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The Allied and Central powers all attempted to break the stalemate in
1915:
French- through unsuccessful campaign at Champagne
British- March at Neuve Chapelle (heavy losses for only short term
gain)
Germans- unsuccessfully at Ypres in April (poison gas for first time)
British- Loos in September.
Channel to Switzerland).
-New technology facilitated
defensive war.
Support trench- held the back-up forces that could help repel an
enemy attack or move quickly to the front to support a friendly attack.
Reserve trenchStrong pointCommunication trenchesSaps and listening postsSalient-
Trench warfare was the main form of warfare used during WW1.
The distance between each of the trench lines differed from army
to army, varied from about 60-90 metres between front line and
BRITISH
FRENCH
Stronger, more
complex and better
developed than allied
trenches.
Focused on mobility.
Ill-constructed
compared to German
trenches (not
reinforced by
concrete).
Utilised trenches
reinforced with
barbed wire as a
trench warfare tactic.
2.4-4.8 m in depth.
Relied on artillery
and surprise attacks.
French commanders
heavily manned
sections of the
frontline.
British commanders put most of their men in the front line trenches.
French commanders heavily manned some sections of the front line.
They left other sections with small numbers of soldiers and reinforced
the barbed wire in front of them.
War on the western front evolved into a war of attrition rather than
break-through.
NCOs
Junior Officer
Senior Officer
-Noncommissioned
officers:
sergeants or
corporals.
-Promoted from
the ranks of
experienced
private soldiers.
-Officers
traditionally from
upper class.
-Received an
education
intended to train
them to lead
men and make
decisions on
battle field.
-WW1- often
young upper
class men
expected to lead
by example.
-Suffered the
highest death
toll of any rank
(inexperience
and
exuberance).
-Prestigious but
safe jobs at
headquarters,
always well
behind the front.
-Some historians
suggest
remoteness of
the generals
from fighting
soldiers
(distance and
social class), was
a reason why
they were so
little influenced
by the impact of
their decisions.
MONTH
DAY
NIGHT
-Most activity
occurred.
-Dangerous trench
maintenance (outside
or above trenches).
-Patrols sent to no
mans land to listen for
enemy movements.
-Pairs of soldiers sent
to check on enemy
trenches at night.
-Trench raids
occurred, volunteers
would raid enemy
trenches to invoke
fear and gain
intelligence on
enemys situation.
Dangers
Gas warfare was another source of danger and fear. After some early
French and German uses of gas warfare in 1914, the German army
began firing cylinders of chlorine gas in 1915.
By the end of the war, 91 000 soldiers had died as a result of gas warfare
and 1.2 million suffered its effects.
Rations
By 1916, the impact of blockades meant that both Allied and German
commanders struggled to provide soldiers with good diets in both meat
and calorie intake.
Most men received less than half of the allocated calories per day.
Food was often stolen in the ranks, butter and milk a rarity and never
met with the common soldiers.
A rum ration was given to British soldiers at the standing for an hour
and a half or stand to as well as before going over the top.
The combination of the cold, wet, vermin and poor diet led to sickness
and disease in the trenches.
In the first winter of the war, the British army had to deal with 20 000
cases of trench foot (due to prolonged exposure of the feet to wet
unsanitary conditions causing the foot to become numb and eventually
gangrene through reduced blood flow) unless they dried their feet
and changed their socks frequently, soldiers might not realise they had
a problem until it was too late to treat it.
Trench fever was a common disease that affected 1/3 of British forces,
1/5 of Germans and many French troops. Caused by lice faeces in
wounds causing infections and eventually fever.
Scabies disease where itch mites lay eggs underneath the skin of a
soldier causing skin irritation and rashes.
Casualties
On the Western Front, five out of every nine men were casualties.
About a third of these died.
Even though only one in three soldiers serving on the Western Front
were fighting in the trenches, overall casualties were 56%, with 12%
being killed.
In 1922 Great Britain had 50 000 registered Great War mental cases.
Major offensives and artillery bombardments accounted for the
horrendous casualties on the Western Front.
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Even when there was no major action, the frontline remained a very
dangerous place due to the commanders insistence on maintaining an
aggressive attitude towards the enemy.
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QUESTION
Providing evidence, which weapons would help break the
stalemate?
Attrition
Beyond the Western Front, the war of attrition involved maintaining
the effort on your own home front while attacking the enemys home
front through economic blockade and propaganda. mass
New Tactics
While the allied generals, in particular, persisted with large frontal
assaults long after they had proven disastrous, both sides eventually
developed new tactics:
ALLIES
GERMANY
14
at this time).
SIGNIFICANCE
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In more depth:
Led by Sir Douglas Haig, the British forces wanted to launch a 14 day
offensive which would open up German lines, flanking them, then
cutting the Germans off from supply lines and force a German
surrender. It was like rounding up sheep.
The British had assembled and trained a New Army recruited by Lord
Kitchener in an unprecedented national campaign.
On the 24th of June the Allies began week long artillery bombardment
from 1350 guns.
Bombardment intended to drive German defenders from their trenches
and destroy barbed wire laid infront.
German frontline trenches destroyed yet most underground and
bunkers survived, after barrage troops able to set up machine guns to
surprise advancing British.
On 1st of July, 14 British divisions (approx.. 280 000 men), went over
the top and forward on 28km front, marching forward in straight lines
with bayonets fixed (as it was decided that they were not trained well
enough to operate in any other way).
Few men returned. As the British advanced, they were mown down by
German machine guns when halted by the barbed wire.
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The New Army suffered 60 000 casualties on the first day. There were
20 000 casualties in the first hour.
There was no breakthrough. Once the British failed to achieve initial
breakthrough, Haig justified the continuation of the battle in terms of
wearing down the Germans.
However if saving Verdun and relieving the drain on Frances resources
were the strategic objectives of the Somme, then it was a success.
clearly demonstrated Britains commitment to victory on the Western
Front.
Ludendorff claimed Germany was never able to replace the quality of
infantry they lost in the battle.
SIGNIFICANCE
The Battle of the Somme became the symbol for the entire war,
immense casualties and loss of youth.
The Battle of the Somme demonstrated Britains commitment to
victory on the Western Front.
Ludendorff claimed that Germany was never able to replace the quality
of infantry they lost in the battle.
During 1916 the German government felt compelled to introduce
economic measures that would contribute to the long-term collapse of
the German home front.
It has been argued that British commanders learnt from the Somme
and this eventually contributed to their successes in 1918.
THE BATTLE OF PASSCHENDAELE (Third Ypres) July-Nov 1917
Key points:
General Haigs decided to launch a major offensive near Ypres with the
aim to shorten allied lines in Ypres salient and knock out German
submarine bases in Belgium. (thus ceasing sinking of British ships).
It rained heavily after the first major action and the battlefield became
a sea of mud and water-filled shellcraters.
After numerous advancements of small gains and heavy casualties, the
Allies captured the ridge East of Ypres.
Germans forced off high ground from November.
Some believe that despite heavy losses, Passhendaele was essential to
ensure that the British war effort did not collapse and was a
breakthrough battle as German morale was severely weakened.
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RESULT
Tactical Victory
Strategical allied victory
Operational Allied failure (they lost a lot of men).
The allied forces suffered over 300 000 casualties and the Germans
suffered 260 000.
The German submarine bases on the coast remained but the objective
of diverting the Germans from the French further south while they
recovered from the failure of the Niville Offensive.
In more depth:
General Haig decided to launch a major offensive near Ypres in late
1917 (probably encouraged by British success at Messines Ridge) and
aimed to both shorten Allied lines in Ypres salient and knock out
German submarine bases in Belgium (the toll on British merchant
shipping in 1917 becoming a major problem).
The French army had been wracked by mutiny since the Niville
Offensive it was important that Germans got no hint of the problem
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SIGNIFICANCE
Passchendaele synonymous for pointless slaughter however may have
been essential to ensure the Allied war effort did not collapse.
The German verdict was that this battle damaged Germanys war
effort.
Sustained pressure on German economy.
German military leaders noted impact on the battle front soldiers
worn down and losing will to continue.
General von Kuhl later concluded that this battle wore down the
German strength to a degree at which the damage could no longer be
repaired.
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Prior to the outbreak of WW1 there was a widespread view that war
was acceptable and even necessary such views based on
romanticised notions of small-scaled wars involving dramatic cavalry
charges and brief infantry engagements.
The carnage of trench warfare on the Western Front confronted Allied
and German soldiers with the new reality of large-scale warfare in the
industrial era.
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The British imposed the death penalty on 304 soldiers between 1914
and 1918, mostly for offences committed on the Western Front.
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EARLY ATTITUDES
LATTER ATTITUDES
the time.
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Britain
On the 27th of Nov 1914 the government passed the Defence of the
Realm Act (DORA).
DORA:
Germany
Even before the outbreak of the war, Germany was a more
authoritarian society than Britain. Conscription, for example, gave the
government immediate control over the military-age population. This
control was gradually extended over the whole population.
The authoritarian system tightened restrictions on civil libertiescensorship was imposed and opposition to the war suppressed.
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Germany
A new War Raw Materials Department (KRA) centralised control of all
HSC QUESTION:
Outline total war and its social and economic impact on civilians in
Britian and Germany during World War One. (8 marks).
Total war refers to the mobilisation of the population and entire resources
of the state for the war effort. In order for the mass conscript armies to
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BRITAIN
SOCIAL
GERMANY
Tighter restrictions
on Civil liberties.
Conscription
Women entered the
workforce on a
mass scale.
Decline of male
dominance in
society.
Censorship imposed
and opposition to
the war suppressed.
meals in hotels,
restaurants clubs
etc.
ECONOMIC
Economic
reorganisation
became a priority as
all production was
directed towards the
war effort.
The ministry of
munitions
established in 1915
(power to
requisition raw
materials and est.
national factories).
Strikes banned, new
taxes introduced
and existing taxes
increased.
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1914.
Despite this relative success, the number of volunteers was still not
enough to meet needs. Young, able-bodied men were put under
considerable pressure to do the right thing and enlist.
Cowardice was expressed at the use of pursuasion when young
women of London and England were targeted in posters that suggested
cowardice and irresponsibility on both parts for men who did not enlist
and women who associated with them.
The existence of large numbers of eligibles who had not enlisted and
the continuing demands of the military now made the introduction of
conscription inevitable. Conscription was eventually introduced on 5th
January 1916 with the passing of the Military Service Bill.
Conscription created a new small group in British societyconscientious objectors. These were men who were pacifists or who for
personal or religious reasons were opposed to war.
Germany
In Germany there was no need to embark on a recruitment campaign
Conscription had traditionally been accepted in Germany in peacetime.
Consequently, there was a large standing army and pool of trained
reserves when war broke out, In the beginning Germany had large
reserves of manpower but this situation changed as the war
progressed.
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Moreover, because so many men had been diverted into the army or
essential war industries, German architecture suffered.
Propaganda
This was the first modern propaganda war.
Externally the US was the major target of propaganda both sides
wantng to gain support for their war effort.
BRITAIN
GERMANY
Recruitment: before
War funding: desperate need to
conscription introduced,
raise funds for war effort.
recruitment posters were a
Anti- British propaganda: A
major part of Britains
national hate campaign launched
propaganda effort. They targeted
against Great Britain. Germans
not just eligible men but those
taught to recite the hymn to
who might influence them such
hate . The motto Gott Strafe
as young women.
England (God punish England)
War funding: Civilians
was stamped on envelopes,
encouraged to contribute to the
engraved on Jewellery, stamped
war effort by investing in
on pots and pans etc.
government war bonds.
Morale boosting: As the war
Anti-German propaganda:
progressed, the Germans
Invested considerable energy in
focused less on anti-British
spreading anti-German
messages and more on
sentiment. Eg. Atrocity stories
celebrations on the efforts of
spread, events like sinking of
their military. Myth-making
Lusitania exploited to
devoted to creating a national
demonstrate evil.
hero out of Hindenburg.
Practical messages: Some
posters focused on practical
messages. Eg. Appeals to not
waste food.
Morale boosting: Much effort
devoted to sustaining morale
and passing on positive news
from the front.
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Censorship
Both sides imposed censorship to ensure that only information helpful
to their war effort was spread.
BRITAIN
GERMANY
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balance between political (Lloyd George) and civilian (Haig) roles was
maintained.
Lloyd George also proved to be effective in dealing with unions and
strikers, he favoured a conciliatory approach in dealing with industrial
unrest (he appeased the people).
Germany
Unlike Britain, Germany had not been fully democratic in 1914. The
elected Parliament, the Reichstag, had little influence over the head of
government, the Chancellor who was appointed by the Kaiser.
The army held a special position, responsible only to the Kaiser.
The High Command assumed enormous power and was able to bypass
the Chancellor and, eventually, even the Kaiser.
By 1918 Ludendorff was virtual head of a military dictatorship.
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War Weariness
Britain
In Britain the burden of sacrifice was carried by the working class.
Costs had risen but not wages increasing number of strikes.
Germany
In Germany war weariness proved to be an even more serious
problem. The strain became evident in 1916 and gradually worsened.
In August 1916 the government introduced the Hindenburg program
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-The High Command had little skill in dealing with political opposition.
Peace Movement
As the war went on a number of groups and individuals made attempts
to arrange peace between the belligerents.
The international womens movement was a consistent voice for peace.
In August 1917 Pope Benedict XV made a peace proposal based on
compromise.
HSC QUESTION
Outline the variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed
over time in Britain and Germany (8 marks).
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Employment
WOMENS JOBS
Nursing
VAD (voluntary Aid Detachments)
Womens Armed Forces
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A Lasting Impact?
To what extent did the war have a lasting impact on womens lives?
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TURNING POINTS
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The year 1917 marked two turning points in the course of the war: in
April, the United States broke its policy of isolationism and entered the
war on the side of the Allies in November. Russias Bolshevik party,
having staged a successful revolution, fulfilled its promise to withdraw
Russia from the war.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Russian governments withdrawal from WW1 in 1917 and the
subsequent treaty of Brest-Litovsk effectively ended the war on the
Eastern Front.
Lenin demanded a peace without annexations or indemnities and
based on Russias right to self-determination.
Germany was determined to assert its authority over Russia and
dictated harsh conditions for peace.
On 18th of Feb 1918, the German forces resumed their advance on
Russia and the Bolsheviks were forced to accept the punishment meted
public opinion did not favour one side, while its isolationism reinforced
the idea that the war was a European conflict.
In 1917 the German High Command in an effort to break the power of
the Allies at sea, declared unrestricted submarine warfare on merchant
trading ships.
Merchant ships were sunk in an effort to deprive Britain of food and
munitions.
British supply lines and sea routes were secured when a convoy
system was established that was supported by US destroyers.
On 2nd April 1917k President Woodrow Wilson appeared before the
American Congress and asked the to make the world safe for
democracy by declaring war against Germany. America thus entered
the war.
Americas massive industrial and economic resources were now
available to the Allied war effort (although it was not immediate).
The American decision to declare war on Germany was evolutionary,
and not triggered by a single event.
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boats.
Large sums of money loaned by the Americans to Britain (British
defeat would result in financial loss for the US).
Allied propaganda (presenting Germany as aggressor).
Release of the Zimmerman telegram German attempt to negotiate
an alliance with Mexico and Japan against the US.
With German victory, Mexican territories would be restored to Mexico.
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Amiens
The Battle of Amiens (with the French attack on 8 August 1918, with
an attack by more than 10 Allied divisions including Australian,
Canadian, British and French forces with more than 500 tanks).
The Allies achieved complete surprise through careful preparations.
The attack broke through the German lines and tanks attacked
German rear positions, sowing panic and confusion.
The Allies had taken 17 000 prisionors and captured 330 guns. Total
German losses were estimated to be 30 000 on 8 August, while the
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Allies had suffered about 6,500 killed, wounded and missing. This
marked collapse in German morale.
The advance continued for three more days where the Allies had
managed to gain 19km and the Germans began to pull out of the
salient back towards the Hindenburg line.
Second Somme
On 15 August 1918, Foch demanded that Haig continue the Amiens
offensive, even though the attack was faltering as the troops outran
their supplies and artillery and German reserves were being moved to
the sector.
Haig refused and instead prepared to launch a fresh offensive by the
British Third Army at Albert (the Battle of Albert), which opened on 21
August. The offensive was a success, pushing the German Secon Army
back over a 55km front.
Battle of the Hindenburg Line
Foch now planned a series of great concentric attacks on the German
lines in France (sometimes referred to as the Great Offensive) with
the various tactics of advance designed to cut the Germans lateral
means of communications, intending that the success of a single attack
would enable the entire front line to be advanced.
The first attack of Fochs Grand Offensive (launched 26th Sept by
French and American Expeditionary forces) involved attacking over
difficult terrain, resulting in the Hindenburg Line not being broken until
the 17 October.
Two days later, the Allied army launched an attack near Ypres in
Flanders (the Fifth Battle of Ypres). Both attacks made good progress
initially but were then slowed by logistical problems.
By the 5th of October, the Allies had broken through the entire depth of
the Hindenburg defences over a 31 km front.
Subsequently (on October 8), led by Canadian Corps, the 1st and 3rd
British armies broke through the Hindenburg Line at the Battle of
Cambrai. This collapse forced the German High Command to accept
that the war had to be ended.
The evidence of failing German morale also convinced many Allied
commanders and political leaders that the war could be ended in 1918.
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had the Germans not shown marked signs of deterioration during the
past month, I should never have contemplated attacking the Hindenburg
Line. Had it been defended by the Germans of two years ago, it would
certainly have been impregnable
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ALLIED VICTORY
4a. Events leading to the Armistice, 1918
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potential for the provision of resources both material and human, was a
major blow to German morale.
Other Considerations
The most prominent reasons for the Allied victory are:
The US entry,
the successes of the Allied counter Offensive in 1918
The collapse of the German Home Front
Germanys long term strategic disadvantage.
It is suggested that victory in WWI was a close rung thing:
It was Ludendorffs Spring Offensive that broke the stalemate on
the Western Front it threatened Paris and the whole Allied
position on the Western Front.
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LLOYD GEORGE
CLEMENCEAU
PERSONALITY
v An academic
v Shared some of
with genuinely
Wilsons
internationalist
farsighted
vision.
concerns,
v Limited
however also
appreciation of
practical and
the complexity of
influenced by
European
the home front
disputes and
and need to
border issues.
compromise.
v Fierce
French
Patriot
v Sought
revenge for
both WWI
and Prussian
invasion
1871.
WAR
INFLUENCE
v Winning the
War gave Wilson
enormous
influence.
v US enriched by
the war.
v Lost 114,095
lives.
v Lost 761,213
lives
v War pensions at
enormous cost
v War almost
ruined economy
for Britain.
v Lost
1,358,000
lives.
v War
pensions
enormous
cost.
v War
destroyed
factories,
farmland,
forests.
HOME
FRONT
INFLUENCE
v Republicans won
recent
Congressional
elections not
v France had
suffered
more than
Britain
v Once German
navy was
v Germany
was a long
strong support in
US
v Isolationism
undermined his
own
internationalism.
SECURITY
v US under no
threat.
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more
pressure to
punish and
weaken
Germany.
v Agreed to the
return of Alsace
and Lorraine to
France.
v Offered France
security
guarantee.
v Felt that League
of Nations would
safeguard all
nations against
aggression.
destroyed,
Britain had little
to fear.
v Did not want to
see Germany
weakened to
France could
dominate.
v Opposed the
separation of
Rhineland
v Offered to
support Wilson
in safeguarding
term threat.
v Sought to
weaken
Germany by
setting up
Rhineland
border
region as
separate
state.
v France was
largely left
to defend
itself.
French borders.
NATIONALISM AND
INTERNATIONALISM
v In carving up
Germany and
Turkeys former
colonies
between them,
Britain and
France largely
followed on
national
interest.
v New borders
seen as a
way of
weakening
Germany,
creating new
allies or
building
buffer zone
between
communist
Russia and
the rest of
Europe.
v Little faith in
League of
Nations.
REPRARATIONS
v Recognised that
Germany should
pay according to
capacity to pay
v Sought
reparations
from Germany,
partly in order
to pay US war
loans.
v Demanded
reparations
to cover war
damage,
pensions and
debt.
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v Reparations
were also
designed to
punish and
weaken
Germany.
The Versailles Treaty
Germany was not admitted to the Paris Peace Conference. European
peace decisions were made by a Council of Five (USA, Britain
,France, Italy and Japan), US, Britain and France made most
decisions. Deliberations were mostly in secret.
SOME OUTCOMES:
v Demanded Germanys full acceptance for starting the war.
v Germany lost around 13% of its territory, millions of ethnic
Germans left living in new nations like Poland and
Czechoslovakia.
v Alsace and Lorraine returned to France.
v Rhineland demilitarised and occupied by Allies for 15 years.
v German colonies awarded to the League of Nations which
distributed them as mandates to various Allied nations.
v Allies assumed control of German fleet.
v German army limited to 100,000.
v Denied heavy artillery, planes and submarines.
v Reparations levied on Germany. First payment was surrender of
merchant fleet, all overseas owned property and coal deliveries.
v Germany and Austria not allowed to unite. Direct contradiction of
Wilsons right to self-determination.
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