SCIENCE CHINA

Technological Sciences
RESEARCH PAPER

April 2011 Vol.54 No.4: 983991

doi: 10.1007/s11431-011-4318-z

The biomechanical study of lower limb during human walking

HAN YaLi1 & WANG XingSong2*
1

School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing Institute of Technology, Nanjing 211167, China;

2
School of Mechanical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
Received March 22, 2010; accepted January 18, 2011; published online February 21, 2011

The coordinates of the marked points of joints and the changes of foot force in the human walk motion are obtained with systems of motion image acquisition and force measuring. The effects of kinematics and dynamics on the human lower limb in
different loads (0, 10, 20, 30 kg) and walking speeds (0.8, 1.3, 1.7 m/s) have been investigated using the human dynamics
model,. The results were as follows. First, with the increasing load, the dorsiflexion angle of ankle joint increased during the
procedure of toe-off, the range of motion of the knee joint decreased, the flexion angle of the hip joint increased, and oppositely, the extension angle of the hip joint decreased. Second, with the increasing speed, the range of motion of the ankle joint,
the maximum flexion angle of the knee joint, the flexion angle, extension angle of the hip joint and the range of motion of hip
joint increased. Finally, the torque and power of the ankle joint, the knee joint and the hip joint increased with the increasing
speed and load. The results can provide an important basis for the mechanism design of lower limb power-assisted exoskeleton.
walking gait, dynamical model, motion analysis, load walking
Citation:

Han Y L, Wang X S. The biomechanical study of lower limb during human walking. Sci China Tech Sci, 2011, 54: 983991, doi: 10.1007/s11431-011-4318-z

The motion of human walk is very complex. It is a result of

synergic movement of skeleton around the joint and powered by several rhythmic muscles contraction. With the development of modern measuring technique, it is possible for
us to analyze the diversification of the walking lower limb
in kinematics and dynamics more precisely. Now this research work is towards a special branch of biomechanics
called gait analysis [1]. The researches started early overseas and mainly focused on analyzing the characteristics of
the movements. Most of the results were used in athletic
training, evaluation of rehabilitation exercise and the design
of walk assisting device [26]. The same researches in
China started relatively late, and is now mainly on the gait
analysis in walking motion of the normal lower limb or the
patients without any weight bearing, which are mostly used
*Corresponding author (email: xswang@seu.edu.cn)
Science China Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

in rehabilitation evaluation [710]. This paper focuses on

the gait analysis of normal lower limb with different loads
and walking speeds, and aims at instructing the design of
the power-assisted walking exoskeleton. The exoskeleton
should be placed in parallel with the lower limb and match
the degrees of freedom of joints. But if all the joints are
powered, not only a lot of energy will be consumed but also
the complexity of the control system will increase. As
shown in the existing researches [11], in different stages of
walk, the joint power may be positive or negative. The purpose on saving energy can be achieved by releasing the energy of positive power which is stored in a negative stage.
So the work conditions of the joints should be studied while
the joint torque and the joint power in the walking can also
be obtained by biomechanical study. With the data properly
scaled in proportion, they can be used in design and taken as
an important basis for the selection of actuator and energy
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source.

1
1.1

The study of human walk motion

The research method

The original data of kinematics in human walk motion were

obtained with the gait analysis system in the Rehabilitation
Department of Jiang Su Provincial Peoples Hospital. The
system developed by Motion Analysis Company includes
the subsystems of motion image acquisition and force
measuring. The motion image acquisition system consists of
several high speed cameras placed all around, and luminous
marked points are pasted on the right positions. Then various kinematic parameters, time parameters and stride are
obtained by capturing and recognizing those marked points.
The force measuring system consists of two force plates
placed on the track. The picture of an experimental site is
shown in Figure 1.
Many data could be obtained with the system. The kinematic and dynamic data in the walk motion of lower limb
are calculated by software which was self-developed for
gait analysis of human motion based on C# and MATLAB.
The software is set up with the coordinates of the marked
points and the original data of force measuring system and
the model of human body motion.
1.2

The human dynamical model

The results of the kinematics in the human walk motion

could be calculated with the position coordinates of luminous marked points, such as the angles variation , the
accelerations a of thighs, legs and foots. The details were
shown in ref. [12]. With the analysis method of human motion and the anthropometry method described in ref. [13],
the parameters like the masses of thighs, legs and foots and
the moment of inertia I can be obtained and used for gait

Figure 2

The model of human lower extremity.

analysis. The joint forces, torque and power at each gait

time can be calculated with Newtons second law based on
the human dynamics model and the results of gait experiment on force plate.
After analyzing the right foot with Newtons theorem,
the obtained formula is shown as below:
FRankle + mRfoot aRfoot + Fplate1 = mRfoot g,
L Rankle = M Rankle + TZplate1 + M FRankle + M Fplate1 .

Furthermore, the joint force FRankle and the joint torque

MRankle of the right heel knee are achieved as
FRankle = mRfoot aRfoot mRfoot g Fplate1 ,

(1)

M Rankle = L Rankle TZplate1 M FRankle M Fplate1 ,

(2)

where mRfoot is the mass of the right foot, aRfoot is the

acceleration of the right foot in the walking process, g is the
acceleration of gravity, Fplate1 is the reaction force to the sole
from the surface of the force plate, L Rankle is the temporal
variation rate of angular momentum of the right foot,
TZplate1 is the reaction torque to the sole from the surface of
the force plate, and MFRankle and MFplate1 are the moment
values which are produced respectively by FRankle and Fplate1.
The joint power of the right foot is given by
PRankle = M Rankle Rankle ,

(3)

where Rankle is the angular velocity of the ankle joint.

As same as above, the joint forces, the joint torque and
the power of the right knee are shown as follows:
Figure 1

The picture of experimental site.

FRknee = mRcalf aRcalf mRcalf g FRankle ,

(4)

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M Rknee = M FRknee M FRankle L Rcalf ,

(5)

PRknee = M Rknee Rknee .

(6)

The joint forces, the joint torque and the power of right
hip are shown as
FRhip = mRthigh aRthigh mRthigh g FRknee ,

(7)

M Rhip = M FRhip M FRknee L Rthigh ,

(8)

PRhip = M Rhip Rhip .

(9)

The torque and power of each joint of right leg can be

calculated by repeating the above process. The main interface of the gait analysis system, which is self-developed in
the lab, is shown in Figure 3. With the walk process reconstructed in the software, the corresponding variation curves
of kinematics and dynamics could be displayed in real time.
A series of walking graphs of sticks in complete gait cycle
is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3

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2 The experimental results of human walk motion and its analysis

There were five healthy college students attending this
walking experiment. The walk experiment was carried out
under two different conditions. Their ages were (252)
years old, the weights were (566.8) kg and the heights
were (1.70.03) m. Under one condition, the testers were
tested with no load and walked at different speed, such as
fast walking speed of 1.7 m/s, normal walking speed of 1.3
m/s and slow walking speed of 0.8 m/s. Under another condition, the testers walked with different loads, such as 0, 10,
20 and 30 kg with a constant speed of 1.28 m/s. The
experimental results on different testers under the same
walking condition were calculated in average. After that, the
joint angle, torque and power with different loads and different walking speeds were calculated and comparatively
analyzed with the software of gait analysis system. Only the
motion in the sagittal plane was studied in this experiment.

The main interface of the program of the gait analysis system.

Figure 4 A series of walking graphs in a complete gait cycle. The supporting phase of the cycle is about 61%, which includes the procedure of heel strike,
foot flat, mid-stance, heel-off and toe-off. The swing phase of the cycle is about 39%, which includes the procedure of toe-off, mid-swing, heel strike.

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2.1 Joint motion of human lower limb in different

speed
After the walk experiment in different speeds, the variations
of angle, torque and power of each joint were shown in
Figures 57, respectively. In addition, the values shown in
the figures were the averages of multiple experiments. In
order to compare and analyze the experimental results further, the values of some key points, such as average values
and deviation values, were shown in the tables. In Table 1,
there are some notes of these key points. In Table 2, there
are some joint angle values of key points of different walk

Figure 6 The joint torque at different walking speeds (The longitudinal

axis showed the results of the joint torque after standardization on the mass
of the tester). (a) The joint torques of ankle joint; (b) the joint torques of
knee joint; (c) the joint torque of hip joint.

Figure 5 The angles of joints at different walking speeds. (a) The angles
of ankle joint; (b) the angles of knee joint; (c) the angles of hip joint.

speeds. In Table 3, there are some joint torque and power

values of key points of different walk speeds.
The following conclusions can be drawn from Figure 5
and Table 2. First, the maximum angle of ankle joint shown
in Figure 5(a) and the range of motion increased with the
increase of speed. Second, the maximum angle of knee joint
shown in Figure 5(b) and the range of motion increased
with the increase of speed. Finally, the track of angle of hip

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Table 1

The notes to the key points of joint on kinematics and dynamics

Symbol
AA1
KA1
HA1
HA2
TA1
TK1
TH1
PA1
PK1
PK2
PH1

Name
Maximum ankle angle
Maximum knee angle
Maximum hip flexion angle
Maximum hip extension angle
Maximum ankle torque
Maximum knee torque
Maximum hip torque
Maximum ankle power
Minimum knee power during the early phase of support
Maximum knee power during the middle phase of support
Maximum hip power

Table 2 The joint angle valves of key points at different walking speeds
(average valve and deviation value)
Conditions
AA1 (Degree)
KA1 (Degree)
HA1 (Degree)
HA2 (Degree)

0.8 m/s
9.64(2.08)
62.27(4.58)
17.82(5.08)
22.42(5.24)

Walking speeds
1.3 m/s
12.71(2.11)
66.53(4.62)
18.71(5.13)
25.17(5.26)

1.7 m/s
14.19(2.14)
69.05(4.65)
20.93(5.17)
25.66(5.26)

Table 3 The joint power and torques at different speeds (average valves
and deviation values), and the increasing range at other speed while taking
the speed of 0.8 m/s as reference
Conditions
TA1 (N m/kg)
TK1 (N m/kg)
TH1 (N m/kg)
PA1 (W/kg)
PK1 (W/kg)
PK2 (W/kg)
PH1 (W/kg)

Figure 7 The joint power at different walking speeds (the longitudinal

axis in the graph shows the results of the joint power after standardization
of the mass of the tester). (a) The power of the ankle joint; (b) the power of
the knee joint; (c) the power of the hip joint.

joint is similar to a sine wave. The flexion and extension

angles of the hip joint shown in Figure 5(c) and the range of
motion increased with the increase of speed.
The following conclusions can be drawn from Figure 6
and Table 3. The joint torques of the ankle joint, the knee
joint and the hip joint increased with the increase of speed,
and the increased scope of knee joint was greater than the
ones of ankle joint and hip joint.

0.8 m/s
1.22(0.03)
0.41(0.02)
1.12(0.06)
1.60(0.11)
0.91(0.09)
0.59(0.09)
1.13(0.14)

Walking speeds
1.3 m/s
1.7 m/s
1.44(0.06) 18%
1.51(0.08) 23%
0.63(0.05) 53%
0.69(0.06) 68%
1.26(0.06) 12%
1.38(0.07) 14%
1.72(0.12) 7%
1.91(0.15) 19%
1.36(0.12) 49%
1.50(0.14) 64%
0.67(0.11) 13%
0.73(0.11) 23%
1.27(0.16) 12%
1.45(0.20) 28%

The following conclusions can be drawn from Figure 7

and Table 3. First, the maximum power of ankle joint, knee
joint and hip joint increased with the increase of speed.
Second, in slow walking speed, the average power of ankle
joint was nearly equal to zero. But with the increase of
speed, the average value turned to positive. Third, in the
gait cycle, the average value of the power of knee joint was
negative. Finally, in the gait cycle, the average value of the
power of hip joint was positive.
2.2 Joint motion of human lower limb under different
loads
Based on the walking experiment with different loads, the
variations of the angle, the torque and the power of each
joint were shown in Figures 810, respectively. In Table 4,
there are some joint angle values of key points under different loads. In Table 5, there are some joint torque and

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Table 4 The joint angle valves of key points under different loads (average valves and deviation values)
Conditions

Different loads
0 kg

10 kg

20 kg

30 kg

AA1

13.21(2.11)

13.33(2.12)

14.05(2.15)

15.83(2.20)

KA1

66.52(4.58)

66.31(4.57)

66.61(4.58)

63.56(4.55)

HA1

22.46(5.12) 18.75(5.10) 16.92(5.10) 12.61(5.08)

HA2

25.27(5.23)

29.03(5.25)

31.54(5.27)

31.58(5.27)

Figure 9 The joint torques under different loads (The longitudinal axis in
the graph shows the results of the joint torque after standardization of the
mass of the tester). (a) The joint torques of ankle joint; (b) the joint torques
of knee joint; (c) the joint torques of hip joint.

Figure 8 The angles of joint under different loads. (a) The angles of
ankle joint; (b) the angles of knee joint; (c) the angles of hip joint.

power values of key points under different loads.

The following conclusions can be drawn from Figure 8
and Table 4. First, the maximum angle increased with the
increase of the load of ankle joint, as shown in Figure 8(a).
On the contrary, during the procedure of toe-off, the flexion
angle of ankle joint decreased with the increase of load.
Second, the maximum angle of knee joint shown in Figure
8(b) was significantly affected by load, and the range of

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Table 5 The valves of joint power and torques of key points under different loads (average valve and deviation value), and the increasing range
under other load while taking the load of 0 kg as reference
Conditions
TA1
TK1
TH1
PA1
PK1
PK2
PH1

Different loads
0 kg
10 kg
20 kg
1.46(0.06) 1.74(0.08) 19% 2.06(0.11) 41%
0.83(0.06) 1.28(0.07) 54% 1.39(0.08) 67%
1.13(0.06) 1.46(0.07) 29% 1.60(0.09) 41%
1.95(0.14) 2.43(0.17) 24% 2.47(0.17) 28%
1.14(0.10) 1.42(0.11) 24% 1.87(0.13) 64%
0.74(0.11) 1.08(0.14) 45% 0.91(0.13) 22%
1.28(0.16) 1.32(0.16) 3% 1.54(0.17) 14%

30 kg
2.17(0.11) 48%
1.59(0.09) 91%
1.82(0.11) 61%
2.97(0.19) 52%
1.97(0.13) 72%
0.96(0.13) 29%
1.74(0.19) 35%

in the stable area for walking.

The following conclusions can be drawn from Figure 9
and Table 5. The joint torques of ankle joint, knee joint and
hip joint increased with the increase of load. The phenomenon is inevitable. With the increasing load, the supporting force of the feet increases and so does the joint
torque.
The following conclusions can be drawn from Figure 10
and Table 5. First, the maximum powers of ankle joint, knee
joint and hip joint increased with the increase of load. Second, under the loads of 0 and 10 kg, the average power of
the ankle joint was nearly equal to zero. But with the increasing of load, the average value turned to positive. Third,
in the gait cycle, the average value of the power of the knee
joint was negative. Finally, in the gait cycle, the average
value of the power of the hip joint was positive.

3 The implication of the human walking motion

study for the power-assisted exoskeleton design
The walk power-assisted exoskeleton robot which we mention above is a kind of human-robot exoskeleton interaction
system. It could be to enhance human walking ability. It
includes two powered anthropomorphic legs paralleling
with human lower limbs and is connected with human body
via shoulder straps, waist belt, thigh cuffs and a shoe connection, so the geometry of the human and the machine can
approximately match one another.
Figure 10 The joint power under different loads (The longitudinal axis in
the graph shows the results of the joint power after standardization of the
mass of the tester). (a) The power of the ankle joint; (b) the power of the
knee joint; (c) the power of the knee joint.

motion decreased with the increase of load. Finally, the

track of angles of hip joint was similar to a sine wave. And
the flexion angle of hip joint shown in Figure 8(c) increased
with the increase of load. On the contrary, the extension
angle of hip joint decreased with the increase of load. In
order to keep the equilibrium stability of human walk, the
angle of lower limb joint is adjusted with the increase of
load to ensure the center of gravity of the whole system lies

3.1

The ankle joint

Under the condition of normal walking speed, the maximum

flexion angle of ankle joint occurs at the time of the toe-off
as shown in Figures 5(a) and 8(a), the maximum extension
angle occurs at the end time of supporting phase. At the
same time, the torque of ankle joint reaches the peak as
shown in Figures 6(a) and 9(a). It is indicated from the
power of the ankle joint as shown in Figures 7(a) and 10(a)
that the maximum positive power of ankle joint occurs at
the time of the foot pushing off the ground. The motion
supplies the main power for human walking. During the

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walking process, the ankle joint power does both positive

and negative work, the moving function of which is similar
to the energy storage device. If the device, such as a spring,
can be installed at the joint of the power-assisted walking
exoskeleton, the purpose on saving energy can be achieved.
The energy storing device like the spring can store energy in
the supporting phase and release the energy to drive the
ankle joint in the extension phase. In a walking gait cycle,
the ankle joint does both positive and negative work. Especially under the condition of slow walking, the positive
work is equal to the negative work. Based on the characteristics of the ankle joint, spring was used to design the ankle
joint of the prosthesis and the power-assisted walking exoskeleton [14, 15]. It is indicated from our research that only
under the condition of slow walking speed and without load
the positive work will be equal to the negative work in a
walking gait cycle. However, under the condition of fast
walking speed or with load, the positive work is more than
the negative work. Therefore, it will possibly be uncomfortable to only depend on the energy storage device. So,
the combination of the active actuator and the energy storage device can be used here. The elastic coefficient of
spring is designed by the changing relation between the
joint torque and angular velocity of ankle joint in walking
motion. In Figure 11, the relation between the angle and the
joint torque of the ankle joint are drawn for a tester. The
tester was 65 kg of weight and walked with three different
speeds, i.e., the fast one at 1.7 m/s, normal one at 1.3 m/s
and the slow one at 0.8 m/s. It is indicated from Figure 11
that the area surrounded by angle and torque increased with
the increase of speed in a gait cycle. In other words, the
energy stored in the supporting phase is equal to the energy
released in the extension period approximately, the function
of which is similar to the function of a spring. The elastic
coefficient of the spring could be calculated as 357 N m/rad
by solving the slope of the largest envelope in Figure 11.
3.2

The knee joint

It is indicated from the Figures 5(b) and 8(b) that the angle
variation of the knee joint was 0 to 70. The maximum
flexion angle of the knee joint appeared in the early stage of
the swing phase. As shown in Figures 6(b) and 9(b), there
were positive and negative values in the joint torque of knee
joint, indicating the need of a bi-directional actuator. It is
indicated from the power of the knee joint in Figures 7(b)
and 10(b) that the power of the knee joint walking in flatland was negative. The main function of the knee joint,
which plays as passive role, is to control and buffer. And
the function is similar to the damper. Based on several
similar researches, a magneto-rheological damper was selected by MIT in the design of the knee joint [16]. As the
experiment shows, the effect of power-assisted walking in
flatland can be realized. Although there were no experimental research on climbing slope and stairs in this lab, the

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Figure 11 The angles and power of ankle joint at three different speeds,
in which the fast walking speed was 1.7 m/s, the normal walking speed was
1.3 m/s, and the slow walking speed was 0.8 m/s. Line segments 1 and 2
were the step of plantar flexion. They started from the beginning of heel
strike to the end of foot flat. Line segments 2 and 3 were the steps of dorsiflexion. They started from the beginning of foot flat to the end of
mid-stance. Line segments 3 and 4 were the steps of the powered plantarflexion.

already existing research shows that the power of the knee

joint is positive in the process of climbing [17], so the knee
joint is actuated or not should be confirmed according to the
function requirement of the device. If the power-assisted
robot is mainly to supply walking strength enhancement
over a long distance or load augmentation to carry heavy
load, the knee joint requires a driver, but if the
power-assisted robot is only supplied for disorder persons or
aged people walking in flat floor, a damper is most suitable.
3.3

The hip joint

It is can be drawn from Figures 5(c) and 8(c) that the curve
of angle of the hip joint is similar to a sine wave. The
variation range of angles of the hip joint in the walking is
from 30 to 40. As Figures 6(c) and 9(c) show, there are
positive values and negative values in the joint torque of the
hip joint, which indicates the need of a bi-directional actuator. Negative extension torque is required in early stage as
the hip supports the load on the leg. Hip torque is positive in
late stage and early swing as the hip propels the leg forward
during swing. In late swing, the torque turns to negative as
the hip decelerates the leg prior to heel-strike. As shown in
Figures 7 and 10, there are positive work and negative work
of the joint power of hip joint in walking. And in the supporting phase, the body is pushed forward by the energy
which is released during toe-off phase. The two peak power
values appear respectively at the time of heel-strike and
toe-off. As the average power is positive, the hip joint plays
an important role in the human walking motion. An active
actuator is needed for the hip joint when the hip joint of
exoskeleton is designed.

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Conclusions

With the analysis of the motion of human lower limb in

different walk speeds and loads, some useful information of
kinematics and dynamics about each joint is achieved. The
research on the human walking motion can supply important enlightenment to the design of the power-assisted
walking exoskeleton.
First, when walking on the flatland at a low speed, the
average power of the ankle joint is nearly zero. So the
power-assisted walking exoskeleton could be driven by an
energy storage device such as the spring. The ankle joint
can be driven by the released energy in the extension phase
which is stored in the supporting phase by spring or other
energy storing device. However, under the condition of
walking fast or loading heavily, the average power is positive. The driving method is a combination of energy storing
device and passive drive.
Second, the angle variation of the knee joint is the largest
in walking. The power of the knee joint in walking on flatland is negative, and the main functions of the knee joint,
which plays a passive role, are to control and buffer. The
magneto-rheological damper can be used to drive the knee
joint of the power-assisted walking exoskeleton. But the
function of climbing should be carried out by forward drive.
Third, as the research on the gait of human walking
shows, when one walks on flatland, the curve of the angle
of hip joint is similar to a sine wave. There are positive
value and negative value in the joint torque of the hip joint.
There are positive work and negative work in the joint
power of the hip joint, while the average power is positive
in a walking cycle. It is indicated that the hip joint plays an
active role in the motion, so an active actuator is needed for
the hip joint of the power-assisted walking exoskeleton.
Finally, part of the conclusion of the experiment has been
used in the prototype design of power-assisted walking
exoskeleton in the lab. The analysis system on gait of human walking is gradually getting better with the experimental data. The system also provides theoretical guidance
to the optimal design on the prototype of power-assisted
walking exoskeleton. The experimental results of analysis

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system on gait can also be used to assess the rehabilitation

of human walking and so on.

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