Assignment

Indian Institute of Technology

Indore

Course: EE309
Electrical Measurement and
Instrumentation
Name:

Aditi Kanjolia

Roll No. 1200202

Dated: 5.11.2014

Description of various white light emitting

sources.
Incandescent lamp
An incandescent light bulb is an electric light which produces light with a
wire filament made of tungsten (or earlier, carbon) heated to a high temperature
by an electric current passing through it, until it glows. The hot filament is
protected from oxidation within a glass or quartz bulb enclosure that is filled with
inert gas or evacuated. The bulb is filled with an inert gas such as argon (93%)
and nitrogen (7%) to reduce evaporation of the filament and prevent
its oxidation at a pressure of about 70 kPa. A 100 W light bulb for 120 V
operation emits about 1,700 lumens, about 17 lumens/W. Incandescent lamps
are relatively inexpensive to make. The typical lifespan of an AC incandescent
lamp is 750 to 1,000 hours.
Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output,
and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external
regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work equally
well on either alternating current or direct current.
Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than most other types of electric
lighting; incandescent bulbs convert less than 5% of the energy they use into
visible light with the remaining energy being converted into heat.
The luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb is 16 lumens per watt,
compared to the 60 lm/W of a compact fluorescent bulb. Incandescent bulbs
typically have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting; around
1,000 hours for home light bulbs versus typically 10,000 hours for compact
fluorescents and 30,000 hours for lighting LEDs. Incandescent bulbs are
gradually being replaced in many applications by other types of electric light,
such as fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), cold cathode
fluorescent lamps (CCFL), high-intensity discharge lamps, and light-emitting
diode lamps (LED)

Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. The coated glass bulbs have a
white powdery substance on the inside called kaolin which is a white, chalky clay
in a very fine powder form, that is deposited on the interior of the bulb. It
diffuses the light emitted from the filament, producing a gentler and evenly
distributed light.

Halogen lamp

A halogen lamp is an incandescent lamp that has a small amount of

a halogen such as iodine or bromine added. The combination of the halogen gas
and the tungsten filament produces a halogen cycle chemical reaction which
redeposits evaporated tungsten back onto the filament, increasing its life.
Because of this, a halogen lamp can be operated at a higher temperature than a
standard gas-filled lamp of similar power and lifetime, producing light of a
higher luminous efficacy.

Fluorescent Lamp

A fluorescent lamp or a fluorescent tube is a low pressure mercury-vapor gasdischarge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An electric
current in the gas excites mercury vapor which produces short-wave
ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the bulb to
glow.
Conventional linear fluorescent lamps have life spans around 20,000 and
30,000 hours.
When light is turned on, the electric power heats up the cathode resulting in
thermionic emission. The emitted electrons collide with and ionize the gas atoms
inside the bulb surrounding the filament. If the incident free electron has
enough kinetic energy, it transfers energy to the atom's outer electron, causing
that electron to temporarily jump up to a higher energy level. The electron then
jumps from the higher energy level to more stable lower energy state thus
emitting photons. For Hg, these photons have wavelengths in the ultraviolet (UV)
region of the spectrum (253.7 and 185 nm). These are then converted to visible
range by making use of fluorescence. Light-emitting phosphors are applied as a
paint-like coating to the inside of the tube. This coating absorbs the ultraviolet
photons, causing a similar jump and drop process, with emission of a further
photon. The photon that is emitted from this second interaction has a lower
energy than the one that caused it and lies in visible region. The difference in
energy between the absorbed ultra-violet photon and the emitted visible light
photon goes toward heating up the phosphor coating.
Fluorescent lamps must use an auxiliary device, a ballast, to regulate the
current flow through the lamp. Higher quality fluorescent lamps use either a
higher CRI halophosphate coating, or a triphosphor mixture, based
on europium and terbium ions, that have emission bands more evenly
distributed over the spectrum of visible light

High-intensity discharge lamp

High-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) are a type of electrical gasdischarge lamp which produces light by means of an electric arc
between tungsten electrodes housed inside a translucent or transparent fused
quartz or fused alumina arc tube. This tube is filled with
both gas and metal salts. The gas facilitates the arc's initial strike. Once the arc
is started, it heats and evaporates the metal salts forming plasma, which greatly

increases the intensity of light produced by the arc and reduces its power
consumption. High-intensity discharge lamps are a type of arc lamp
High-intensity discharge lamps make more visible light per unit of electric power
consumed than fluorescent and incandescent lamps since a greater proportion of
their radiation is visible light in contrast to infrared.

LED lamp

An LED ( light-emitting diode) lamp have a lifespan and electrical efficiency that
is several times better than incandescent lamps, and significantly better than
most fluorescent lamps, with some chips able to emit more than 100 lumens
per watt.
Like incandescent lamps and unlike most fluorescent, LEDs come to full
brightness without need for a warm-up time; the life of fluorescent lighting
is also reduced by frequent switching on and off. Initial cost of LED is usually
higher. Degradation of LED dye and packaging materials reduces light output to
some extent over time.
LEDs do not emit light in all directions, and their directional characteristics affect
the design of lamps. The light output of single LEDs is less than that of
incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps; in most applications multiple LEDs
are used to form a lamp.
LED chips need controlled direct current (DC) electrical power; an
appropriate circuit is required to convert alternating current from the supply to
the regulated low voltage direct current used by the LEDs. LEDs are adversely
affected by high temperature, so LED lamps typically include heat
dissipation elements such as heat sinks and cooling fins.
General-purpose lighting needs white light. LEDs emit light in a very narrow
band of wavelengths, emitting light of a color characteristic of the
energy bandgap of the semiconductor material used to make the LED. To emit
white light from LEDs requires mixing light from red, green, and blue LEDs, or
using a phosphor to convert some of the light to other colors.

Compact fluorescent lamp

A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) is a fluorescent lamp that uses a tube
which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a
compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.

They have several small-diameter tubes joined in a bundle of two, four, or six, or
a small diameter tube coiled into a helix, to provide a high amount of light
output in little volume. Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in the same
popular sizes as incandescent and are used as an energy-saving alternative in
homes. CFLs use one-fifth to one-third the electric power, and last eight to
fifteen times longer as compared to incandescent lamps. A CFL has a higher
purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its
purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime.
The principle of operation in a CFL bulb remains the same as in other fluorescent
lighting: electrons that are bound to mercury atoms are excited to states where
they will radiate ultraviolet light as they return to a lower energy level; this
emitted ultraviolet light is converted into visible light as it strikes the fluorescent
coating on the bulb (as well as into heat when absorbed by other materials such
as glass).
The luminous efficacy is typically around 60 lm/W and its lifespan ranges
from 6,000 hours to 15,000 hours. CFLs have two main components:
magnetic or electronic ballast and a gas-filled tube. Replacement of
magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts has removed most of the flickering and
slow starting traditionally associated with fluorescent lighting, and has allowed
the development of smaller lamps directly interchangeable with more sizes of
incandescent bulb
CFL light output is roughly proportional to phosphor surface area, and
high output CFLs are often larger than their incandescent equivalents. To fit
enough phosphor coated area within the approximate overall dimensions of an
incandescent lamp, standard shapes of CFL tube are a helix with one or more
turns, multiple parallel tubes, circular arc, or a butterfly.

Difference between avalanche and zener

breakdown.
In situations involving extreme voltages in a pn junction diode, current
conduction shows different behavior with a sudden increase in the amount of
current flowing through them. There are two stages that occur as a material
begins to breakdown due a large applied voltage. These are zener
breakdown and avalanche breakdown.
Zener breakdown
In Zener breakdown the electrostatic attraction between the negative electrons

and a large positive voltage is so great that it pulls electrons out of their
covalent bonds and away from their parent atoms. i.e. Electrons are transferred
from the valence to the conduction band. In this situation the current can still be
limited by the limited number of free electrons produced by the applied voltage
so it is possible to cause Zener breakdown without damaging the semiconductor.
In this the PN junction are heavily doped. Depletion layer is narrow.
Avalanche breakdown
Avalanche breakdown occurs when the applied voltage is so large that electrons
that are pulled from their covalent bonds are accelerated to great velocities.
These electrons collide with the silicon atoms and knock off more electrons.
These electrons are then also accelerated and subsequently collide with other
atoms. Each collision produces more electrons which leads to more collisions etc.
The current in the semiconductor rapidly increases and the material can quickly
be destroyed. Charge carriers
acquire energy from applied
voltage. Electric field is
comparatively much weak than in
zener breakdown. Depletion layer
is large too. There is
a hysteresis effect; once
avalanche breakdown has
occurred, the material will
continue to conduct even if
the voltage across it drops
below the breakdown voltage.
This is different from a Zener
diode, which will stop
conducting once the reverse voltage drops below the breakdown
voltage.

Basic difference between photodiode,

phototransistor and photo voltaic cell.

A photodiode is a semiconductor device used to convert light into current. They

are
similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that
they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum
UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window
or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach
the sensitive part of the device. They can be used
to perform small operations like detecting light.
Figure shows a photodiode.
A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse
bias. A photodiode is a p-n junction or PIN
structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it
creates an electron-hole pair. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion
region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the
junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion region and current is
produced. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as its surface area
increases.
A photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect (creation
of voltage or electric current in a material upon exposure to light). In
functionality it is same as a photodiode. It is used to produce current from
sunlight.
Differences are- they are more sizeable and have higher power rating
than a photodiode. The way of making it is also different. The reverse biased
pn junction photodiode operates in the photoconductive mode.

A phototransistor is a light-sensitive transistor. It is in essence a bipolar

transistor encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the basecollector junction. The electrons that are generated by photons in the basecollector junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is
amplified by the transistor's current gain . If the emitter is left
unconnected, the phototransistor becomes a photodiode. While
phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light they are not able to detect
low levels of light any better than photodiodes. Phototransistors also have
significantly longer response times.
Difference : Output of a photo transistor is much higher than a photodiode
but
it tends to be relatively slow. Below is a circuit using a
phototransistor.