163

Machiavelli, a Modern European Avatar

of Kautilya

Teotnio R. de Souza*
Resumo
Uma pesquisa rpida na internet poder apresentar vrias referncias ao Kautilya como Machiavelli indiano, apesar dos dezanove sculos que os separam.
mais uma ilustrao do eurocentrismo da formao colonial-imperial do Ocidente imposta sobre o mundo no-ocidental, que foi condicionado a procurar
modelos no Ocidente, ainda em casos de pessoas e eventos que os antecederam
por muitos sculos, ou mesmo milnios.
Na sua obra A Ideia de Justia (2009), Amartya Sen, Prmio Nobel de Economia,
afirma que no deixa de ser divertido que um analista poltico indiano do sculo
IV a.C. tenha de ser apresentado como uma verso local de um escritor europeu
que haveria de nascer no sculo XV. Considera isto uma aberrao, e lamenta
a atitude dos intelectuais ocidentais que exageram a importncia do iluminismo
europeu, ignorando o contributo de outras culturas para o pensamento humano.
Palavras-chave: Arthashastra, Kautilya, Machiavelli, eurocentrismo, multiculturalismo, economia poltica

* Founder-Director of the Xavier Centre of Historical Research (Goa), 19791994; Fellow of the Portuguese Academy of History (since 1983). Head,
Department of History, Universidade Lusfona de Humanidades e Tecnologias
since 1999.

Teotnio R. de Souza

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Abstract
A quick search in the internet throws up a spate of references to Kautilya who is
presented as Indian Machiavelli, despite nineteen centuries that separate them.
This is just one more illustration of the eurocentrism imposed by the Western
colonial-imperial formation imposed upon the non-Western world, which is conditioned to seek models in the West, even for persons and events that preceded
them by centuries and even millennia.
In his book The Idea of Justice (2009), the Indian Nobel laureate Amartya Sen
considers it amusing that an Indian political analyst of the IV c. B.C. should be
presented as a local version of an European writer who would be born only in the
XV c. A.D. Considers this attitude an aberration, and laments the tendency of
the Western scholars to exaggerate the importance of the European enlightenment, ignoring the contribution of other cultures to the human thought.
Keywords: Arthashastra, Kautilya, Machiavelli, eurocentrism, multiculturalism,
political economy

Machiavelli, a Modern European Avatar of Kautilya

1. Eurocentric Models
A quick search in the internet throws up a spate of references to
Kautilya as Machiavelli of India despite nineteen centuries that separate them. It is just one more illustration of the eurocentrism imposed
by the Western colonial-imperial education worldwide (Satya, 2005).
The non-European world was driven to seek models in Europe, even for
persons and events that anticipated Europe and Europeans by centuries and millennia. In his The Idea of Justice, the Indian Nobel laureate
Amartya Sen points to this aberration and laments the one-sidedness
in Western approach to knowledge and exaggerated claims in favour of
European Enlightenment. Machiavellis importance is one such illustration of the Italy-based upsurge of the European renaissance. Amartya
Sen (2010: 18) is kind enough to attribute this to the ignorance of
other cultures in the West, rather than to a wilful exclusion.
Over the past two thousand years or so, the Indian elites have drawn
from the traditions of Arthashastra. Since the first English translation
of 1915, there have been German (1926), Russian (1959) and Spanish
(2008) translations. Up to the 1990s, there was hardly any interest in
Kautilya outside India, but, since parallel to the growing international
weight of India the importance of Kautilya is increasingly being realized in the West.
The Indian elites can rightfully boast of an Indian precursor of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527). Amartya Sen has made references to
Kautilya in his important writings, besides the above quoted reference in The Idea of Justice. He cites Kautilya in Poverty and Famines
(1981) as providing information about the earliest recorded famines in
India (Sen, 1999: 64, 326). Sen also presents Kautilya as an important, though not exclusive illustration of measured concerns for human
rights in Asia in the context of a recent debate about the Human Rights
and Asian Values. He found in Arthashastra ideas and suggestions on
such practical subjects as famine prevention and administrative effectiveness that considers relevant even today, more than 2,000 years
later. Kautilya advises the king about how to get his way, if necessary
through the violation of the freedom of his adversaries (Sen, 1977).
Kautilya was contemporary of Aristotle, and helped placing the Mauryan dynasty on the throne. He served as royal counsellor and produced Arthasashtra as a treatise on strategy and political economy.

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The proof of its success can be calculated from the expansion and power that a native Indian empire in the subcontinent ever achieved in the
pre-colonial times.
Due to the fact that the original text of Arthasashtra was not published in English translation till early 20th century, it failed to contribute
to the world thought, while it contained for instance all the modern
principles of political economy, including whatever concerns internal
revenues, international trade and value of labour and just price, which
Hume, Smith, Ricardo and J.S. Mill sought to define around mid-18th
century1.
Arthashastra refers to its author as Kautilya, and once as Vishnugupta. But there is an outside contemporary reference to Arthasashtra
of Kautilya, and that is in Panchatantra. This classic Indian contribution
to the world literature has a long saga of transmission through oral and
regional translations, much before the sanskrit version was published
for the first time in Bombay by M.R. Kale in 1912.
The original version is presumed to belong to an unknown Jain
scribe of 9th or 10th century. That was translated into French in 1871 by
E. Lancereau, and reedited by L. Renou in 1965. An earlier version of
LAbb Dubois in 1826 was based upon south Indian versions in Telegu,
Kanada and Tamil languages. The Fables of La Fontaine have their deep
source in India, having travelled through Kashmir, Persia and the Middle East, along the silk route (Deleury, 1995).
It is not very different from the Indian contribution to mathematics,
which through the mediation of Arabs permitted Europe to move into
modernity and continues to be known erroneously as Arabic numbers
(Souza, 2012). More significant and crucial for the Europeans to leap
into modernity and its modern forms of capitalism was the pre-existence of the rich markets of China and India, as Andre Gunder Frank
insisted in recent times to much annoyance of the Western sociologists
and politicians defending the Iberian Discoveries as the beginning of
the world modernity (Frank & Gills, 1993).
For Andre Gunder Frank the Europeans of the Age of Discoveries
bought the ticket to the Asian train by plundering African gold and Latin
American silver, but very soon revealed their true genius by highjacking the train with the brute force gained from the Industrial Revolution.
1.

R. Shama Shastry, Kautilyas Arthasastra, Mysore: Padam Printers, 1988 (First edition,
1915).

Machiavelli, a Modern European Avatar of Kautilya

What had been a trade among partners, following the Industrial Revolution it became an unequal trade, in favour of Imperial Europe. Without such loot the European modernity was hardly likely, or at least at
the pace it happened.
Andre Gunder Frank was a distinguished western economist, a rare
Chicago-boy who did not hold candle to the Chicago school of neoliberals and paid dearly for his advice to the Chilean president. His dire
predictions about the ephemeral nature of European modernity and the
need to re-orient the global economy are coming true (Souza, 2004).
We wish to emphasize in this brief essay that not unlike its contemporary Panchatantra, also Arthasashtra may have part of the world
thought and lost its original Indian moorings. I praise this feature as a
true hallmark of human thought heritage, namely its universal reception. It then ceases to belong to any individual or group patent. The
contemporary Chinese legalist school that sought a centralized Qin empire of the Han dynasty could also belong to the same trend of thought
as promoted by Arthasashtra in Mauryan India. The Roman law was
a western equivalent, and Machiavelli sought to recover it during the
European Renaissance.
I wish there would be more interest among European scholars to
trace the linkage of the Arthasashtra impact on the western thought,
through the mediation of the satrapies that Alexander the Great left
behind in north-western India. Seleucus and Menander were prominent
among them and had close dealings with the Indian empire of Chandragupta Maurya, and presumably with his Indian minister Vishnugupta, author of Arthasashtra, through diplomatic agents like Meghastenes
(302 B.C.-288 A.C.), who may have taken home the Indian text of
strategic thought. It is known that his chronicle Indica served Flavius
Lucius Arrianus as a source of documentation for his classic history of
the campaigns of Alexander of Macedonia. Could there be more than
just a Roman inspiration for Machiavellis Prince?
It is interesting to note the modern appropriations of Machiavelli
in the West and of Kautilya in India for training in management, and
promotion of executives guides, on the basis of their teachings in psychology and politics of power. Kautilya (name derived from katu, meaning astute) leave no doubt that beneath all sanctimonious rhetoric and

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pretense lay the basic struggle of life and instinct of man for survival at
all cost (Buskirk, 1984)2.
Our reflections on this theme were initially expressed a couple of
years ago in an Indian newspaper column and were provoked by an
Italian project entitled Machiavellism and Machiavellisms in the Western Political Tradition (16th-20th centuries) 3 under the direction of Professor Enzo Baldini (Universit di Torino). A connected exercise was
held in Lisbon in the form of a colloquium on Maquiavel Dissimulado:
Religio, imprio e herana romana no mundo portugus, analyzing
the linkage of religion, empire and roman heritage in the context of the
Portuguese imperial experiences. We look forward to the publication of
its proceedings4.
The organizers of the Portuguese colloquium, associated with the
European University of Florence, had announced their interest in discussing the issues raised by the Florentine author, and also the reception and reinvention of his ideas in the Portuguese context. The
privileged point of discussion would be the theories and political praxis
of acquisition and conservation of territories in the Portuguese empire
as related to Machiavellis suggestions, paying special attention to the
articulation between religion and politics, and how far the Roman inspiration influenced the process.
Hopefully, the discussants sought to widen their analysis to include
the contribution of the Indian precursor of Machiavelli, whose teachings
and influence on Indian political culture may have affected the Machiavellic/Roman inspired Portuguese imperial politics and praxis in India
and elsewhere. The Indian strategy of combining satyagraha with Operation Vijay during 1954-1961 to take over Goa from the Portuguese
may not have been entirely devoid of the home-grown Kautilyan touch,
rather than any borrowed European Machiavellian praxis. Portugal felt
itself cheated by Nehrus proclamations of pacifism, or was it a failure to grasp the Indian tradition of Kautilyanism? Adriano Moreira, the
Minister for Overseas Affairs (1961-63) had failed to convince the last
Governor-General of Goa to transfer to Portugal the body of St Francis Xavier, which he viewed as a very important tool for negotiating
2.

http://bit.ly/1kUncfp and http://www.kautilyagroupofinstitutions.com/ are links to two

of several such management and research institutions dedicated to Kautilya in India.
3. http://www.hypermachiavellism.net/.
4. http://ml.ci.uc.pt/mhonarchive/archport/msg12330.html and http://bit.ly/1m9mqvp.

Machiavelli, a Modern European Avatar of Kautilya

the future status of the territory, playing thereby upon the feelings of
the Catholic community (uma arma que parecia importantssima de
negociao do estatuto futuro do territrio, incluindo a tranquilidade
dos catlicos). He laments that General Vassalo e Silva ignored his
request and denied to Portugal such an opportunity. Had Kautilya got
the better of Machiavelli (Moreira, 2009: 211-215)?

2. Cultural Multiversity
Living cultures are never autarchic; cultures influence each other
and borrow from each other. We did not have to wait till modern globalization to realize this. In the coming decades, European culture will
be strongly influenced by Chinese and Indian culture both outside
Euro-Atlantic cultural space. The Chinese and Indian cultures are very
ancient cultures with great internal resourcefulness. Like European culture, they are more than 2500 years old and they are alive and growing.
Already in the 18th and 19th century, at least some of Germanys
great minds recognized that the interchange with Asian cultures represents an enormous opportunity for European culture. From a perspective of cultural history, the German indologist Heinrich Zimmer
(1890-1943)5 and the psychoanalyst Carl G. Jung (1875-1961) studied the interactions between Vedic-Brahmanic and European thought.
Both are distinct expressions of self-developed cultures with specific,
quasi-genetic features which are the result of an evolutionary process,
a succession of intra-cultural transformations triggered by internal and
external influences.
In my earlier essay entitled Orientalism, Occidentosis and Other Viral Strains contributed to a Festschrift in honour of Prof. K.S. Mathew
(Souza, 2001)6 I had concluded, after analysing the thought of some
of the more East-friendly thinkers, that western pluralism falls short
of multiculturalism. What seems to prevail in the west is aglobalizing
monoculturalism. It contained a quote from Carl Jung, who had discovered that there were other ways for the civilized human beings to
organize their lives without a slavish dependance upon thinking.
5. Zimmer (1951).
6. Souza (2007) is an updated Portuguese version of the essay.

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Carl Jung wrote in What India Can Teach Us?: We should thank
God that there is still a man who has not learned to think, but has the
ability to perceive the thoughts as visions or live things... the logic of
India is interesting and it is fantastic, to see how pieces of western
science co-exist with what we would call superstition. The Indians are
not bothered by the contradictions that are apparently unacceptable.
If they exist, it is the thinking that produces them, and a person may
not be considered responsible for them. An Indian is not interested in
minute details of the universe. He is interested in understanding the
totality (Jung, 1939: 97-98).
When we reflect upon society, power, economy, state or inter-state
relations in Euro-Atlantic space, the influence of Plato, Thomas Aquinas, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke or Marx has at least a latent presence.
When the educated Indian or Chinese does the same, they refer to the
European thinkers, but they think first of Confucius, Menzius and Sun
Tzu or theMahabharataand Kautilyas Arthashastra. We have to acknowledge that there is an asymmetry in the mutual understanding of
these cultures. The asymmetry is the result of the superiority of (modern) European culture and its scientific-technological manifestations
which turned India into a colony and China into a semi-colony. Now the
balance between Asia and Euro-Atlantic space is being re-established
and the Euro-Atlantic peoples have an opportunity to grasp better the
history of ideas within Chinese and Indian cultures. Any failure to grasp
this opportunity may lead to nasty surprises.
India today is a country with over a billion people and is marching
fast to becoming a world power. Its political thinking and statecraft did
not begin with Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru or the latest computer guru
Sam Pitroda in the 20th century. There is a tradition of Indian statecraft
and diplomacy which goes back at least 2500 years. And, one can
safely assume that this tradition has exerted a formative influence on
Indian politics up to the present.

3. Kautilyas Arthashastra
In 321 B.C., 26 years after the death of Plato and one year after
the death of Aristotle, Chandragupta Mauriya became the ruler of the
Mauriya Empire which extended from the Indus Valley to the Ganges
plains. Four years earlier, in 325, after reaching the Indus, Alexander

Machiavelli, a Modern European Avatar of Kautilya

the Great had to abandon his attempt to conquer India. Kautilya was
the mentor and counsellor of Chandragupta. He was not just a political
operative, but also a theoretician. Kautilyas Arthashastra is a wellstructured treatise of statecraft containing 15 adhikaranas or books
with 150 chapters, 180 prakaranas or sections, and 6,000 slokas of 32
syllables each7. It is a theoretical treatise of universal validity, but to
be adapted to circumstances. It is intended for the guidance of rulers
in general, and it claims to be based mainly on earlier treatises. It is
much more comprehensive than the relatively puny Prince of Machiavelli (2000) with 26 chapters and much more historically contextualized and geographically limited.
The first five Books cover primarily the internal administration,
and the remaining ten refer to foreign relations and diplomacy. Unlike
Machiavellis The Prince, it should not be viewed as a historical account
describing the actual conditions in the kingdom of Chandragupta Maurya. Any differences with the account of Megasthenes cannot be any
argument for defending that they were not contemporaries (Kangle,
2000: 67-74)8.
The structure of contents is defined in Book XV, the closing Book of
Arthashastra. Book I with 21 chapters sets out the scientific basis of
politics and governance, emphasizing that discipline and self-restraint
are essential for success. The four-fold science for Kautilya includes
Anvikshaki (Philosophy of Sankya-Yoga-Lokyata), Trayi (Three Vedas
which sanction social system of castes and rules of dharma or civil law),
Varta (agriculture, cattle-breeding and trade), and Dandaniti (Rule of
Law).
Kautilyas objectives of politics is acquisition (labha) of territory, and
protection, development and defence of territory (rakshana-palana).
7. I have consulted presently three editions based on various manuscripts found so far
in south and north India: Shastry (1988); Kangle (2000) (5th reprint of 1969 Bombay
University edition). Contains in Part I a genealogy of original manuscripts and transcripts available in India and abroad. Part II is the English translation and Notes of the
Devanagari text in Part I. Part III is a critical study of Arthashastra. The third and more
recent edition utilised here is Rangarajan (1992). Rangarajan dedicates his translation
to the two earlier editors, acknowledging his debt to the scholarship of Kangle and
Shama Shastry. However, takes liberty to rearrange the verses, and even to drop Book
XIV, which deals with secret and occult practices, because of the futility of trying to
guess what sort of herbs, plants and occult material is listed therin.
8. The Indika of Megasthenes is known only in fragments quoted by later authors like
Strabo, Arrian, Diodorus, etc. On Megasthenes visits to India, cf. Bongard-Levin &
Bukharin (1991-1992).

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Power-sharing with collaborators and subsidiarity are considered essential in ensuring sovereignty (rajatva). The appointment of ministers
and counsellors is to be made on the basis of their knowledge of science
of polity and practical experience. All need to be subjected to regular
tests of honesty and corruption. Book II is the longest with 38 chapters
defining land organization, construction and administration of forts,
functions of every type of state officers. The organization, recruitment
and modus operandi of spies is subject-matter of various chapters, indicating the importance that Kautilya assigns to them. Chapter VI lists
all possible sources of revenue to be tapped and modes of collecting
and accounting them. Chapter VII defines a working year as consisting
of 354 days and nights. Book III with 20 chapters is largely devoted to
civil law, including family law, covering marriage and inheritance disputes, rules regarding slaves and labourers and their respective rights.
Book VI with 2 chapters lists the following eight elements of sovereignty: the king, the minister, the country, the fort, the treasury, the
army, the friend and the enemy. These last two elements are a novelty
and can be better understood in Arthasashtras geostrategic relations
described later in this essay.
Even a cursory reading of Arthashastra, will convince that Kautilya
is a political realist. Max Weber wrote that, compared to Arthashastra,
Machiavellis The Prince is harmless (Boesche, 2002). Kautilyas central
notion is power. The purpose of the state is preserving and expanding its power. Strengthening the state internally and externally, is the
supreme duty of a ruler. But strong rule did not imply personal tyrannical excesses. If the ruler failed in his duty, his overthrow was not only
legitimate, but mandatory, because a weak ruler brings disaster upon
the state.
When reading Kautilya one can recall several past empires: The Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great, Alexanders Graeco-Persian Empire,
the Roman Empire or the empire of Frederick II Hohenstaufen, and
also the Chinese Empire at its height. The Kautilyan state has similarities with PlatosPoliteia. The religious-intellectual elite, the Brahmins;
the warrior caste, the Kshatriyas; the merchants and land-owners, the
Vaishyas; and the peasants and artisans, the Shudras and there are
the indigenous/non-Aryan outcasts, socially even below Greek or Romans slaves.

Machiavelli, a Modern European Avatar of Kautilya

The Kautilyan state and society have a logical design: While the
ruler is absolute and the supreme functionary of state, the Kshatriyas
serve the internal and external security of the state, along with an
elaborated judicial system. The Kautilyan state is administered by a
wide network of technocratic bureaucracy. The working castes of the
Vaishyas and Sudras provide the material foundation for the state and
society. Their capacity to generate wealth is the basis of the strength
of the state. Their economic activities are thoroughly supervised and
regulated but they must not be unduly oppressed, because arbitrary
treatment reduces economic efficiency and output and nurtures political unrest. The key position in Kautilyan state and society is reserved
to the Brahmins. They shape the beliefs and thinking of society, and
help steering state policy by their intellectual and political guidance of
the absolute ruler.
Kautilyan doctrine respects the core concepts of Vedic-Brahmanic
philosophy and praxis as defined by the Dharmashastras. Contrary to
the prevailing modern impressions of the Indian society as spiritually
oriented, it has never lost sight of the purushartas as defined by the
Dharmashastras. Firstly, the acquisition of wealth (artha), secondly
constituting a family and enjoying natural pleasures (kama), but all
this within the rules of morality (dharma) then, only towards the end
of life, comes the attainment of spiritual salvation (moksha). Thus, Indian culture features an equilibrium of materialism and spirituality. The
Brahmins are expected to be masters and teachers of this combination.
They are educated to be a-materialistic, never anti-materialistic. The
materialist dimension of Indias culture challenges the Weberian belief
that the Wests capitalist dynamism is the unique result of ProtestantPuritan or Calvinist ethics, which sees material success as evidence of
God awarding salvation (Tawney, 1977).
Arthashastra is not merely about ancient political science, it is a
treatise of political economy. It elaborates on various economic activities agriculture, crafts, mining, trade and their regulation and taxation. Various infrastructure of roads and bridges, water management,
agricultural projects are discussed. It does not fail to tap all likely
revenue sources, recommending state-control of brothels, liquor bars,
or gambling houses. I have yet to know of any contemporary western
treatise of political economy that is so comprehensive in its coverage

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that could compare with Arthashastra at least not until the mercantilist literature of the 17th century. Arthashastraincludes a large and
detailed section on criminal and civil legislation.

4. Diplomacy and Intelligence

The largest sections of Arthashastra are devoted to diplomacy and
warfare. Kautilya advocates prudence in pursuing the two basic foreign
policy aims: Ensuring states security against external aggression and
expanding the state at the expense of other states are defined as the
prime objectives of foreign policy. To these ends, diplomacy and covert
operations (intelligence) are preferable to waging war. Employing guile
in statecraft is considered as better than the use of military force. The
ruler and his advisers must carefully calculate the correlation of forces
before launching war. Short-term gains through immediate action need
to be balanced against a long-term gains by waiting for the right and
opportune moment for action.
Arthashastra develops a geostrategy of its own, or the rajamandala
in Book VIII with 18 chapters and presents the state as surrounded
by concentric circles of immediate and more distant neighbours. The
states of the first circle are natural enemies, as they stand in the way
of the states natural expansionist interests. A second circle of states
represents potential allies because their interests collide with those of
the second circle. The third circle of states is made of potential enemies
because they have converging interests with the first circle and conflicting interest with the second. Kautilya anticipates the dictum: The
enemy of my enemy is my friend. The book deals with superior, equal
and inferior kings and how the relationships with them need to be organized, including choices of alliances, war and treaties. Book X with 6
chapters covers war strategies and battlefield options. Book XI is the
shortest with just one chapter, but not less important. It points to the
importance of controlling the artisans and their guilds through spies
and policies of conciliation of their rivalries.
Kautilya lists various diplomatic ruses, such as: secretly preparing
an aggression and achieve surprise; sowing dissent for weakening a
targeted state; isolating a targeted state from potential allies; delaying/diverting aggression by another state to camouflage ones own

Machiavelli, a Modern European Avatar of Kautilya

weakness until strength has been recovered; inciting conflict between

other states to gain advantage.
Arthashastras section on intelligence is particularly noteworthy:
Kautilyan views the intelligence service as a crucial instrument of state
policy internal and external. It has to find a respectable place in the
state organization and bureaucracy. He distinguishes intelligence officers and operational agents, and elaborates on various intelligence
functions.
Most important for internal security is the information gathering to
sense the mood of the population; to monitor the state bureaucracy
and pre-empt high treason. Gives importance to counterintelligence to
ward off the penetration by foreign spies. In respect to foreign intelligence, Kautilya lists: spying in foreign countries and courts for identifying their strengths and weaknesses; covert operations for destabilizing
foreign countries, even by poisoning or killing some key officials of
other kingdoms if necessary.
Kautilya specifies various intelligence techniques for gathering information and recruitment of agents to check corruption and attempts at
treason. He suggests use of money, sexual entrapment, blackmail and
exploiting resentments. Recommends placing variety of undercover
agents as merchants, wandering monks/nuns, entertainers/showmen,
astrologers etc. Intelligence reports must be transmitted in code. For
internal security, Kautilya sees informants in bars, brothels and gambling houses as particularly valuable for collecting information.
The Portuguese had some taste of the Kautilyan menu of the Indian intelligence service as described by the Portuguese military official Francisco Cabral Couto in his published memoirs. He was held as
POW following the invasion of Goa by the Indian armed forces in 1961.
Among the guards of the POW camp where he was detained he recognized three individuals: one was a train TC (ticket chequer) in MargoMormugo sector, another a servant in the Longuinhos bar in Margo
where the officer often had his meals, and a third whom he often found
sitting under a banyan tree as a beggar. They obviously belonged to
the Indian armed forces and were deputed to serve as spies, without
the author or even the Portuguese police department sensing it (Souza,
2010; Couto, 2006: 107).

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