shows the range of available
shapes and trade names.

Corolink
Keystone
Uni-Decor

Unique Aristocrat
Romanpave

Satinpave

Clover
Tiffany

Honeystyle

Corolock
Double zig zagBevel Brick
Double Lock
Vibrolock Bond Brick
G-Blok
Craz E G-Blok Classipave
Roadliner
Corostone

Conleaf

Classic Cobble Cape Cobble

Cobble Craz E Classic Cobble
Concobble Double Cobble
Village Cobble Court Stone

Masonique Bush Stone

Footstone
RectangularCoroplaza
Rumblestone
Stylepave Corovilla
Trojan
Traditional CottageStone Savannah

COLOURS
Illustrated below are some of the range of standard

cements, produce a huge variety of colours from which

colours available. Many pigments are used by South

to choose. Multiblends are produced by the incomplete

African paving block manufacturers which, together

mixing of pigments and give a pleasing effect when laid

with aggregates from different areas and various

over large areas.

Red

Charcoal

Grey

Tan

Brown

PATTERNS
Patterns are determined by the shape of a specific

laid in herringbone bond do perform better under

paving block. The three patterns shown below are

traffic loads than pavements laid in stretcher bond or

the basic patterns for the more traditional oblong or

basket weave.

interlocking blocks.

Other blocks, because of their different geometry, can

The laying pattern is an important factor in the

produce a far greater variety of patterns. Even the

performance of block pavements and, based on tests

simplest block, however, is perceived to produce a multi-

and field observations, it is widely accepted that blocks

tude of patterns when two or more colours are used.

Herringbone

Stretcher

Basket Weave

MONTAGE OF PATTERNS

5 COMPARISON OF CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

WITH OTHER TYPES OF PAVEMENT
Where planning may require alterations in the

In certain specific areas of application, block paving,

pavement layout within the effective service life of

with its cost-effectiveness, aesthetic qualities, ease

the blocks, base or sub-base.

of construction and maintenance and in-service

advantages, is the paving of choice. In Table 2,
a comparison with conventional flexible and rigid

ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE
BLOCK OVER ASPHALT AND
RIGID CONCRETE PAVING

pavements, based on these attributes is given.

In general, it can be said that concrete block paving
excels in terms of cost and performance in the
following circumstances:

High abrasion and skid resistance.

Where heavy or concentrated wheel loads are to

No damage from petroleum products.

be carried and especially where a high frequency of

No damage from concentrated point loads or high

turning or slewing movements is expected.

temperatures.

Where volume of traffic is high.

No damage by soap or detergents.

Where subgrade conditions are poor.

A feature of many modern pavements is the

Where the pavement must withstand severe

incorporation of design patterns such as coats of

in-service conditions such as considerable

arms, maps, insignia, crests, animals, birds, etc,

temperature variations, frequent fuel, oil or

in the paving by using different coloured blocks.

lubricant spillage or extensive, significant and

These artistic mosaics can be used to depict and

substained settlement.

commemorate historical events by means of maps

and diagrams, patterns can be utilised to control

Where ready access to underground services is

traffic flow, while coloured blocks in playgrounds can

required.

demarcate game and boundary lines.

Where the appearance and aesthetic qualities of

the pavement are major design considerations.

The market for paving blocks is, at present, a growing

one. One of the main reasons for the growth of

10

this very specialised market would seem to be the

worldwide tendency for beautification of cities, parks
and gardens. This requires a modern concrete paving

Concrete block
paving million
square metres

product, which is quick and easy to lay, and besides

being aesthetically pleasing, has the advantage of
excellent performance under traffic.
Figure 4 shows the growth in the concrete block
paving market since its inception in the late 1950s.

Because of its greater acceptance, not only for roads,

driveways and parking areas, but also for other
applications such as airports, harbours and mines,
it is expected that this market will continue to grow.
One area which promises the greatest potential, is the

2
1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2005

paving of township roads as part of the employment

Figure 4: Growth in concrete block paving in

creation programme.

South Africa.

BLOCK PAVING

CONCRETE
BLOCK PAVING
2 Design Aspects

6 FUTURE OF CONCRETE

A walk-over in cost, looks and

durability for Concrete Block Paving

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. KEY ELEMENTS OF PAVING

2.1 Subgrade

2.2 Subbase

2.3 Bedding sand layer

2.4 Concrete paving blocks

2.5 Jointing sand

2.6 Edge restraints

2.7 Drainage

3. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CBP

3.1 Equivalent thickness concept

3.2 Catalogue design method

3.3 Research-based method

3.4 Mechanistic design method

3.5 Lockpave

4. PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

4.1 Preliminary considerations

4.2 Construction

5. SPECIAL APPLICATIONS

5.1 Construction of steep slopes

10

5.2 Embankments

10

5.3 Intersections

10

5.4 Airports

10

5.5 Roof decks

10

6. MAINTENANCE

10

6.1 Jointing sand

10

6.2 Weed growth

11

6.3 Abrasion

11

6.4 Settlement/subsidence

11

6.5 Reinstatement of trenches

11

6.6 Efflorescence

11

6.7 Oil Stains

11

7. CONCLUSION

11

8. CASE STUDIES

12

8.1 Richards Bay Harbour

12

8.2 Pinetown Traffic Intersection

12

8.3 Bellville Goods Yard

13

8.4 Trident Steel Maxmead Pinetown

14

8.5 Johannesburg Northern Wastewater Treatment Works

14

8.5 Pietersburg Traffic Intersection

15

8.6 Analysis of a Concrete Segmental Road Pavement

16

9. REFERENCES

16

INTRODUCTION
Concrete block paving (cbp), if properly designed and
constructed, will last for decades with little or no
maintenance being necessary. However, as with all

2 KEY ELEMENTS
OF PAVING
Drainage,
both surface and subsoil, preventing the
build-up of water in the pavement layers.

types of pavements and structures, there are certain

2.1 SUBGRADE

requirements regarding the design and construction,

All structures-buildings, roads and other surfaced

which are important to the success of cbp. This

areas-are ultimately supported by soil or rock. It is the

publication covers some of these aspects, which are

designers responsibility to evaluate the behaviour and

critical to the successful long-term performance of

performance requirements of the structure to ensure

segmented paving. History of the design philosophy is

such requirements are compatible with the soil

also covered.

conditions prevailing on the site. Subgrade preparation

The structural design of pavements is concerned with

traffic, layerwork (foundations), materials, subgrade

should extend to the rear face of all new edge

restraints.

soils, environmental conditions, construction details

2.2 SUBBASE

and economics. Essentially the pavement must carry

Where the subgrade is of a low strength, or the traffic

the traffic at an acceptable level of comfort and safety

is heavy, an imported subbase layer (or two or more

and at an acceptable cost. This is achieved by a

layers) may be required or treatment of the subgrade

layered structure where each layer has sufficient

strength to cope with the induced stresses without
distress such as rutting, excessive settlement or
deflection. Figure 2 shows how the pressure exerted
by traffic dissipates under the road.

eg stabilised. The principles of design of the pavement

layers are the same as for most flexible pavements.
As the blocks perform a structural function, the
requirements for the layerworks are less than for
asphalt. In many cases the subbase course can be

Although the surfacing is subjected to the highest

eliminated.

stresses, the effect of traffic (especially heavy traffic)

Where the subbase is an unbound granular layer, it may

is felt deep into the pavement layers, sometimes up to

a metre deep. The strength of these layers is as
important to the long-term performance of the
pavement as the surface itself.

in some cases be advisable to seal the surface if it is

felt that, during the early life of the pavement, a
danger of water filtering through the joints and into
the subgrade exists. Sealing can be achieved by

Concrete paving blocks not only provide a durable

spraying a low-durability bitumen emulsion at a rate of

wearing surface, but also provide a structural

approximately 0,2l /m. This is generally only a

component and hence contribute to the strength of the

temporary problem, since the joints between the units

pavement. They reduce the stresses in the layers

eventually become clogged with road detritus and

below. Not all pavement requirements are equal, and

impermeable to water.

every pavement should be designed and constructed to

suit the particular need.

2 KEY ELEMENTS
OF PAVING
The seven key elements of paving are:

2.3 BEDDING SAND LAYER

This is a thin (25mm 10mm after compaction)
layer usually of coarse river sand. The purpose of
this layer is to provide an even bedding for the
blocks. The bedding sand is laid loose and the blocks
compacted into this layer with sand rising in the
joints between blocks. This ensures that the blocks

The subgrade or natural earth material found on site

achieve an even support.

The subbase, a layer of road building material

Generally, commercial clean river sand is satisfactory.

imported when subgrade conditions are poor and/or

Crusher sand may be suitable but needs to be

traffic conditions are heavy.

evaluated for suitability.

A thin layer of selectively graded bedding sand

The bedding sand pushed up into the joints between

The concrete paving blocks, which form the base

course as well as the surface wearing course
The jointing sand that fills the gaps between every
adjacent block
Edge restraints, positive support placed around the
perimeter of the pavement

the blocks ensures adequate joint width and results in

interlock when the joints are completely filled with
jointing sand. The bedding sand layer should be thin,
clean, free of silt and should not be used as a levelling
course to fill voids in the subbase surface. This will
lead to subsequent settlement.

Those blocks which allow geometricalinterlock between

some faces of adjacent blocks.

2.4 CONCRETE PAVING BLOCKS

There are a number of aspects of paving blocks
which should be considered during the design stage,
namely the strength, shape, thickness and
dimensional tolerance.
STRENGTH
Segmented paving blocks generally have an average

Block type S-A

compressive strength of 25MPa wet strength (Class

Block type S-B

25 SANS1058) . This is significantly higher than the

strength of bricks (7 MPa). The reason for this is to
ensure that the blocks have adequate resistance to

Those blocks which allow nogeometrical

interlock between adjacent blocks.

Block type S-C

traffic loading and to abrasion from traffic, both

vehicular and pedestrian. Research carried out by
CSIR Road Research shows that for strengths in
excess of 25 MPa, little structural advantage is gained
by increasing strength. It is also important to note
that although the required average strength is 25
MPa, the minimum strength for individual blocks is 20
MPa. Very often it will be this lower figure that will
dictate the average strength for compliance with
Class 25 blocks. Where the quality control is poor it is
virtually impossible to satisfy this latter requirement.
BLOCK SHAPE
Concrete paving blocks can be divided into three types

LAYING PATTERNS
Patterns are determined by performance and aesthetic
requirements. The three patterns shown (see Figures
4a,4b and 4c) are the basic patterns. Numerous other
patterns are also possible.
The herringbone pattern ensures the best resistance
to both horizontal and vertical deformation and is
generally recommended for industrial pavements.

based on shape (see Figures 3a, 3b and 3c).

Research shows that type S-A blocks develop the best

The introduction of coloured blocks will add another

resistance to both vertical and horizontal creep and

block paving (see Book 1).

are generally recommended for all industrial and heavyduty applications. Type S-B and S-C blocks are
generally selected for aesthetic reasons.
THICKNESS
Paving block thicknesses vary between 50 80 mm. The
thicker the blocks the better the pavement will resist

dimension to the visual effect created by concrete

2.5 JOINTING SAND

The jointing sand plays an important role in the
performance of concrete block pavements. This sand is
distinctly different from the bedding sand (see Figure
5) and the same sand should not be used in both

vertical deformation and horizontal creep. However,

there is a cost implication and thickness selection should

Stretcher

be based on application. Generally for domestic use, 50

60 mm blocks are adequate. For industrial use an 80mm
paver is recommended. Experience has shown that
very little benefit is gained from pavers which are
thicker than 80 mm. However, such pavers can be
manufactured for special applications.
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE

Herringbone

It is important for blocks to be within the required

dimensional specifications (2mm on plan
dimensions and 3mm on height). This is to ensure
a smooth finished surface as well as good interlock
between pavers.
CHAMFER
Chamfering of blocks improves their service
performance and appearance. Most concrete paving
blocks are chamfered.

Basket Weave

cases. Coarse river sand is ideal for bedding, while a

structural capacity when properly installed. For axle

finer plaster sand is necessary for jointing between

loads such as those applied by trucks, the block

the paving blocks.

normally provides the principal loadbearing course in

Jointing sand is swept into the joints once the initial

compaction of the blocks is complete. The jointing
sand should ideally contain a little clay or silt. This
helps seal the joints against water ingress.
Cement should not be added to the jointing sand as
this will lead to cracking and subsequent water
ingress. Cemented joints convert a flexible pavement

2.6 EDGE RESTRAINTS

the entire pavement. The blocks themselves are hardly

affected by high surface stresses. In practice, it is
found that, as the design load increases, block
pavements can offer increasingly beneficial operational
and economic advantages over other pavement types.
Block pavements usually exhibit smaller permanent
deformations under traffic than asphalt pavements.
However, it should be noted that the converse is often
true in the case of deflections. Because of the
articulated nature of block paving, large deflections (up

Edge restraints are an important element of segmented

to 2 mm or more) have been observed under truck

paving. Edge restraints hold the pavers in position and

prevent horizontal creep and the opening of joints under

traffic. Such large elastic movements would be

traffic with the subsequent loss of integrity of the

cause cracking of the surfacing. Because concrete

pavement. All cbp must have an edge restraint (for

details see Book 3). Edge restraints may be cast in situ

block paving is dissected by a network of joints, large

or precast or could be the existing structures.

stabilised bases or subbases are used, are not a

2.7 DRAINAGE

design consideration. For this reason the thickness of

Most failures of pavements are due to ingress of

water into the pavement layerwork. In order to obviate
this problem, attention should be paid to surface
drainage and where necessary subsoil drainage.
Adequate longitudinal falls and no undulations are
necessary to prevent ponding and infiltration of water
into the layer-works particularly in the early life of the
pavement. A minimum fall of 2% in any direction is
generally required. It is also important to ensure that
the paving is laid proud of (ie 5-10 mm higher than)
stormwater structures or channels.

unacceptable in other types of pavement and would

deflections can be tolerated and, except where

unbound granular subbase needed in a block pavement

is normally less than that required in an asphaltsurfaced pavement.
Under traffic, concrete block pavements tend to
stiffen. In some cases this can lead to the pavements
achieving a quasi-equilibrium or lockup condition
beyond which no further deformation occurs. Often the
increase in stiffness in the block layer that
accompanies lockup is substantial and it has been
reported that it may be possible thereafter to increase
the loads applied to the pavement without causing
damage. The development of lockup is contingent upon

Where paving is laid on a slope, water penetrating the

paving can accumulate in the bedding sand at the low

careful control of construction standards and

point. Where a high water table exists, subsoil

that subbase layers of low bearing values do not

drainage should be installed.

permit the development of interlock during the early

3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
OF CBP

layerworks quality. For example, it has been reported

life of the pavement. Where conditions are favourable

for achieving interlock it can be allowed to develop
gradually under traffic or may be more rapidly induced

Under traffic, block pavements tend gradually to

accumulate rutting deformations. In this respect the

by proof-rolling the pavement.

performance of block paving is similar to that of

concrete block paving is given here.

conventional flexible pavements. However, both the

amount and rate of accumulation of deformation of the

The methods that are available to design block paving

pavement layers in block paving tends to be less than

A brief summary of the methods of designing of

roads can be divided into five categories.

in flexible pavements of similar thickness.

Equivalent thickness concept

The ability of blocks to spread concentrated loads over

Catalogue design method

a wide area of earthworks layers is well documented.

Research-based design methods

This means that blocks do not merely act as a wearing

course, but, rather, form one of the loadbearing

Mechanistic design methods

courses. In other words the blocks have a significant

Lockpave

3.1 EQUIVALENT THICKNESS

CONCEPT

In South Africa we have three design manuals based

on catalogue design:

Here it is assumed that the pavement can be designed by

Draft UTG2. Structural design of segmental block

established flexible pavement design procedures and that

pavements for southern Africa.

the blocks and bedding sand can substitute an equivalent

Guidelines for the provision of engineering services

part of the conventional design. Table 1 gives a

4
in residential townships
.

summary of the various values of equivalent

substitution used in Argentina, Australia, UK and
USA. Adopting the item of equivalency described
above, it becomes a simple matter to design a block
pavement using well established flexible pavement
design procedures which incorporate measure of
subgrade strength such as Bearing Ratio.

TRH 4: Sructural design of inter-urban and rural

5
road pavements
.

In all cases, the road is classified in terms of traffic

volume (as measured by cumulative E80s), traffic type
(residential or industrial) and climatic conditions. Once
the road has been classified, the catalogue can be
used to select the pavement design. (Figure 6 is a

The various design approaches discussed above assume

typical design taken from UTG2.) The material classes

that block paving responds to traffic in a manner which

specified for the pavement design are as per TRH 614 .

is similar to that exhibited by conventional flexible

However, the catalogue method lacks flexibility (only

pavements and that, consequently, there is no

subgrade strength of CBR = 10 or 15 is

impediment to the use of established design

accommodated) and will often yield a less than optimal

procedures. However, this is not strictly correct.

pavement design.

Consequently, a criticism of these design methods is

peculiar to block paving such as the development of

3.3 RESEARCH-BASED
DESIGN METHODS

progressive stiffening and lockup, the ability to tolerate

Although many engineers have used tests of prototype

large transient deflections, and the ability to spread the

interlocking concrete pavements to obtain materials

load, thus reducing the stress below the bedding sand.

equivalencies or substitution ratios, only one design

that they fail to recognise or exploit those advantages

method appears to be wholly based on accelerated

Country

Concrete block paving is equivalent to

Argentina

2,5 times their thickness of

granular subbase.

Shackel at the University of New South Wales for the

Australia

2,1 2,9 times their thickness of

crushed rock base.
1,1 1,5 times dense graded
asphaltic concrete.

method was first published in 1978. Subsequently,

USA Corps 165mm cover.

of Engineers 2 2,85 times its thickness of
granular base.
United
Kingdom

225 mm of soil cement.

160 mm of rolled asphalt.

trafficking tests. This is the method developed by

Cement and Concrete Association of Australia. This
following trafficking tests in South Africa designed, in
part, to verify the procedure, the method was slightly
revised in 1982. The method is restricted to block
pavements subjected to highway loadings and which
incorporate unbound granular bases.
It has proved possible to use data gathered during
accelerated trafficking tests of full-scale prototype

block pavements to develop statistically-based models to

Table 1: Summary of various factors of equivalent substitution
relate, for a given subgrade strength, the block and base

3.2 CATALOGUE DESIGN METHOD

thickness to such measures of performance as rut

depth. These models have been extended to cover the full

Here blocks and base thickness are selected on the

range of subgrade conditions using mechanistic analyses.

basis of experience of road construction on subgrades

Typical design curves are shown in Figure 7. This method

similar to that under consideration. Where the body of

has been used successfully in a variety of climates since

experience is extensive, as in Europe, this simple

the late 1970s but has been replaced by mechanistic

approach can yield satisfactory results. The design

procedures similar to those described below.

procedures are often presented as a design catalogue,

make little distinction between different subgrade

3.4 MECHANISTIC DESIGN

METHODS

conditions or wheel loads. Such methods are, in

Several mechanistic procedures for the design of block

general, only applicable to roads and not suitable for

pavements have been developed. The first was

the design of industrial pavements.

developed in South Africa. Here the block pavements

which encapsulates local knowledge but which tends to

were analysed as homogenous isotropic flexible mats

computer programme called Lockpave, discussed

overlying a flexible subgrade whose strength was

below. The method is believed to be an advance on

defined in terms of CBR. The second mechanistic

earlier mechanistic procedures in so far that it

analysis was reported in Britain in 1979. The method

completely avoids the need to use concepts of axle

was based on a three-layer linear elastic analysis of

load equivalency but rather analyses and designs each

the pavement and assumed that conventional criteria

pavement in terms of an appropriate spectrum of axle

for relating subgrade strain to the expected life of an

loads. This is of particular importance in the designing

asphaltic pavement could equally well be applied to a

of industrial pavements, which often have to accept a

block pavement.

very wide range of wheel loads, vehicle configurations

Recently a variety of mechanistic procedures utilising

and differing load repetitions for each vehicle type.

the methodology of conventional flexible pavement

Examples of design curves for both road pavements

design have been developed. Usually these analyses are

and industrial hardstands proposed using this

concerned with either:

methodology are given in Figures 8 and 9.

Computing the tensile strains in a bound subbase

and thereby defining the fatigue life; or

3.5 LOCKPAVE
The mechanistic design method has also been

Determining the vertical compressive strains in the

developed as a computer programme Lockpave.

pavement or granular subbase and using these to

Mechanistic pavement design involves the formulation

predict the rutting that will develop under traffic.

and solution of a boundary value problem. This requires

By trial, the thickness of the various pavement layers

the determination of the stresses and strains at

may be chosen to achieve both an adequate fatigue life

critical locations throughout the pavement. These are

and tolerable levels of rut deformation.

compared with the values that would, theoretically, be

Initially, the most effective application of mechanistic

methods was in the design of block pavements
incorporating bound subbases such as lean concrete or
cement-stabilised granular materials. However, in
1985 Shackel published a comprehensive mechanistic
design methodology that was suited to both bound and
unbound subbases. This procedure was designed to be
run, in an interactive mode, on micro-or minicomputers. This design method is now available as a

4 5 6 8 10

5
N = 4,5 x 10

20

above, failure may be the result of either excessive

rutting in the case of granular material, or, in the
caseof bound materials, of extensive cracking leading
to aloss of both strength and stiffness. Typically, the
critical stresses and strains occur either on or near
the vertical load axis at the bottom of all bound
(brittle) layers and at the top of the subgrade.The
fatigue life of the bound layers can berelated to the
repeated tensile strains or stresses
Soaked Subgrade CBR(%)

Soaked Subgrade CBR(%)

2
0

predicted to cause failure of the pavement. As noted

30 40

0
100

80mm type S-A blocks

100

80mm Type S-A blocks

200

Thickness
400 of base (mm)

200

500
300

400

6
N = 4,5 x 10

N = 1,4 x 10
500

Cement stabilised base

Crushed rock base

Design Curves for Road Pavement

25
30
35
40
45
50
25
35

45
50

700
800
900
1000

1200

20

Max: rated wheel load (tonnes)

25

600

Cement stabilised base

1100
600

15

35

N = 10

7 8 9 10

Multiple wheels

300
Thickness of base (mm)

6
N = 10

Crushed rock base

Design Curves for Container-Handling Areas

The intended usage of the area to be paved

The type of paving block to be used
(interlocking etc)
The expected service life of the area
The degree of distress that can be tolerated

Blocks
Sand
Base
Subbase
Subgrade

Maintenance

Horizontal
tensile strain
(in bound
layers only)

Once these have been specified, design of the

pavement may commence and the following factors
should receive attention:
The type of traffic expected

Vertical
compressive
strain

Strains within the pavement

whilst the permanent deformation or rutting of the
pavement is normally assumed to be a function of the
repeated vertical compressive strains at the top of the
subgrade. Provided the critical stresses and strains
can be calculated, and Youngs modulus of elasticity
and Poissons Ratio of the layerworks are known, it is
possible to predict the service life of the pavement.
Conversely, for a designated service life, it is possible
to calculate what values of stress and strain can be

The imposed loads

In situ soil conditions and materials
The availability of materials
Climatic conditions
Surface and sub-surface drainage

4.2 CONSTRUCTION
In the construction of the paved area, it is essential
that the same criteria of good practice in
construction and control be applied to the subgrade,
subbase and drainage as would apply in the case of any
other type of pavement.

tolerated and, by trial and error, to determine what

It must further be noted that segmented paving

combination of layer thicknesses are required if these

requires adequate edge restraint to the paved area

stresses and strains are not be exceeded.

otherwise movement of blocks and loss of performance

Thus, mechanistic pavement design involves first the

analysis of the stress and strain distributions caused
by some designated loading and, secondly, the
progressive adjustment of layer thickness until the
predicted stresses and strains can be deemed to be
insufficient to cause failure within the required service

will occur. The nature of usage will determine the

appropriate edge restraint to be used. For example, a
pedestrian walkway may only need a small precast
concrete kerb or a premix infill, where as in a hightraffic industrial area heavy duty concrete kerbs or a
reinforced concrete ground beam may be necessary.

life of the pavement. The adjustment of layer thickness

Should any of the above items not be properly designed

must be done iteratively. This implies that a large

and constructed, excessive maintenance may be

number of calculations will be necessary. Because of

required during the life of the pavement.

this and because of the mathematical complexity of

analysing layered systems, mechanistic analyses
normally require the use of computers.

A particularly useful feature of concrete block paving

is that it is a forgiving pavement. Thus, where design
or construction defects occur locally (such as at

Further information on the Lockpave programme can

manholes, etc) repairs are not usually difficult, time

be obtained from the CMA.

consuming or costly. Segmented paving also permits

4 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
In planning a cbp project consideration should be given
to the following.

easy access to underground services since the

paving blocks in the area may be removed. The
required work can then be undertaken and the same
blocks replaced.

5 SPECIAL APPLICATIONS

4.1 PRELIMINARY
CONSIDERATIONS

The method and procedure required to lay concrete

In planning, specifying and designing a pavement, the

is covered in Books 3 and 4. However, there are

following factors must be considered:

certain applications where special requirements and

block paving for the majority of standard applications

attention to detail are necessary. These special

applications are given below.

5.1 CONSTRUCTION OF
STEEP SLOPES
There are certain considerations that must be taken
into account during the design and construction of
concrete block pavers on steep slopes. Refer to CMA
technical notes on steep slopes and to Book 3 for
factors to be included in the design of steep slopes.
These include an anchor beam at the bottom end of
the pavement as well as at certain intervals depending
on the length and gradient of the slope. Also, special
attention must be given to the drainage of the bedding
sand layer at the lower end of the pavement against
the anchor beam.

5.2 EMBANKMENTS

5.5 ROOF DECKS

Often, concrete block paving is laid on top of a
concrete slab or other impermeable layer. This is not
generally a problem. However, attention should be
given to drainage, both surface and subsurface. The
minimum required fall of 2% is still necessary to
remove surface water. However, because of the low
falls, this can result in an accumulation of water in
the bedding sand. The drainage details discussed under
the section steep slopes should be used in the lower
end of the paving. However, because of the low falls,
additional drainage may be required at regular
intervals. A typical herringbone drainage layout is
suggested. Alternatively, a coarse free-draining
bedding sand can be used.
As in all cases, cbp must be contained by edge
restraints. Where a parapet wall is used as an edge

Concrete block paving is often used for erosion

restraint care must be taken to ensure that the

protection of steep embankments, particularly bridge

parapet wall has adequate strength to act as a

abutments. Although the slopes are generally too

suitable edge restraint. Special attention should also

steep for traffic and hence the underlying soil need not

be paid over movement joints in the slab and to how

be well compacted, a reasonable amount of

movement is to be accommodated.

compaction is required to prevent settlement. This is

best achieved by constructing and compacting the

6 MAINTENANCE

slope proud of the final line and trimming back. It is

Maintenance of a well-designed and constructed

also important that the top edge is protected to

segmented pavement normally involves the

prevent stormwater undermining the paving.

replacement of jointing sand, the treatment of weeds

5.3 INTERSECTIONS

or other growth and the correction of surface levels

Concrete block paving has been used successfully in

resulting from localised construction defects.

South Africa for the construction of intersections

6.1 JOINTING SAND

primarily to reduce accidents. The reduction of

In areas exposed to high-speed traffic, or to wind and

accidents is due to a number of factors, namely:

water erosion, some of the jointing sand between the

Better skid-resistance in the wet and hence

shorter stopping distance
Higher luminance of the pavers

individual blocks may be lost during the first few

months of the life of the pavement. This problem is
greatly reduced as the joints between the blocks
become clogged with the road detritus and other

Difference in surface noise, alerting drivers to a

material. This plugging of the joints is usually well

change in situation

established after about three months of pavement

Design of the pavement layers must take into account

the braking, accelerating and slewing action
experienced in intersections.

5.4 AIRPORTS
Concrete block paving has been used for the

usage.
If there is a loss of jointing sand in the first few
months the paving should be resanded. It is advisable
for all paving contracts to include a clause on
resanding.

construction of taxiways and aprons at a number of

In areas subjected to concentrations of water, for

airports, notably Cairns in Australia, Luton in the UK,

example at the outlet of a downpipe from a roof, it is

and Fort Dallas in the USA. In areas where the

advisable that the jointing sand should incorporate

pavement is subjected to the immense pressure of the

about 10% cement by mass to increase erosion

jet thrust ,which can result in the loss of jointing

resistance. This should be mixed dry, brushed dry into

sand, it is important that special attention is paid to

the joints, vibrated, and then given a light washing

the sealing of the joints. In the UK, specialised

down with water to activate the cement. Generally

polymers are available for sealing these joints.

speaking, maintenance of sand in the joints will be

greatly reduced if correctly graded sand is used. The

permeability of the joints can be reduced by the
addition of 10% lime, or 6-7% bentonite or some clay.

6.4 REINSTATEMENT OF
TRENCHES
Periodically, pavements have to be dug up to access

6.2 WEED GROWTH

underground services. The advantage of cbp is that

A common fallacy is the assumption that weeds or

the blocks can be lifted, the trench dug, services

other vegetation growing in segmented paving originate

in the sub grade or sub-soil areas. In fact ninety per

installed or repaired, the trench refilled and paving

reinstated. Details of this operation are covered in

cent of vegetation growth in large paved areas is the

Book 4.

result of wind blown seeds, which have germinated in

6.5 EFFLORESCENCE

the jointing sand between the blocks. This can easily

be proved by removing some of the vegetation and
observing where the stem ends and the roots begin. In
most cases this occurs just below the surface of the
blocks and hence in the jointing sand.

Efflorescence results when free lime in the cement is

dissolved and carried by water to the surface of the
paver and is deposited there once the water
evaporates. Efflorescence results in a whitish or light
colouring on the surface of the pavers. Efflorescence

Where vegetation is likely to cause a maintenance

(if it does occur) generally occurs in the early life of

problem, eg Kikuyu grass growing from beneath the

pavers and particularly when water is present and it is

blocks, a suitable herbicide may be mixed with the

cold. Efflorescence is mostly a temporary effect and,

jointing sand or sprayed over the completed paving.

given time, usually disappears of its own accord. It is

Care should however be exercised since the injudicious

purely superficial and does not affect the durability or

use of poisonous substances may result in extensive

strength of the concrete paving units.

damage to cultivated areas. Herbicides, having no

residual effect are available to control both annual and
perennial weeds. They will not contaminate water
supplies or damage other vegetation when distributed
by surface run-off during rainstorms. Expert advice on
the choice of herbicides should be sought- eg. from the
Department of Agriculture and from reputable
manufacturers.

If immediate removal is required, the pavers can be

given an acid wash - see technical note.

6.7 OIL STAINS

Concrete block paving is frequently used for garage
forecourts, taxi and bus termini and parking areas. As
a result the surface is often spoilt by oil stains. The
fact that cbp is not affected by this is very positive.

The use of plastic sheeting under paving blocks as an

However, to remove these stains poses a problem.

inhibitor of vegetation growth due to wind-blown seeds

There are proprietary products which have been

in the joints is not recommended.

designed specifically for this purpose. If these are not

6.3 ABRASION
With pavers subjected to intense trafficking, there will
be a degree of abrasion with time. The extent of the
abrasion will depend on the traffic, the type of

available then it is recommended that the paving be

scrubbed with a strong detergent and washed down
with water.

7 CONCLUSION

aggregates used, the cement content, the ratio of

Good pavement management requires that the

coarse to fine aggregates, control in manufacture and

condition of pavements be consistently maintained

initial curing.

above a minimum level. Visual inspections are usually

Provided the pavers are of adequate strength , the

satisfactory in determining this level for segmented

abrasion does not affect the structural integrity of the

pavements.

paving. Furthermore, the degree of abrasion

The degree and extent of maintenance will depend on

diminishes with time.

the standards and criteria required of the pavement.

6.3 SETTLEMENT/SUBSIDENCE

Provided that proper design and construction

From time to time, there is settlement of the

techniques are observed, and the possible problem

pavement surface. This is due to an inadequate

areas discussed above are recognised and treated, a

subbase or subgrade, the presence of subsoil water,

segmented concrete block pavement is indeed

overloading the pavement or a bedding sand layer

maintenance free.

which is too thick. The benefit of cbp is that the areas

can be lifted, the problem addressed, the level
reinstated and the pavers re-laid.

CONCRETE
BLOCK PAVING
3 Specification and Installation

A walk-over in cost, looks and

durability for Concrete Block Paving

CONTENTS
PREFACE

EXTRACTS FROM SANS1200 MJ 1984 AND COMMENTARY

3. MATERIALS

3.1 UNITS

3.2 KERBS AND CHANNELS

3.3 SAND FOR BEDDING AND JOINTING

4. PLANT

4.1 GENERAL

4.2 ROLLER

4.3 MECHANICAL COMPACTOR

5. CONSTRUCTION

6
6

5.1 PREPARATION

5.2 EDGE RESTRAINTS

5.3 PLACING AND COMPACTING OF SAND BED

5.4 LAYING OF UNITS

5.5 FILLING GAPS IN UNIT PATTERN

5.6 COMPACTION OF UNITS

5.7 JOINT FILLING

6. TOLERANCES
6.1 GENERAL
6.2 PERMISSIBLE DEVIATIONS
7. TESTING

9
9
10
10

7.1 GENERAL

10

7.2 TRIAL SECTION

11

7.3 SUBBASE, FORMATION AND OTHER FOUNDATION LAYERS

11

7.4 BLOCKS

11

7.5 CONCRETE FOR GAP FILLING

11

7.6 KERBS, CHANNELS AND OTHER DEVICES

11

7.7 PONDING
DETAILS OF CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

11
12

NOTE: Use of Computer Aided Design (CAD). The following details in this manual are
available on CD Rom in Caddie. Auto CAD and DXF format.
Please contact the Concrete Manufacturers Association if you require these formats.

PREFACE

3.2 KERBS AND CHANNELS

Kerbs and channels shall be of the sections shown on
the drawings (see opposite page) and shall comply with

The quality of paving depends on the care taken in all

the relevant requirements of SANS 927 and, when

aspects of construction from subgrade preparation, to

applicable, SANS 1200 MK.

laying of paving blocks and final compaction. Good

3.3 SAND FOR BEDDING

AND JOINTING

segmented paving depends just as much on good

construction as on good blocks and design.
Requirements for quality of blocks is given in SANS

Sand for bedding and jointing shall be free from

1058 Concrete paving blocks, while SANS 1200 MJ is

substances that may be deleterious to blocks. In

the standardised specification for civil engineering

addition, the grading of the sand shall conform to that

construction of segmented paving.

given in a) or b) below, as applicable, except that,

This book is intended for assisting in the preparation

of construction specifications for paving roads,
industrial hardstanding, and other areas with concrete
paving blocks laid on a sand bed, the joints between

where evidence satisfactory to the engineer has been

provided to the successful previous use of sand having
another grading, sand of such other grading may
be used.

the units being filled with jointing sand. It provides

extracts from SANS 1200 MJ with accompanying
commentary where appropriate. The clauses are
typical of those, which should be incorporated in a
contract specification, while the commentary gives
background information to be considered in formulating
them.

3 MATERIALS
3.1 UNITS
3.1.1 GENERAL
The units as supplied shall be free from cracks that
detract from their general appearance. At the point of
manufacture no unit shall have any chip of dimension
exceeding 15 mm or covering more than 3% of the
periphery of the surface that is intended to be
exposed. No units shall have any protuberance of

b) Jointing sand
Jointing sand shall pass a 1,18 mm sieve and shall
contain 10- 50% of material that passes a
0,075 mm sieve.

height exceeding 3 mm.

Besides satisfying the above requirements, bedding

The surface texture and colour of the units shall fall

percentage of clay in the jointing sand is ideal as it

within the range of texture and colour represented by

the manufacturers approved samples. The colour shall

sand should be non-plastic. However, a slight

has sealing properties.

penetrate to a depth of at least 5 mm below the

wearing surface of each unit and the coloured layer
shall be integrally bound to the body of the unit.
3.1.2 CLASS, STRENGTH AND TYPE
Except when the blocks are:
a) required for paving subject to wheel
loads exceeding 30kN (see 5.6.2) or
b) required in terms of the project
specification to be of class 35 and are
so scheduled; or
c) required to comply with both a) and b)above,
the blocks used shall be Class 25.

4.1 GENERAL
Plant that is operated on or over units that have been
laid shall be such that it does not cause damage to or
disturbance of the units

4.2 ROLLER
A roller shall be subject to approval and shall be a
light (2-4 t) vibratory roller or, where so required a
heavy pneumatic-tyred roller.

5.1.2.2

4.3 MECHANICAL COMPACTOR

SUBBASE NOT STABILISED

Any portion of an existing subbase that has not been

A mechanical compactor such as a flat-plate vibrator

stabilised and is too high shall be lowered, harrowed

of high frequency and low amplitude, will be acceptable

and reconstructed to such depth that, after

provided that it produces a) for units of thickness

compaction, the subbase layer is of the same standard

exceeding 80 mm, a centrifugal force of 16-20 kN at a

and thickness throughout or it shall comply with the

frequency of 65 100 Hz on a plate area of 0,35-

requirements of the project specification and, in

0,5m (i.e. sufficient to cover at least 12 units; or b)

addition, the fall and level shall comply with 5.1.1.3.

for units of thickness not exceeding 80 mm, a

centrifugal force of 7-16 kN at a frequency of 65

5.1.2.3

STABILISED SUBBASE

100 Hz on a plate area of 0,2 0,4 m (i.e. sufficient

Any portion of an existing stabilised subbase that is

to cover at least 10 units).

too high shall be lowered, harrowed and reconstructed

to such depth that, after compaction, the subbase

5 CONSTRUCTION

layer is of the same standard and thickness throughout

or it shall comply with the requirements of the project
specification and, in addition, the fall and level shall

5.1 PREPARATION

comply with 5.1.1.3. Depressions created in the

5.1.1 NEW WORK

course of lowering a stabilised subbase shall be filled

5.1.1.1

GENERAL

with stabilised subbase material and compacted to

form a subbase of at least the same standard as that

Where the paving is to be laid on newly constructed

of the existing stabilised subbase. Alternatively, in the

earthworks or an existing subgrade that is too low,

case of depressions of depth greater than 50 mm,

the subgrade and subbase shall be constructed in

concrete having a 7 d cube strength of at least 5 MPa

accordance with the requirements of SANS 1200 DM

shall be used. The fall and level after compaction shall

and SANS 1200 ME, respectively, and shall conform

comply with 5.1.1.3.

to the tolerance requirements of 6.2.

5.2 EDGE RESTRAINTS

5.1.1.2

Edge restraints consisting of kerbs or channels (see

DEPRESSIONS

Depressions shall be filled with material that has the

physical properties specified for subbase material in
SANS 1200 ME, and the material shall be compacted
to 98% of modified AASHTO maximum density.
Bedding sand shall not, under any circumstances, be
used for this purpose.
5.1.1.3

FALL AND LEVEL

The top of the subbase shall be so constructed that

3.2) or other approved edge strips, as scheduled or

given on the drawings, shall be constructed on the
subbase (or other formation) before any units are laid.

5.3 PLACING AND COMPACTING

OF SAND BED
Bedding sand shall be spread over the subbase and
evenly screeded in the loose condition so as to achieve
a compacted thickness of 25 10mm. When the sand

surface water cannot pond and shall have a longitudinal

is spread, its moisture content shall be 6 2%. The

fall of at least 1% and a transverse fall of at least

2%. The level after compaction shall be the designated

sand bed shall be laid slightly in advance of the

placement of the units but only to the extent that the

level of the top of the subbase 10 mm [see 6.2. (b)].

particular area of pavement can be completed on the

same day. Where the sand bed is accidentally

5.1.2 EXISTING SUBBASE SUBSTANDARD

OR TOO HIGH
5.1.2.1

SUBSTANDARD LAYERS

compacted before the units are laid, it shall be raked

and evenly rescreeded in a loose condition.

5.4 LAYING OF UNITS

Substandard layers and soft and unstable areas in the

The principal lines of the paving unit pattern as laid

subbase (or subgrade or formation, as applicable) shall

shall be as specified in the project specification or

be replaced or strengthened as specified in 5.1.2.2 or

given on the drawings, and as agreed with the engineer

5.1.2.3, as applicable.

before laying commences. If the said principal lines are

not so specified, given or agreed upon, the units shall
be laid in a herringbone pattern if the block shape
permits and, where units cannot be so laid, they shall
be laid with the long axis at right angles to the line of
traffic. Except where curved patterns are required,
the lines of the unit pattern shall be visually straight
and parallel to major kerbs or buildings or other
structures, as most appropriate and as approved.

Where appropriate, lines shall be set up at right

5.7 JOINT FILLING

angles to each other to control the alignment of the

The joints shall not be filled until all closure units have

units. Joint widths shall be between 2 mm and 6 mm.

been inserted, all the necessary adjustments to line

Whole units shall be laid first. Full depth closure units

and level have been made and the pavement has been

of special size or cut or part units split from whole

subjected to at least two passes of the compactor.

units, shall be fitted into gaps around the perimeter

Sand that complies with 3.3 (b) shall be broomed into

and around service installations such as manholes.

the joints until they are full, and sufficient passes of a

Where plant has to be moved over an uncompacted

plate compactor shall be made to settle the joint

newly laid pavement, boards shall be laid to prevent

filling. The procedure shall be repeated until the joints

disturbance of the units.

remain full after compaction.

5.5 FILLING GAPS IN

UNIT PATTERN

On completion of compaction, all excess sand shall be

Each gap where a closure unit cannot be used, shall be

filled, after thorough pre-wetting of all units bounding

broomed off and disposed of. Damage caused during

compaction shall be made good by the contractor at
his own expense.

the gap, with concrete that has a 24 hour cube

strength of at least 15 MPa and contains aggregate of
maximum nominal size 9,5 mm. Filling shall be kept to
an absolute minimum and shall be to full unit depth in

6.1 GENERAL

all cases. The concrete shall be cured for at least 24

6.1 .1 PAVING AS LAID

hour by covering it with moist sand or approved

plastic sheeting or hessian firmly held down at the
edges. Where concrete is used for filling gaps, no
compaction shall be carried out within 1m of such
filling unit 24 hour after the filling has been completed
or until the specified cube strength of 15 MPa has
been attained, whichever occurs first.

5.6 COMPACTION OF UNITS

5.6.1 GENERAL

In addition to compliance with 6.2 (c), the finished

surface of the paving shall, in the opinion of the Engineer,
present a regular and smooth appearance to the eye.
6.1 .2 METHOD OF MEASUREMENT
OF DEVIATIONS
Any deviation from flatness of a plan surface will be
measured as the maximum deviation of the surface
from any straight line of length 3 m joining two
points on the surface, determined by means of a

The manner of compaction of units shall be such that

straight-edge the ends of which are supported on

damage to the units is prevented. At least two

identical blocks of suitable thickness placed over

compaction passes shall be made over the paving as

each of the points.

soon as practicable after laying, and before the

introduction of any jointing sand. By the end of each

6.1 .3 FREQUENCY OF CHECKS ON SMOOTHNESS

day, compaction shall be completed to not closer than

The frequency of checks on smoothness carried out by

1 m from any free edge. A uniform even surface shall

the Contractor shall, in the case of roads, conform to

be obtained over the paved area.

the relevant requirements of Subclause 6.3 of SANS

5.6.2 PAVING SUBJECT TO WHEEL LOADS

EXCEEDING 30 kN
Paving that is likely, in terms of the project specification,
to be subjected regularly to wheel loads exceeding
30 kN shall, after joint filling (see 5.7) be finally locked
up with at a least five passes of a heavy pneumatictyred roller over the entire area of paving. The manner

1200 M and, where an area other than a road is being

paved, a check shall be carried out on every 300m
(max.) of area paved.

6.2 PERMISSIBLE DEVIATIONS

The permissible deviations shall be as given in the
table below:
Tolerance in c) 2) ( i ) is very difficult to achieve and

of compaction shall be as specified in 5.6.1.

is not critical provided that adequate falls are met.

Where economy is desired and the tolerances easily

5.6.3 DAMAGED UNITS

attainable by the average earthworks contractor in

Damaged units shall be replaced and compacted before

respect of the subbase (and hence the segmented

joint filling is carried out.

paving), are deemed to be acceptable even though they

5.6.4 NO TRAFFIC UNTIL JOINTS FILLED

for permissible tolerances may be relaxed. The

do not conform to Degree of Accuracy I, the criteria

No vehicular traffic shall be allowed over the paving

tolerances on the paving units, i.e. a 1) to 4) of the

until all joints have been filled with sand (see 5.7).

table, and other requirements of SANS 1058 should

not be relaxed under any circumstances.

PERMISSIBLE DEVIATION, (mm)

ITEM

DEGREE OF ACCURACY
III

II

1) Deviation of length from nominal length

2) Deviation of width from nominal width

3) Deviation of depth (or thickness) from nominal depth (or thickness)

4) Deviation of squarness (measured as specified in SANS 1058)

1) Deviation of top subbase layer from designated level

10

2) Smoothness of top subbase layer measured on a 3m straight line

in any direction

10

3) Thickness of 25 mm compacted sand bedding layer

10

i) Deviation from any 3 m straight line maximum

10

ii) Deviation from any 20 m straight line maximum

20

7 TESTING

a) Units as Manufactured

b) Foundation layers

c) Finished paving. The finished surface of the paving shall, 3 months after
opening to traffic, be accurate to within the following limits:
1) Line of pattern

2) Vertical deviation from 3 m straight line

i) at kerbs, channels, gullies, manholes and other edge restraints

+ 3, 0

ii) elsewhere (subject to adjustment as necessary for vertical curve)

+10, 15

+10, 15

3) Surface levels of adjacent units, difference not to exceed

4) Deviation of finished surface level from designated level,subject
to compliance with 6.1.1 and 7.6
* As stated in the project specification, if required.

It should be noted that the permissible deviations of

top of subbase layer and finished paving are the same.
The bedding sand layer should not be used to make up
for inaccuracies of level of the top of the subbase
layer or top of the compacted subgrade if a subbase is
not constructed.

necessary at any point or at any depth or on any layer.

Where the Engineers checks reveal that the material
used or that the construction to tolerance standard
achieved does not comply with the applicable
requirements of the specification, or that the
compaction specified has not been attained, the
Contractor shall so rectify the work that the
materials, construction and tolerance comply with the

7 TESTING

said requirements and the compaction specified

is attained.

7.1 GENERAL

7.2 TRIAL SECTION

7.1 .1 CHECKING

Commencing from at least one permanent edge

The Contractor shall carry out sufficient checks to

satisfy himself that the materials used and the
workmanship (construction, tolerance and strength)
attained comply consistently with the specified
requirements. Checks will be carried out by the
Engineer and the results made available to
the Contractor.
7.1.2 STANDARD OF FINISHED WORK
NOT TO SPECIFICATION
The Engineer may carry out such checks, as he deems

restraint the first section of paving of length at least

20 m and of width approximately 6 m laid as part of
the permanent paving will be regarded as a trial
section for the purpose of assessing the Contractors
ability to produce a paving that complies with the
applicable requirements of the specification.
Full scale paving unit laying shall not commence until
the trial section has been laid by the Contractor and
approved by the Engineer. Subsequent laying operations
shall be carried out using materials of at least the
same quality and with the same standard of
workmanship as in the approved trial section. The
Contractor shall remove at his own expense, any trial
section that is not approved.

The requirement for the construction of a trial section

should not be mandatory for experienced contractors
or where the size and importance of the contract does
not warrant such preliminary work.

7.7 PONDING
Where the Engineer is of the opinion that,
notwithstanding compliance by the Contractor with
the requirements of 5.1.1.3, ponding may occur on the

For labour-based projects, where skills training is an

finished surface, the engineer may order the whole or

integral part of the training, it is recommended that

any part(s) of the surface to be flooded with water to

construction begins on a minor or subsidiary road. This

determine whether ponding will occur. Rectification of

will ensure that all the teething problems are resolved

areas where ponding is found to occur shall be carried

before work starts on the major road.

out by the Contractor at his own expense. If ponding

This area must be demarcated and no traffic allowed

onto it at all.

7.3 SUBBASE, FORMATION AND

OTHER FOUNDATION LAYERS
The subbase, formation and other foundation layers
shall be subjected to testing in terms of SANS 1200
DM and SANS 1200 ME, as applicable.

7.4 BLOCKS
7.4.1 WET STRENGTH TEST
The relevant test given in SANS 1058 shall be used to
determine whether blocks comply with the
requirements for wet strength given in 3.1
The compressive strength is stated in SANS 1058
clause 6.4.
7.4 .2 OTHER TESTS
Blocks shall be subjected to such other tests as are
given in SANS 1058 and in The Concrete
Manufacturers Association Paving Manual Book 2.

7.5 CONCRETE FOR GAP FILLING

The concrete used for gap filling shall be subjected to
testing in accordance with SANS 1200 G or SANS
1200 GA, as applicable.

This practice is generally not recommended. It is

preferable that the blocks are cut to fill gaps.
Generally pavers alongside the edge restraint can be
realigned so that small pieces are eliminated.

7.6 KERBS, CHANNELS AND

OTHER DEVICES
Kerbs, channels and other devices used for edge
restraints shall be subjected to testing in accordance
with SANS 1200 MK.

does not occur, the Employer shall bear the cost of

the test.

If permissible deviations relating to the finished

surface of the paving are to be allowed, then the fall
of the surface for drainage should be steeper than
1 in 50.
Ponding is generally as a result of incorrect
earthworks.

CONCRETE
BLOCK PAVING
4 Site management and laying

A walk-over in cost, looks and

durability for Concrete Block Paving

CONTENTS
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION
SECTION 2 SITE INSPECTION
SECTION 3 CONSTRUCTION PLANNING
SECTION 4 CONSTRUCTION OF EDGE RESTRAINTS
SECTION 5 LAYING THE BEDDING SAND
SECTION 6 SCREEDING THE BEDDING SAND
SECTION 7 SQUARING UP THE AREAD TO BE PAVED
SECTION 8 LAYING THE CONCRETE BLOCKS
SECTION 9 ADJUSTING THE PATTERN AND LINING UP THE BLOCKS
SECTION 10

BLOCK CUTTING

SECTION 11

VIBRATING THE BLOCKS INTO PLACE

SECTION 12

SWEEPING IN THE JOINTING SAND

SECTION 13

VIBRATING THE JOINTING SAND INTO THE JOINTS

SECTION 14

INFILLING

SECTION 15

TEMPORARY RESTRAINTS

SECTION 16

CHECK LIST

SECTION 17

MAINTENANCE
Resanding
Weed growth
Settlement/subsidence
Reinstatement of trenches after opening
Efflorescence
Oil stains
Sealers

The standard specification for the construction of

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this book is to detail the correct

procedures and techniques required to achieve a high
quality concrete block paving installation, viz site

pavements is contained in the SABS 1200 series with

SABS 1200MJ covering concrete block paving.
The paviour must also examine and allow for the
following:

management and laying.

contract drawings and specifications.

Whilst this book covers the installation of paving

setting out requirements for kerbs and edge

blocks and the construction of edge restraints, the

restraints

reader is reminded that these are only part of the

total pavement. To achieve a durable and economic

details and locations of manholes/catchpits.

pavement, the following aspects must be considered.

truck access for delivery of materials.

a) Design Loads

material storage areas

Estimation of traffic type and frequency of use

any restrictions to working areas

of vehicles.
b) Earthworks
Assessment of insitu material strength and
design layer works to support design traffic
c) Drainage
Determination of the correct drainage design
for both underground water and surface water
flows to avoid premature failures of the
earthworks.
d) EdgeRestraints
Provision of resistance to lateral movementR
e) Block Paving

Cost effectiveness by means of job planning involves an

overall assessment of the extent and type of work
involved, the requirements for labour, materials and
equipment, and time or other constraints. Attention
should be given to:
examining the drawings, for position of kerbs,
manholes, catch pits and other penetrations or
obstructions in order to minimise cutting of blocks.
the installation of edge restraints and kerbing.

Determine the thickness of block and laying

processing of one days production must include

pattern

total process to complete an area, from laying to

compacting and sanding

SITE INSPECTION

Before block paving work commences, an inspection of

the site should be carried out by the paviour.
Items to be checked should include:
earthworks surface tolerances
sufficient slopes for drainage (minimum of 2%).

The selection of different types of edge restraints

depends on the type of service, the intended traffic
load, the required performance life, aesthetic appeal,
drainage requirements and cost. Refer to reference 3

correct levels to allow the finished block paving to

for details on edge restraints. Edge restraints must

tie into buildings, manholes, drainage outlets etc.

be positioned before block laying begins so that they

edge restraints if done by others

can be used for reference levels and prevent the

Whilst the above items are not the responsibility of

migration of blocks. Refer to figure 3

the paviour, the block paving should not be laid if other

Edge restraints are useful as a screeding guide as the

works are not prepared adequately.

screed board can be cut to the required depth below

It is recommended that the paviour request a

the top of the edge restraint.

certificate or written instruction from his client

Edge restraints should be positioned on the subbase

stating that the other works are complete and ready

level and it is important that these are securely

to receive the block paving.

supported with an adequate concrete backing before

Any problems should be reported to the client who

block laying commences.

must arrange for the defective works to be rectified.

LAYING THE
BEDDING SAND

Ensure that the sand has been protected from either

excessive drying out or wetting to ensure a uniform
moisture content. Refer to figure 4
Varying moisture content leads to irregular compaction
of the blocks into the sand. Sand which is too wet will
not screed properly and be difficult to compact and
sand which is too dry will not compact satisfactorily.
For the correct grading of the bedding sand, refer to
Table 1 below:
Table 1: Grading of bedding sand
Sieve size, mm

%passing

9 ,52

100

4 ,75

95 100

2 ,36

80 100

1 ,18

50 85

0 ,600

25 60

0 ,300

10 30

0 ,150

5 15

0 ,075

0 10

Adequate compaction of the bedding sand under the

blocks can be achieved at moisture contents typically
lying within the range from 4 to 8%, with 6%
representing a satisfactory target value.
For sands complying with the grading limits, the
effects of water content appear to have little influence
on the behaviour of the pavement under traffic.
However, where the bedding sand contains a significant

Distribute the bedding sand in sections, a few

metres at a time, using the length of the screeding
rails as a guide.
Lay screed rails roughly two metres apart on the
prepared surface. Their height should match the
uncompacted thickness of the screeded bedding sand
to produce the desired surcharge.
Establish this by tapping a block into the loose bedding
sand and measure the amount of surcharge. The
thickness of the bedding sand layer should be 15-35
mm after compaction.
Do not permit workmen to walk on the sreeded sand
since this resultsin uneven compaction and an uneven
block surface. If pockets or depressions appear behind
the screed rail, fill them with loose sand and rescreed
the area.
To ensure an even uncompacted surface, make two or
three passes with the screeding board. Avoid a sawing
action when screeding as this results in an uneven
surface area.

proportion of clay, greater than about 10%, the

infiltration of water into the bedding sand has been
found to produce substantial increases in deformation
accompanied by pumping. For this reason the use of
sands containing active plastic fines should be avoided
in the bedding layer. Such sands are nevertheless
suitable for use as jointing sands both in respect of
their mechanical properties and also as a means of
inhibiting the ingress of water into the joints.
The use of plastic sheeting below the bedding sand is
NOT recommended since it breaks the bond between
the bedding sand layer and the subgrade or subbase
layer and may induce horizontal creep of the block
surface. It may also result in a reservoir of water
collecting in the bedding sand layer. This water, if it
evaporates through the blocks, can cause
efflorescence.

Clamp trolley

Manual

SQUARING UP THE
AREA TO BE PAVED

It is important to commence work from one point only

to ensure a uniform pattern of laying.
Determine the line of paving to suit conditions. Align
the pattern with the direction of the roadway or
parallel to a wall or edge restraint.
Since the kerb-line itself may not be perfectly true use
two string-lines at right angles and check the accuracy
of the alignment regularly.

Commencement of laying
establishing a diagonal face

LAYING THE
CONCRETE BLOCKS

Start laying the blocks in a right angle corner and work

outwards in both directions. Establish a diagonal laying
face to achieve optimum productivity. Refer to figure 8
If applicable, work uphill to prevent the effect of
gravity and movement of the block laying crew opening
up joints between the blocks already laid. Refer to
figure 10
An optimum space of 3mm should be allowed between
each block to ensure the correct filling of jointing

Cutting blocks at
edge restraints

sand. If the space is too small, it leads to spalling,

damage to the blocks and reduced load transfer
between adjacent blocks. If it is too wide, it prevents
load transfer between blocks.

Vibrating the jointing sand

into the joints
Typical site layout/
construction sequence

Edge restraints installed

before laying commences

Temporary restraint at end of a

days production

ADJUSTING THE
PATTERN AND LINING
UP THE BLOCKS

Once the blocks have been placed and edge cutting

completed and prior to spreading the jointing sand, the

Use a string-line to check the alignment for

blocks must be compacted into position by at least

squareness once a specific area has been completed.

two passes of the plate compactor. This action will

Make any adjustments by using a lever to move

bed the blocks into the bedding sand.

sections of blocks.

Check and remove blocks that have settled incorrectly

This should be carried out regularly to avoid the

i.e. either too high or too low and adjust level by

difficulty of adjusting large paved areas.

removing or filling with bedding sand.

The process must be undertaken prior to compaction

Individual blocks, which are damaged, must be removed

and the spreading of jointing sand, as it will be

and replaced.

difficult to move blocks after joint filling.

10 BLOCK CUTTING
Block cutting for precise infilling of spaces next to
kerbs and edge restraints involves measuring the
space on the block to be cut, marking the block with a
chalk line, cutting the block with an industrial
guillotine and tapping the cut block into the space.
Edge spaces of more than 25% of a full block, should
be filled with a neatly-cut block to ensure that the
adjacent blocks do not move against the kerb or edge
restraint once vibration of the surface has
commenced. Generally, the blocks along the edge
restraint can be realigned to soldier course so that all
cutting results in large rather than small block pieces.

Once a specified area has been paved, checked for line

and level andthe compaction completed, check and
replace any damaged blocks. When complete, dry
jointing sand should be swept into the joints between

The use of infill concrete should be avoided wherever

the blocks.

possible.

Refer to figure 18.

However should infill concrete be necessary, it should

Do not use bedding sand as a substitute for jointing

be of a greater strength than the paving blocks,

sand as this is often too coarse. The jointing sand

extend down to the subbase and be properly cured.

should pass a 1,18mm sieve and contain 10-50%

Refer to section 14

material passing the 0,075mm sieve.

Do NOT hose the jointing sand into the joints with
water as wet sand will bridge between the units and
resist compaction and filling. This results in an
unsightly and uneven paved surface. The sand bridges
collapse once they dry out, leaving open gaps between
the blocks leading to ingress of water and movement
under traffic.

Fitting cut blocks into gaps

Sweeping in jointing sand

Start laying the blocks in a right angle corner and

work outwards.
Establish a diagonal laying face.

13 VIBRATING THE
JOINTING SAND INTO
THE JOINTS

If paving cannot be completed in one day, laying should

Vibrating the jointing sand into the joints is carried

stop about half a metre short of the screeded sand

out by two or three passes of the plate compactor.

edge to prevent the displacement of unsupported

This creates the semi-rigid, interlocked surface.

bedding sand and adequate temporary restraints

This process, which also achieves additional

compaction of the individual blocks, should alternate
with sweeping the jointing sand until the joints are
completely filled.

placed to contain the block laying surface.

Use a plastic sheet to cover the temporary restraint
and exposed bedding sand in case of overnight rain. A
downpour could be disastrous to a well prepared layer
of bedding sand. Rainwater will wash away this layer

Jointing sand must not include cementitious

and result in the lifting of large sections of blocks

materials, which would turn this flexible form of

already laid and thus cause costly delays.

pavement into a rigid surface.

If construction work is still in progress, excess
jointing sand can be left in place after completion and
swept off at a later stage. This helps to ensure

Select blocks of appropriate shape, thickness,

complete filling of the joints during the period when

quality and colour for the surface pattern required.

the blocks are first trafficked. Thereafter excess sand

should be removed from the paved area.

Engineer to accept earthworks as ready for paving

levels and compaction
Select appropriate edge restraints and install to
correct line and level.
Place bedding sand on site. Ensure sand has
correct moisture content.
Lay screeding rails on subbase layer.
Tap a block into the loose bedding sand and
measure the amount of surcharge. The thickness of

Vibrating the jointing sand into the joints

the bedding sand after compaction should be

15mm to 35mm.
Spread bedding sand between screeding rails.
Level sand with two or three passes with
screeding board.
Fill pockets or depressions in surface with loose
sand and rescreed the area.
Adjust the bedding sand level up to edge restraints

The use of insitu infill concrete should be avoided

wherever possible. Small edge spaces can often be

when screeding.
Remove screed rail and fill recesses with

eliminated by either orientating the blocks close to the

loose sand.

edge or by using the double cut method. Refer to

Ensure paving stands proud of fixtures to allow for

reference 4 for details.

bedding sand settlement.

Both of these methods will result in larger cut

Commence laying from one starting point only - the

blocks, which performbetter than small pieces. Where

lowest point.

the small edge spaces cannot be eliminated by the

above methods, then they should be filled with an

Use string lines to constantly check alignment.

insitu infill concrete.

Square up the immediate area to be paved.

It is important that this latter process is only

Allow a space of about 3mm between

undertaken once all compaction is completed. Vibration

adjacent blocks.

and movement of the blocks under the plate vibrator

Make any adjustments to line and joint width by

may crack the concrete if infilling is undertaken prior

using a lever to move sections of blocks.

to final compaction.

Measure and cut blocks for edge spaces. Orientate

d) Reinstatement of trenches after opening

blocks at the edge or use the double cut method to

One of the major advantages of using concrete block

eliminate the small edge space.

paving as a surfacing material is that access to

Compact paving blocks with at least two passes of

underground services for maintenance purposes can

a plate compactor or roller.

easily be obtained, and reinstatement carried out in

Check and adjust for highs and lows.

Sweep jointing sand into the joints between
the blocks.
Remove excess sand from the surface
before vibrating.
Use a compactor to vibrate jointing sand into

such a manner that the repair is invisible and does not

result in an unsightly scar, as would be the case with
other paving materials.
Details of the procedure of trench reinstatement are
given in the training manual. Refer to reference 5
In short, the construction is as follows:
Remove the jointing sand from around one or more

the joints.

pavers. Using two screwdrivers lift up the block.

Top up joints with sand and recompact.

Once the first block is removed others can be

Fill edge spaces of less than 25% of a full block,

uplifted more easily.

with a high-strength concrete. Only fill these

Uplift blocks along the length of the trench to a

spaces once vibrating has been completed.

minimum width of 1m or as required.

Fit temporary restraints at the end of paving if it

After excavating the trench, backfill and compact

cannot be completed in one day. Finish paving at

the soil to at least the same density as the

an angle.

surrounding soil. Level the top of

Use plastic sheeting to cover the temporary

subbase/subgrade.

restraint and exposed bedding sand in the event of

Uplift the blocks on either side of the trench by a

overnight rain.

further 300mm, loosen up the bedding sand now

Restart work on the previously established angle to

exposed and spread and rescreed the bedding

the kerb-line.

sand layer.
Ensure that the blocks are clean. Relay the blocks,
compact the paving and replace the jointing sand
as normal.

a) Resanding
Frequently, jointing sand is lost in the early stages of

e)

Efflorescence

the pavement life due to wind, rain or traffic. It is

Efflorescence is a white deposit, which is apparent

advisable that pavements are inspected after three to

either as white particles or as an overall lightening in

four months and where unnecessary,resanded and at

colour.

regular intervals thereafter. Lack of jointing sand

causes blocks to tilt under traffic and spall.
b) Weed growth

The latter effect is sometimes mistakenly interpreted

as the colour fading or being washed out.
Efflorescence is usually a transient phenomenon and

Occasionally, grass and weeds grow in the joints

can be expected to disappear with time. The major

between blocks. This generally is a result of wind-

factor influencing its duration is the environment to

blown seeds and is not prevented by the use of a

which the concrete is exposed. Where the concrete is

plastic sheet under the paving. Herbicides can be

fully exposed to the weather, rainwater (which is

mixed into the bedding sand and jointing sand or

slightly acidic) dissolves the deposit and the

sprayed onto the finished paving. This, however, will

efflorescence typically disappears in about a year. In

leach out in time and will require respraying on a

more sheltered locations, removal by natural means

frequent basis. Weeds and grass will not grow in

may take considerably longer.

highly trafficked areas.

c) Settlement/subsidence
Settlement of the paved surface is generally a result
of inadequate earthworks, or overloading. Concrete
block paving is particularly advantageous in this
regard, since a section of the paving can be lifted, the
earthworks repaired and the pavers relaid, resulting in
an unscarred surface.

It is strongly recommended that efflorescence is

allowed to disappear naturally to avoid damage by an
acid wash.
If immediate removal is required this can be achieved
by washing with diluted acid. Generally a 5% solution
of hydrochloric acid or a proprietary acid-based
concrete cleaner is used.

Before the acid solution is applied, the surface should

be dampened with water to prevent the initial suction.
This prevents the acid solution from being sucked into
the concrete before it has a chance to react with the
surface deposit.
The acid solution is applied by brush or spray and a
typical application rate is one litre of acid solution to
10 square metres. Following application of acid
solution, the surface of the concrete is washed and
allowed to dry out and is then inspected. Often one
wash with acid solution is sufficient, but in more
stubborn cases the treatment is repeated as
necessary until the efflorescence disappears. Finally, it
is advisable to give the concrete a final wash with
water. When carrying out acid washing, always test
the effect on an inconspicuous area before doing the
main area. Efflorescence is unlikely to recur following
its removal with an acid solution.
f) Oil Stains
Paving is often stained by oil, diesel or other liquids.
The best method of removing these stains is to scrub
with a hard bristle brush and a strong detergent and
to wash off with water.
Where oil stains are to be expected, such as on a
garage forecourt, it is recommended that, during
construction, a number of coloured pavers are used in
a random fashion to create a mottled effect. This will
help reduce the visibility of oil stains if they occur.
Alternatively a darker paver should be specified.
g) Sealers
There are a number of proprietary brand sealers on the
market (silicone, silanes and siloxanes). These sealers
have the advantage that they bring out the colour of
the pavers and reduce the chances of oil stains. They
also reduce the permeability of the sand joints. If
required, sealers should be applied when the paving is
new or has been thoroughly cleaned. However in most
cases, the cost of sealers will not warrant the
application. Also the surface is subjected to abrasive
action, which will remove the surface sealers, and this
will become a regular maintenance item.