Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
com
2009
MECHANICAL VIBRATION ANALYSIS
ABSTRACT
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
INTRODUCTION
Vibration spectra are in general “peaky” due to either the periodic nature of the
system‟s excitation or to the natural resonance properties of the mechanical system.
Changes in a vibration signal can result from a variation of the amplitude, frequency,
and/or phase of one or many of the components. Moreover, new peaks may add to the
existing spectrum, or some peaks may fade out. Changes can also appear in the form of
short transients or spikes in the time domain. At the extreme, if the vibrations become so
strong that the structure actually starts to move, then the overall average level of vibration
would change, that is, a DC component would appear.
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
All of the above changes may occur gradually, like fatigue stress slowly
deteriorating the material‟s properties, or they may occur suddenly, like the rupture of a
mechanical part within a machine. They may also occur periodically or in a random fashion
depending on the process generating the vibrations. For multiple state systems, changes
must be interpreted carefully. For example, if the operating speed of a rotating machine is
raised from A to B, the vibration analysis system should not declare the observed changes
as being the result of a mechanical failure, but should adapt itself to this new mode of
operation.
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
LASER VIBROMETER
A schematic of the laser vibrometer is shown in Fig. 1. The optical portion of the
vibrometer is a Mach-Zender interferometer. The laser beam is split into a reference beam
and a measurement beam which is directed toward the moving target; this beam is then
reflected back into the interferometer. Polarizations, as shown by arrows and dots, are used
in order to combine the beams properly. The recombination of the beams results in
interference since the moving target changes the length of the measurement path while the
length of the reference path remains constant. The resulting light intensity recorded at the
detector is maximum when the phase difference between the beams equals an integral
multiple 2π of, i.e., an integer number of wavelengths λ.furthermore, to provide the
direction of motion of the target; the reference beam is single sideband phase-modulated
with an acousto-optic modulator.
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
The first step in the vibration analysis process is to identify a set of parameters
which can be used for vibration analysis. These parameters reflect the physical
characteristics of the system, and each parameter represents a particular feature of the
vibration signature. The parameters may be determined theoretically from a mathematical
model, intuitively by inspection or simple deduction, or experimentally. Fig. 2 shows the
vibration analysis system used.
The second step is to create a classification space based on the parameter set. The
classification space contains a healthy area or sub-space corresponding to the normal
dynamic behavior, and one or more fault areas corresponding to the various possible fault
cases [1]. Areas are obtained through training either from a set of actual experimental data
or from simulations. Each area then forms a cluster in the classification space.
The signal processing requirements for vibration analysis must fulfill three goals.
First, the raw signal must be conditioned and transformed in order to map the vibration
signature to the system parameters. Second, decision tools must be able to evaluate the
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
Data acquisition can be performed in two different modes: continuous mode and
sample mode. The continuous mode performs a non-stop surveillance of the mechanical
system. In this mode, data is acquired and processed continuously in real time. In the
sample mode, finite length data are collected and the processing can be performed either in
real time or off-line. The choice of one particular mode over another is a function of the
application. Note that trend analysis can be performed in either mode and can cover
multiple time scales.
The vibration analysis system was used for the detection of broken teeth in gears.
The type of defect that we want to study is the presence of a broken tooth on one of the
gears. The passage of the broken tooth on the engagement point creates a discontinuity in
the load applied on the gears, resulting in the generation of a pulse once every rotation .
The signal can therefore be mathematically described as follows:
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
Where τr is the period of rotation of the defective gear and hr is the pulse signal due
to the broken tooth and is defined on the interval [0, tr].
More precisely, the mechanical system consisted in two gears, one with 15 teeth
(gear 1) and the other with 36 teeth (gear 2). Three cases were analyzed. Case A was when
both gears presented no imperfections. In case B, gear 1 had a broken tooth and gear 2 was
normal, while in case C, gear 2 that had a broken tooth and gear 1 was normal.
In order to characterize the imperfections, we have used the auto covariance of the
spectrum of the vibration signature, given by:
where X is the vibration signature vector of length N, n is the frequency index, and
d is the frequency displacement index. The spectral auto covariance measures the degree of
correlation of the spectrum with itself. If the spectrum has e q u i d i s t a n t f r e q u e n c y
c o m p o n e n t s , t h e s p e c t r a l auto covariance will contain peaks at the frequency
displacements corresponding to multiples of these frequency components.
Fig. 3 shows the operations performed. We have focused our attention on the
maxima at 19.5 and 46.9 Hz, the frequencies corresponding to the rotating speed of the
broken gears. We performed several measurements. The results were put on a two
dimensional classification space. The classification regions for the three cases are clearly
identifiable. These regions are obtained using the technique of principal components. In
this method, each region is delimited
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
Another important factor is the rotation speed. In our experiments, the gear system
was rotating at a constant speed, resulting in spectral components at constant positions. The
parameters of the system were thus oscillating around an average value. An increase or a
decrease in speed, as would be the case in the gear box of a truck, would produce erroneous
results, because our system was calibrated for a certain speed.
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
The auto-test, which consists of a 65 ms string of zeros and ones, is used by the
military to verify operation of the piezoelectric sensing element. This application required
only the digital output of the sensor identification code, but more data could have been
programmed if it had been needed.
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
Bi-directional Communications
In contrast to third-generation smart sensors, which have unidirectional control and
data communication, the functions built in to fourth-generation smart sensor allow them to
send control commands to the decision support processor and accept commands. Data flow
will be bi-directional, which means that the user can download information to the sensor,
and upload it from the sensor. For this reason a particular mounting point can maintain
location- specific data — even when the sensor is replaced — by downloading the old
sensor‟s site-specific data before it is replaced.
All-digital communications
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
being corrupted. Fourth-generation smart vibration transducer networks are expected to use
two-wire interfaces and a daisy-chain topology. This structure minimizes cabling cost per
unit length, and it simultaneously minimizes total cable usage (length) in a given
application. Two-wire networks have been identified by a number of user-groups as the
desired solution for sensor networks.
Local digital processing
Recently significant processing power has become available at a low cost. This
combined with low-cost sigma-delta analogue-to-digital (A/D) converters will be
responsible for revolutionary changes in monitoring technology. Does this mean that
centralised conditionbased monitoring (CBM) processors will disappear, and all processing
will be performed by the smart sensor? The answer is unequivocally, no. The processing
power of distributed sensors will actually enhance CBM capabilities. With hundreds of
individual smart sensor DSPs each calculating their own Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
functions, higher order FFTs could be calculated in the same time that current systems take
to calculate one FFT. This would lead to more powerful and sophisticated algorithms
involving phase and complete vibration state analysis of machinery vibration. Subtle
changes in machine state that currently go unnoticed will be recognised as significant
indicators of machinery health. This higher order analysis can only be performed by a
central processor that integrates all of the sensor states into a single cohesive unit. Combine
this with temperature data from each sensor and the number of possibilities is enormous.
„Sensor fusion‟ can only occur at the higher processor level which takes into account the
overall picture of machinery condition and health. Think of this as a „whole-body gestalt‟
of condition monitoring. This is akin to a mechanic that analyses a problem by integrating
knowledge, feel, observation, temperature and sounds.
Pre-programming
The algorithms that can be embedded in a smart transducer range from ones which
are simplistic in nature to those which are highly sophisticated. Alarm-level triggering,
based on absolute levels is an example of simple decision making. More sophisticated
types of alarm-level triggering are priority levels, delta change, windowing and band
alarming. Even more sophisticated concepts such as neural nets and fuzzy logic could be
used within the sensor to aid in localized decision making. Historical data comparisons
such as trending of data also could be easily performed by an intelligent sensor.
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
Interestingly, the storage requirements for trending are minimal, since spectral data is a
very compact representation of considerable real-time data.
Defined by users
Self-verification
Sensor data will also become more reliable in fourth-generation sensors, because
such devices will be able to constantly monitor their own health. These capabilities can be
built into both software and hardware to ensure sensor integrity. Instances can occur where
CBM systems are unaware that a sensor has failed because a faulty sensor is mimicking a
healthy machine. In addition to self-verification, another useful smart sensor function
would be a self-diagnostic capability. Once an error has been detected, the ability to
diagnose the problem and localized the fault will ensure that the problem is fixed quickly.
Also, when a problem is suspected by the user, the capacity to command all sensors to
verify and diagnose can help to locate hidden problems.
Compensation algorithms
A smart sensor can monitor parameters such as temperature, age and signal
amplitude, and compensate directly for local conditions. For example, piezoelectric crystal
sensitivity changes with age. Smart sensors could automatically compensate for this drift,
saving any costs that are associated with re-calibration. Another compensation algorithm
— direct compensation of sensor non- linearity, that is, calibration — could be
implemented by using look-up tables to linearize the output to a high degree of accuracy. In
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
Figure 6 a sensor which is attached to a machine with a „glitch‟ can be easily compensated
in the frequency domain by applying a simple algorithm.
All instrumentation systems are affected by temperature, but these effects can be
readily removed by a smart sensor before the data is even processed. Yet another
compensation technique involves rescaling of the input amplitude to the amplifier to
prevent „wash over‟ distortion from „aliasing‟ the data.
On board storage
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
having on board storage. In general, most CBM systems are typically set by the users to
„round-robin‟ poll the sensors once a day, with once-an-hour polling being the exception
rather than the rule. This means that if random or unexpected events occur, the likelihood
of catching an event is small. Dedicated sensor processors would allow the CBM manager
to record all significant events for subsequent analysis. This form of event storage would be
similar to an aircraft‟s „black box‟. This could be easily interrogated after an unexpected
accident. Another feature of on board data and command storage is that it enables
extensible object models to be downloaded and uploaded. The means that the sensor can be
represented as an „object‟ to the CBM system — an „object‟ that has all of the associated
benefits of object-oriented programming such as reuse and portability, type casting,
information hiding, specification and re-specification of allowed operations and domain
values, and machine or application independencies.
Sensor reality
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
CONCLUSION
We have used the vibration analysis system for the detection and the characterized
of broken teeth in gears. Our results show that the laser-based measurement system can
detect gear imperfections and successfully classify them. The system is both highly
sensitive and very accurate. Also by using the new generation sensors the vibration analysis
becomes easier.
Mechanical Engineering
www.techalone.com
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mechanical Engineering