Some basic question in water treatment:

1. what are the main impurities in water? (Ans: Suspended, Colloid and Dissolved form)
2. The purest form of naturally occurring water is? (Ans: Rain water)

3. what is the level of chlorine maintained as residual chlorine in domestic drinking water? (Ans: 0.3
to 0.5 mg/l)
4. Name the chemical used for dosing as disinfectant for industrial/boiler feed water? (Ans: Sodium
Hypochlorite or Sodium Bleach)
5. Why Chlorine not used as disinfectant in water treatment for industrial/boiler need? (Ans: Due to
Alkalinity replenishing characteristics i .e. 1.4 ppm per ppm of chlorine feed)
6. what is the difference between coagulation and flocculation?
7. How the purity of water and boiler blow down is linked? (Ans: Purity decreases and blow down
increases)
8. Describe the process of demineralization?
9. Role of Conductivity and its max level should be maintained in feed water? (Ans. < 1 S/cm)
10. What is Oxygen scavengers in treatment of water? (Ans: Chemicals which reduces the
Dissolved Oxygen in water such as hydrazine)
11. Role of Oxygen scavengers in treatment of water? (Ans: to limit the corrosion risk)
12. How Hydrazine works? (Ans: Hydrazine is decomposed into ammonia in the boiler which
increases the pH and
acts as protector against corrosion)
13. Why Silica is considered major impurity in boiler feed water (Ans: It cause boiler scale and
deposits on steam turbine blades)
Above are the few specific questions may be asked.
In general may also ask about different treatment water process, source of dissolved impurities in
water, about RO system, filtration process, testing methods for various parameters like conductivity,
pH, BOD, COD, TSS, TDS etc.
what are the parameters should be monitored for smooth running of treatment plant. what is Scalling
in boilers and reason for it, what is the Corrosion (chemically) and reason of it etc. For more details
you may also refer the book Environmental Engineering by Pavey and Rowe.

What is water?
Water is a very important substance, as it makes up the larger part of an organism's body. But
what exactly is water? Inside the body of a human being there is a skeleton, which makes your
body solid and makes sure you can stand up without falling apart. Water is also a kind of skeleton.
It consists of tiny particles, the atoms, just like every other substance on earth. One of these
atoms is called hydrogen and the other is called oxygen. As you probably know the air that we
breathe also contains oxygen. One particle of water is called a molecule. When lots of water
molecules melt together we can see the water and drink it or use it, for instance to flush a toilet.

How is a water molecule built up?

A water molecule consists of three atoms; an oxygen atom and

two hydrogen atoms, which are bond together like little
magnets. The atoms consist of matter that has a nucleus in the
centre.
The difference between atoms is expressed by atomic numbers.
The atomic number of an atom depends on the number of
protons in the nucleus of the atom. Protons are small positively
charged particles. Hydrogen has one proton in the nucleus and
oxygen has eight. There are also uncharged particles in the
nucleus, called neutrons.
Next to protons and neutrons, atoms also consist of negatively
charged electrons, which can be found in the electron cloud
around the nucleus. The number of electrons in an atom equals
the number of protons in the nucleus. The attraction between
the protons and electrons is what keeps an atom together.

How much does a water molecule weigh?

The weight of a molecule is determined by the atomic masses of the atoms that it is built of. The
atomic mass of an atom is determined by the addition of the number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus, because the electrons hardly weigh anything. When the atomic masses of the
separate atoms are known, one simply has to add them up to find the total atomic mass of a
molecule, expressed in grams per mol. A mol is an expression of the molair weight of a molecule,
derived from the weight of a hydrogen molecule, which is 1 mol.
Hydrogen has a relative atomic mass of 1 g/ mol and oxygen has a relative atomic mass of 16 g/
mol. Water consists of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. This means that the mass of a
water molecule is 1g + 1g + 16g = 18 g/ mol.
When the number of moles of water is known, one can calculate how many grams of weight this is,
by using the molar weight of water.
The molair weight of separate atoms can be found in the periodic table of Mendelejef.

In what states (phases) can water be found?

Water exists in three states: solid, liquid and gaseous. At a normal temperature of about 25 oC it is
liquid, but below 0oC it will freeze and turn to ice. Water can be found in the gaseous state above
100oC, this is called the boiling point of water, at which water starts to evaporate. The water turns
to gas and is then odourless and colourless.
How fast water evaporates depends on the temperature; if the temperature is high, water will
evaporate sooner.

What happens if water changes phase?

The phase changes of water

The changes from a liquid to a solid or to a gas are called phase changes. When a substance such
as water changes phase, its physical appearance changes, but not its chemical properties. This is
because the chemical structure remains the same, but the molecules of which it consists will float
a little further apart. In the solid state the water molecules are fairly close together, but in the
liquid state they are a bit further apart. The water becomes liquid as a result of parting molecules.
When water changes from liquid to gas the molecules will part even further, that is why we cannot
detect it.

Why does ice float on water?

When substances freeze, usually the molecules come closer together. Water has an abnormality
there: it freezes below 0oC, but when temperatures goes below 4oC, water starts to expand again
and as a result the density becomes lower. Density of a substance means the weight in kilograms
of a cubic metre of a substance. When two substances are mixed but do not dissolve in one
another, the substance with the lowest density floats on the other substance. In this case that
substance is ice, due to the decreased density of water.

How come not all substances are water-soluble?

Polarity determines if a substance is water-soluble. A polair substance is a substance that has two
kinds of 'poles', as in a magnet. When another substance is also polair the poles of the substances
attract each other and as a result the substances mix. A substance then dissolves in water.
Substances that contain no 'poles' are called apolair substances. Oil for instance is an apolair
substance, which is why oil does not dissolve in water. In fact it floats on water, just like ice, due to
its smaller density.

What is hard water?

When water is referred to as 'hard' this simply means, that it contains more minerals than ordinary
water. These are especially the minerals calcium and magnesium. The degree of hardness of the
water exceeds, when more calcium and magnesium dissolve.
Magnesium and calcium are positively charged ions. Because of their presence, other positively
charged substances will dissolve less easy in hard water than in water that does not contain
calcium and magnesium. This is the cause of the fact that soap doesn't really dissolve in hard
water.
For more information on hard water check out the water softener FAQ

What are physical and chemical properties?

Physical properties of a substance are properties that have everything to do with the substance's
appearance. Chemical properties are properties that are often used in chemistry, to address the
state of a substance. Physical and chemical properties can tell us something about the behaviour
of a substance in certain circumstances.

Which physical and chemical properties does water have?

There are several different physical and chemical properties, which are often used alternately. We
can name the following:
- Density. The density of water means the weight of a certain amount of water. It is usually
expressed in kilograms per cubic metre. (physical)
- Thermal properties. This refers to what happens to water when it is heated; at which
temperature it becomes gaseous and that sort of thing. (physical)
- Conductivity. This means the amount of electricity that water can conduct. It is expressed in a
chemical magnitude. (physical)
- Light absorption. This is the amount of light a certain amount of water can absorb over time.
(chemical)
- Viscosity. This means the syrupiness of water and it determines the mobility of water. When the

temperature rises, the viscosity degrades; this means that water will be more mobile at higher
temperatures. (physical)
- The pH. The pH has its own scale, running up from 1 to 14. The pH shows whether a substance is
acid (pH 1-6), neutral (pH 7) or basic (pH 8-14). The number of hydrogen atoms in the substance
determines the pH. The more hydrogen atoms a substance contains, the lower the pH will be. A
substance that contains many hydrogen atoms is acid. We can measure the pH by dipping a
special colouring paper in the substance, the colours shows which pH the substance has.
(chemical)
- Alkalinity. This is the capacity of water to neutralize an acid or a base, so that the pH of the water
will not change. (chemical)

How are water molecules bond together?

Hydrogen atoms are attracted to other atoms such as oxygen atoms, because the electrons are
pulled closer to the oxygen atom, due to its greater attraction for electrons. As a result the oxygen
atom has a slightly negative partial charge and the hydrogen atoms have a slightly positive partial
charge. The slightly positively charged hydrogen atoms are then attracted to the slightly negatively
charged oxygen atoms of other water molecules. These forces of attraction are called hydrogen
bonds. The forces holding two molecules together in a hydrogen bond are much stronger than
those between molecules and hydrocarbons. The attraction between hydrogen and oxygen atoms
results in a much higher boiling point of water than anticipated for a different molecule with the
same mass.
Hydrogen bonds can also be formed between atoms of hydrogen and sulphur or nitrogen, typically
SH- and NH2- groups.
In this picture you can see what hydrogen bonds in water look like:

Hydrogen bonds

How does water evaporate?

To make water evaporate, energy has to be added. The water molecules in the water absorb that
energy individually. Due to this absorption of energy the hydrogen bonds connecting water
molecules to one another will break. The molecules are now in the gaseous state; this is called
water vapour. The phase change from liquid to vapour is called evaporation. During evaporation a
molecule of water absorbs latent heat.

What are thermal properties of water?

Thermal properties of a liquid are properties that have everything to do with heat transfer through
this liquid. Thermal properties can be divided up into specific heat and latent heat.
The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass that is required to raise the temperature of a
liquid by one degree Celsius. The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually
expressed by the upcoming relationship, where c is the specific heat.
Q = c*m*dT
Q = heat added
c = specific heat
m = mass
dT = change in temperature
The specific heat of a liquid is expressed in kilo Joules per kilogram, per degree Celsius. The
specific heat of water is 4.18 kJ/ kg * oC at 0oC.

Latent heat means energy that is absorbed by water molecules, in order to evaporate. It is heat
that is hidden in the water molecule and that is used, when water is heated. When the water cools
down the energy is hidden inside the molecule again.
Latent heat is expressed in kilo Joules per kilogram (kJ/kg). The latent heat of water is
2250 kJ/ kg at normal pressure and at a temperature of 100 oC.

How do we determine the solubility of gasses in water?

Henry's Law determines the solubility of gasses in water. This law links the partial pressure of a
gas to its mole-fraction in the liquid phase, and thus declares how much of the gas is dissolved.
According to calculations from Henry's Law oxygen is more water-soluble than nitrogen.
Henry's Law describes as follows:
P=H*x
In which p is the partial pressure of a gas, H is a constant that differs for each gas and x is the
mole-fraction of the gas in the liquid phase.
Some gasses have a specific way of acting when they are dissolved. Carbon dioxide, sulphuric acid
and various volatile agents, such as hydrogen chlorine, dissolve and then combine. Their solubility
coefficient is much higher than that of other gasses.

How do we determine the solubility of liquids in water?

Water molecules are polar. That is why the solubility of a liquid is determined by its polarity. Polair
substances often contain OH-, SH- and NH2- groups. The more of these groups a liquid contains, the
more water-soluble it is. This is because the groups in question can form hydrogen bonds with
water, which are very strong. Because these bonds are very strong a molecule that contains more
OH-, SH- and NH2- groups is more water-soluble.

What is oxidation and reduction?

Water can take part in oxidation and reduction reactions. Water can be a donor of electrons; this is
called a reducing agent. The type of reaction where a compound takes up electrons is called an
oxidation reaction. The acceptor of electrons is called the oxidant. Usually oxygen originates during
such reactions. Water can also act as an acceptor of electrons, an oxidant. The type of reaction
where a compound accepts electrons is called a reduction reaction.
An example of a redox reaction of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn):
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
When we spread this reaction into two parts we can see the oxidation and reduction of electrons
(e-) separately:
Zn(s) -> Zn2+ + 2e- (oxidation)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- -> Cu(s) (reduction)
In this reaction zinc is a donor of electrons; zinc is the reducing agent. Copper is the oxidizing
agent, because copper is the acceptor of electrons.

Absorption
When a solid takes up molecules into its structure.

Acid aerosol
Very small liquid or solid particles that are acidic and are small enough to become airborne.

Acidic water

Acid neutralizing capacity

Measure of the buffering capacity of water; the ability of water to resist changes in pH.

Acid rain
Rain that has a flamboyantly low pH, due to contact with atmospheric pollutants such as sulphuric
oxides.

Acidity
The quantitative capacity of water to neutralize a base, expressed in ppm or mg/L calcium
carbonate equivalent. The number of hydrogen atoms that are present determines this. It is
usually measured by titration with a standard solution of sodium hydroxide.

Activated coal
This is the most commonly used adsorption medium, produced by heating carbonaceous
substances or cellulose bases in the absence of air. It has a very porous structure and is commonly
used to remove organic matter and dissolved gases from water. Its appearance is similar to coal or
peat. Available in granular, powder or block form; in powder form it has the highest adsorption
capacity.

Activated sludge
Oxygen dependent biological process that serves to convert soluble organic matter to solid
biomass, that is removable by gravity or filtration.

Active groups
Really fixed ions bolted on to the matrix of an ion exchanger. Each active group must always have
a counter-ion of opposite charge near itself.

Adsorption
Separation of liquids, gases, colloids or suspended matter from a medium by adherence to the
surface or pores of a solid.
More info on adsorption

Advanced oxidation process

One of several combination oxidation processes. Advanced chemical oxidation processes use
(chemical) oxidants to reduce COD/BOD levels, and to remove both organic and oxidisable
inorganic components. The processes can completely oxidise organic materials to carbon dioxide
and water, although it is often not necessary to operate the processes to this level of treatment.
A wide variety of advanced oxidation processes are available:
- Chemical oxidation process using hydrogen peroxide, ozone, combined ozone & peroxide,
hypochlorite, Fenton's reagent, etc.
- Ultra-violet (UV) enhanced oxidation such as UV/ ozone, UV/ hydrogen, UV/air

- Wet air oxidation and catalytic wet air oxidation (where air is used as the oxidant)
More info on advanced oxidation

Advanced water treatment

The level of water treatment that requires an 85-percent reduction in pollutant concentration, also
known as tertiary treatment.

Advanced Wastewater Treatment

Any treatment of sewage water that includes the removal of nutrients such
as phosphorus and nitrogen and a high percentage of suspended solids.

Aerated lagoon
A water treatment pond that speeds up biological decomposition of organic waste by stimulating
the growth and activity of bacteria, which are responsible for the degradation.

Aeration
Technique that is used with water treatment that demands oxygen supply, commonly known as
aerobic biological water purification. Either water is brought into contact with water droplets by
spraying or air is brought into contact with water by means of aeration facilities. Air is pressed
through a body of water by bubbling and the water is supplied with oxygen.
More info on aeration

Aeration tank
A tank that is used to inject air into water.

Aerobic
A process that takes place in the presence of oxygen, such as the digestion of organic matter by
bacteria in an oxidation pond.

Aerosol
Very small liquid or solid particles dispersed in air.

Affinity
The keenness with which an ion exchanger takes up and holds on to a counter-ion. Affinities are
very much affected by the concentration of the electrolyte surrounding the ion exchanger.

Agglomeration
A process of bringing smaller particles together to form a larger mass.

Aggressive water

Water that is soft and acidic and can corrode plumbing, pipes and appliances.

Algae
Single- or multi-celled organisms that are commonly found in surface water, such as duckweed.
They produce their own food through photosynthesis. The algae population is divided up into green
algae and blue algae, of which the blue algae are very damageable to human health. Excessive
algae growth may cause the water to have undesirable odours or tastes. Decay of algae
diminishesoxygen supplies in the water.

Algal blooms
Periods of enlarged algal growths that affect water quality. Algal blooms indicate potentially
hazardous changes in the chemistry of water.

Aliquot
A measured portion of a sample taken for analysis. One or more aliquots make up a sample.

Alkalinity
Alkalinity means the buffering capacity of water; the capacity of the water to neutralize itself. It
prevents the water pH levels from becoming too basic or acid. It also adds carbon to water.
Alkalinity stabilizes water at pH levels around 7. However, when the acidity is high in water the
alkalinity decreases, which can cause harmful conditions for aquatic life.
In water chemistry alkalinity is expressed in ppm or mg/L of equivalent calcium carbonate. Total
alkalinity of water is the sum of all three sorts of alkalinity; carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide
alkalinity.

Alluvium
Sediments deposited by erosion processes, usually by streams.

Anaerobic
A process that takes place in the absence of oxygen, such as the digestion of organic matter by
bacteria in a UASB-reactor.

Anion
A negatively charged ion that results from the dissociation of salts, acids or alkali's in solution.

Anode
A site in electrolysis where metal goes into solution as a cation leaving behind an equivalent of
electrons to be transferred to an opposite electrode, called a cathode.

Aquatic
Growing in water, living in water, or frequenting water.

Aqueous

Something made up of water.

Aqueous solubility
The maximum concentration of a chemical that dissolves in a given amount of water.

Aquifer
A layer in the soil that is capable of transporting a significant volume of groundwater.

Aromatics
A type of hydrocarbon that contains a ring structure, such as benzene and toluene. They can be
found for instance in gasoline.

Assimilation
The ability of water to purify itself of pollutants.

Assimilative Capacity
The capacity of natural water to receive wastewaters or toxic materials without negative effects
and without damage to aquatic life or humans who consume the water.

Atom
The smallest unit of matter that is unique to a particular element. They are the ultimate building
blocks for all matter.

Atomic number
A specific number that differs for each element, equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of
each of its atoms.

Attenuation
The process of reduction of a compound's concentration over time. This can be through absorption,
adsorption, degradation, dilution or transformation.

Attrition
The action of one particle rubbing against the other in a filter media or ion exchange bed that can
in time cause breakdown of the particles.

Available chlorine
A measure of the amount of chlorine available in chlorinated lime, hypochlorite compounds, and
other materials.

Backflow

The flow of water in a medium in a direction opposite to normal flow. Flow is often returned into
the system by backflow, if the wastewater in a purification system is severely contaminated.

Back Pressure
Pressure that can cause water to backflow into the water supply when a user's waste water system
is at a higher pressure than the public system.

Back siphonage
Reverse seepage of water in a distribution system.

Backwashing
Reversing the flow of water back through the filter media to remove entrapped solids.

Bacteria
Microscopically small single-cell organisms, that reproduce by fission of spores.

Bacterial water contamination

The introduction of unwanted bacteria into a water body.

Base
An alkaline substance that has a pH that exceeds 7,5.

Bed Load
Sediment particles resting on or near the channel bottom that are pushed or rolled along by the
flow of water.

Benthic zone
The lower region of a body of water including the bottom.

Bicarbonates
Salts containing the anion HCO3-. When acid is added, this ion breaks into H2O and CO2, and acts
as a buffer.

Binder
Chemicals that hold short fibres together in a cartridge filter.

Bioaccumulantion
The increase in concentration of a substance in living organisms, as they take in contaminated air,
water, or food, due to slow metabolization and excretion.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The amount of oxygen (measured in mg/L) that is required for the decomposition of organic
matter by single-cell organisms, under test conditions. It is used to measure the amount of organic
pollution in wastewater.
More info on BOD and waste water treatment

Biocide
A chemical that is toxic to microrganisms. Biocides are often used to eliminate bacteria and other
single-cell organisms from water.

Biodegradable pollutants
Pollutants that are capable of decomposing under natural conditions.

Biofilm
Population of various microrganisms, trapped in a layer of slime and excretion products, attached
to a surface.

Biological contaminants
Living organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and mammal and bird antigens that can cause
harmful health effects to humans.

Biologically activated carbon

Activated carbon that supports active microbial growth, in order to aid in the degradation of
organics that have been absorbed on its surface and in its pores.

Biological oxidation
Decomposition of complex organic materials by microrganisms through oxidation.

Biomonitoring
The use of living organisms to test the suitability of effluents for discharge into receiving waters
and to test the quality of such waters downstream from the discharge.

Bioremediation
The biological treatment of wastewater and sludge, by inducing the breakdown of organics and
hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water.

Biota
All living organisms in a region or ecosystem.

Biotransformation

Conversion of a substance into other compounds by organisms; including biodegradation.

Blackwater
Water that contains waste of humans, animals or food.

Blind spots
Any place on a filter medium where fluids cannot flow through.

Blinding
A build-up of particles in a filter medium, that prevents fluids from flowing through.

BOD5
The amount of dissolved oxygen consumed in five days by bacteria that perform biological
degradation of organic matter.

Boiling point
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals the pressure of its surface. The
liquid will than vaporize If the pressure of the liquid varies, the actual boiling point varies. For
water the boiling point is 100 degrees Celsius.

Bottled water
Water that is sold in plastic containers for drinking water and/ or domestic use.

Brackish water
Water that is neither falls in the category of salt water, nor in the category of fresh water. It holds
the middle between either one of the categories.

Breakpoint chlorination
Addition of chlorine to water until there is enough chlorine present for disinfection of water.

Breakthrough
Crack or break in a filter bed that allows the passage of floc or particulate matter through a filter.

Brine
Highly salty and heavily mineralised water, containing heavy metal and organic contaminants.

Buffer
A substance that reacts with hydrogen or hydroxyl ions in a solution, in order to prevent a change
in pH.

Cake
Solid dewatered residue on a filter media after filtration.

Calcium hypo chlorite

A chemical that is widely used for water disinfection, for instance in swimming pools or water
purification plants. It is especially useful because it is a stable dry powder and can be made into
tablets.

Candle filter
A relatively coarse aperture filter, designed to retain a coat of filter medium on an extended
surface.

Capillary action
Water that at some point rises higher than that portion of its surface, not in contact with the solid
surface. This is due to adhesion, cohesion and surface tension where later touches a solid.

Cappilary membranes
Membranes about the thickness of a human hair, used for Reverse Osmosis, nanofiltration,
ultrafiltration and microfiltrtion.

Capillary zone
Soil area above the water table where water can rise up slightly through the cohesive force of
capillary action.

Carcinogen
Any dissolved pollutant that can induce cancer.

Cartridge filter
Disposable filter device that has a filter range of 0.1 micron to 100 microns.
More info on cartridge filters

Carbonates
Chemical compounds related to carbon dioxide.

Carbonate hardness
Hardness of water caused by carbonate and bicarbonate by-products of calcium and magnesium.

Catalyses
Chemical that increases the rate of a reaction but does not take a direct part in the reaction, so
that it is still intact after the reaction has taken place.

Catch basin
A sedimentation area designed to remove pollutants from runoff before being discharged into a
stream or pond.

Cathode
A site in electrolysis where cations in solution are neutralized by electrons that plate out on the
surface or produce a secondary reaction with water.

Cation
A negatively charged ion, resulting from dissociation of molecules in solution.

Centrifugation
A separation process, which uses the action of centrifugal force to promote accelerated settling of
particles in a solid-liquid mixture.
More info on centrifugation

CFU
Colony Forming Units. This is a measure that indicates the number of microrganisms in water.

Check valve
A valve that allows water to stream in one direction and will then close to prevent development of
a back-flow.

Chelating agents
Organic compounds that have the ability to draw ion from their water solutions into soluble
complexes.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The amount of oxygen (measured in mg/L) that is consumed in the oxidation of organic and
oxidasable inorganic matter, under test conditions. It is used to measure the total amount of
organic and inorganic pollution in wastewater. Contrary to BOD, with COD practically all
compounds are fully oxidized.

Chemical pollution
Introduction of chemical contaminants into a water body.

Chemical weathering
Dissolving of rock by exposure to rainwater, surface water, oxygen, and other gases in the
atmosphere, and compounds secreted by organisms.

Chloramines

A chemical complex that consists of chlorine and ammonia. It serves as a water disinfectant in
public water supplies in place of chlorine because chlorine can combine with organics to form
dangerous reaction products. In which forms chloramines exist depends on the physical/ chemical
properties of the water source.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons that contain chlorine. These include a class of persistent insecticides that
accumulate in the aquatic food chain. Among them are DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, chlordane,
lindane, endrin, Mirex, hexachloride, and toxaphene.

Chlorinated solvent
An organic solvent containing chlorine atoms that is often used as aerosol spray container, in
highway paint, and dry cleaning fluids.

Chlorination
A water purification process in which chlorine is added to water for disinfection, for the control of
present microrganisms. It is also used in the oxidation of compound impurities in water.

Chlorine-contact chamber
The part of a water treatment plant where effluent is disinfected by chlorine.

Clarity
The clearness of a liquid.

Coagulation
Destabilisation of colloid particles by addition of a reactive chemical, called a coagulant. This
happens through neutralization of the charges.
More info on coagulation

Coalescence
Liquid particles in suspension that unite to create particles of a greater volume.

Coastal zone
Lands and waters near the coast, whose uses and ecology are affected by the sea.

Coliform bacteria
Bacteria that serve as indicators of pollution and pathogens when found in water. These are usually
found in the intestinal tract of humans and other warm-blooded animals.

Coliform index
A rating of the purity of water based on a count of coliform bacteria.

Collector sewers
Pipes to collect and carry wastewater from individual sources to an interceptor sewer that will carry
it to a treatment facility.

Colloids
Matter of very small particle size, in the range of 10-5 to 10-7 in diameter.

Combined sewer
A sewer system that carries both sewage and rain water runoff.

Composite sample
A series of water samples taken over a given period of time and weighted by flow rate.

Compounds
Two or more different elements held together in fixed proportions by attractive forces called
chemical bonds.

Concentrate
The totality of different substances that are left behind in a filter medium after filtration.

Concentration
The amount of material dissolved in a unit of solution, expressed in mg/L.

Concentration process
The process of increasing the number of particles per unit volume of a solution, usually by
evaporating the liquid.

Condensate
Water obtained by condensation of water vapour.

Condensation
The change of state from a gas to a liquid.

Conductivity
The amount of electricity the water can conduct. It is expressed in a chemical magnitude. Please
use also our information about TDS and conductivity.

Conduit
A natural or artificial channel through which fluids may be transported.

Consumptive water use

Water removed from available supplies without return to a water resources system; water used in
manufacturing, agriculture, and food preparation.

Contact time
The length of time a substance is in contact with a liquid, before it is removed by filtration or the
occurrence of a chemical change.

Contaminant
Any foreign component in a substance, for example in water.

Conventional sewer systems

Systems that were traditionally used to collect municipal wastewater in gravity sewers and convey
it to a central primary or secondary treatment plant, before discharge on receiving surface waters.

Conveyance loss
Water loss in pipes and channels by leakage or evaporation.

Cooling tower
Large tower used to transfer the heat in cooling water from a power or industrial plant to the
atmosphere either by direct evaporation or by convection and conduction.

Corrosivity
Ability of water to dissolve or break down certain substances, particularly metals.

Cross flow filtration

A process that uses opposite flows across a membrane surface to minimize particle build-up.

Cryptosporidium
A microorganism in water that causes gastrointestinal illness in humans. It is commonly found in
untreated surface water and can be removed by filtration. It is resistant to disinfectants such as
chlorine.

Cultural eutrophication
Decline of the oxygen rate in water, which has serious consequences for aquatic life, caused by
humans.

Current
The portion of a stream or body of water, which is moving much faster than the rest of the water.
The progress of the water is principally concentrated in the current.

Cycle
The length of time a filter can be used before it needs cleaning, usually including cleaning time.

Dealkalinisation
Any process that serves to reduce the alkalinity of water.

Decarbonation
The process of removing carbon dioxide from water, using contact towers or air scrubbers.

Decant
To draw off the upper layer of liquid after the heaviest material (a solid or another liquid) has
settled.

Decomposition
The break down of organic matter by bacteria and fungi, to change the chemical structure and
physical appearance of matter.

Defluoridation
The removal of fluoride from drinking water to prevent teeth damage.

De-foaming agents
Chemicals that are added to wastewater discharges to prevent the water from foaming when it is
discharged into a receiving water body.

Degasification
The process of removing dissolved gasses from water, using vacuum or heat.

Deionisation
Process that serves to remove all ionised substances from a solution. Most commonly is the
exchange process where cations and anions are removed independently of each other.

Demineralisation
Processes to remove minerals from water, usually the term is restricted to ion exchange processes.

Demiwater
Demineralised water. Water that is treated to be contaminant-, mineral- and salt free.

Denitrification

Removal of nitrate and nitrate product from water to produce a quality that answeres common
water standards.

Density
The weight of a certain amount of water. It is usually expressed in kilograms per cubic metre.

Depression storage
The storage of water in low areas, such as ponds, and wetlands.

Depth filtration
Treatment process in which the entire filter bed is used to trap insoluble and suspended particles in
its voids as water flows through it.

Desalination
The removal of salt from seawater or brackish water to produce drinking water, using various
techniques.

Desorption
The opposite of adsorption; the release of matter from the adsorption medium, usually to recover
material.

Detention time
The actual time that a small amount of water is in a settling basin or flocculating basin. In storage
reservoirs, it means the length of time water will be stored.

Detergent
A water-soluble cleansing agent, other than soap.

Dewater
The separation of water from sludge, to produce a solid cake.

Diffuser
A component of the ozone contacting system in an ozone generator that allows diffusion of an
ozone containing gas.

Diffusion
The movement of gas molecules or aerosols into liquids, caused by a concentration gradient.

Digester
A closed tank for wastewater treatment, in which bacterial action is induced to break down organic
matter.

Diluting water
Distilled water that has been stabilized, buffered, and aerated. It is often applied in the BOD tests.

Direct run-off
Water that flows from the ground surface directly into streams, rivers, and lakes.

Discharge
Flow of surface water in a stream or canal.

Disinfectants
Fluids or gasses to disinfect filters, pipelines, systems, etc.

Disinfection
The decontamination of fluids and surfaces. To disinfect a fluid or surface a variety of techniques
are used, such as ozone disinfection. Often disinfection means eliminating the present
microrganisms with a biocide.
More info on disinfection

Dissolve
The process during which solid particles mix molecule by molecule with a liquid and appear to
become part of the liquid.

Dissolved air flotation (DAF)

A procedure of induced flotation with very fine air bubbles or 'micro bubbles',
of 40 to 70 microns.

Dissolved oxygen
The amount of oxygen dissolved in water at a certain time, expressed in ppm mg/L.

Dissolved solids
Solids material that totally dissolves in water and can be removed by means of filtration.

Distillation
Water treatment method where water is boiled to steam and condensed in a separate reservoir.
Contaminants with higher boiling points than water do not vaporize and remain in the boiling flask.

Dredging

Cleaning, deepening, or widening of a waterway, using a machine (dredge) that removes materials
by means of a scoop or a suction device.

Drought
Term applied to periods of less than average precipitation over a certain period of time.

Duplicates
Two separate samples with separate containers taken at the same time and at the same place.

Dystrophic lakes
Acidic bodies of water that contain many plants but few fish, due to the presence of great amounts
of organic matter.

Effluent
The outlet or outflow of any system that deals with water flows, for an oxidation pond for biological
water purification. It is the product water of the given system.

Ejector
A device used to inject a chemical solution into wastewater during water treatment.

Electrical charge
The charge on an ion, declared by its number of electrons. A Cl- ion is in fact a Cl atom which has
acquired an electron, and a Ca++ ion is a Ca atom, which has lost two electrons.

Electrolyte
Substance that dissociates into ions when it dissolves in water.

Electrodialysis
A process that uses electrical currents, applied to permeable membranes, to remove minerals from
water.

Electrolysis
Process where electrical energy will change in chemical energy. The process happens in an
electrolyte, a watery solution or a salt melting which gives the ions a possibility to transfer
between two electrodes. The electrolyte is the connection between the two electrodes, which are
also connected to a direct current. If you apply an electrical current, the positive ions migrate to
the cathode while the negative ions will migrate to the anode. At the electrodes, the cations will be
reduced and the anions will be oxidated.

Electrons
Negatively charged building blocks of an atom that circle around the nucleus.

Elements
The distinctive building blocks of matter that make up every material substance.

Elutriation
Freeing sludge of its mother liquor by washing it with water.

Emulsifier
A chemical that helps suspending one liquid in another.

Emulsion
Dispersion of one liquid in another liquid, occurs when a liquid in insoluble.

End-of-pipe techniques
Techniques for water purification that serve the reduction pollutants after they have formed.

Enrichment
When the addition of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, from sewage effluent or
agricultural runoff to surface water, greatly increases algal growth.

Erosion
The wearing away of the land surface by wind, water, ice or other geological agents. Erosion occurs
naturally from weather or runoff but is often intensified by human land use practices.

Eschericha coli (E. coli)

Coliform bacterium that is often associated with human and animal waste and is found in the
intestinal court. It is used by health departments and private laboratories t measure the purity of
water.

Estuary
Region of interaction between rivers and near-shore ocean waters, where tidal action and river
flow mix fresh and salt water. Therefore estuaries mainly consist of brackish water.

Eutrophic
Referring to water that is rich in nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous.

Eutrophication
Enrichment of water, which causes excessive growth of aquatic plants and increasing activity of
anaerobic microrganisms. As a result the oxygen levels in the water quickly decline and the water
chokes, making life impossible for aerobic water organisms.

Evaporation
The process of the passage of water from liquid to vapour.

Evaporation ponds
Areas where sewage sludge is dumped and dried.

Evapotranspiration
The loss of water from the soil through vaporizing, both by direct evaporation and by transpiration
from plants.

Facultative bacteria
Bacteria that can live under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.

Fermentation
The conversion of organic matter to methane, carbon dioxide and other molecules by anaerobic
bacteria.

Filter medium
The permeable material that separates solids from liquids passing through it.

Filtrate
A liquid that has passed through the filter medium.

Filtration
Separation of a solid and a liquid by using a porous substance that only lets the liquid pass
through.

First draw
The water that comes out when a tap is first opened. It is likely that is has the highest level of lead
contamination from weathering of pipelines.

Fission
Reproduction of microrganisms by means of cell division.

Floc
A flocculent mass that is formed in the accumulation of suspended particles. It can occur naturally,
but is usually induced in order to be able to remove certain particles from wastewater.

Flocculation

The accumulation of destabilized particles and micro flakes, and subsequently the formation of
sizeable flakes. One must ad another chemical called flocculent in order to facilitate the formation
of flakes called flocs.
More info on flocculation

Floodplain
The flat or nearly flat land along a river or stream that is covered by water during a flood.

Flotation
A solids-liquid or liquid-liquid separation procedure, which is applied to particles of which the
density is lower than that of the liquid they are in. there are three types: natural, aided and
induces flotation.

Flow
The discharge rate of a resource, expressed in volume during a certain period of time.

Flow augmentation
The addition of water to meet flow needs.

Flux
The rate at which a Reverse Osmosis Membrane allows water to pass through it.

Fouling
The deposition of organic matter on the membrane surface, which causes inefficiencies.

Fragmentation
The subdivision of a solid in fragments. The fragments will then adhere to the nearest surface.

Freezing
The change of a liquid into a solid as temperature decreases. For water, the freezing point is 0
degrees Celsius.

Freshwater
Water containing less than 1 mg/l of dissolved solids of any type.

Gallon
A unit that is now almost entirely out of date. It is equivalent to 3.785 litres.

Giardia

A microrganism that is commonly found in untreated surface water and can be removed by
filtration. It is resistant to disinfectants such as chlorine.

Granular activated carbon

The heating of carbon to encourage active sites to absorb pollutants.

Gray Water
Domestic wastewater composed of wash water from kitchen, bathroom, and laundry sinks and
from tubs, and washers.

Groundwater
Water that can be found in the saturated zone of the soil; a zone that consists merely of water. It
slowly moves from places with high elevation and pressure to places with low elevation and
pressure, such as rivers and lakes.

Groundwater discharge
Ground water entering coastal waters, which has been contaminated by land-fill leachates, deep
well injection of hazardous wastes and septic tanks.

Groundwater hydrology
The branch of hydrology that deals with the occurrence, movements, replenishment and depletion,
properties and methods of investigation and utilisation of groundwater.

Gully
A deeply eroded channel created by the concentrated flow of water.

Half-life
The time required for a pollutant to lose one-half of its original concentraton.

Hard water
Water that contains a great number of positive ions. The hardness is determined by the number of
calcium and magnesium atoms present. Soap usually dissolves badly in hard water.
More info on hard water

Heat exchanger
A component that is utilized to remove heat from or ad heat to a liquid.

Heavy metals
Metals that have a density of 5.0 or higher and a high elemental weight. Most are toxic to humans,
even in low concentrations.

More info on heavy metals

Heavy water
Water in which all the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by deuterium.

Henry's Law
A way of calculating the solubility of a gas in a liquid, based on temperature and partial pressure,
by means of constants.

Holding Pond
A pond or reservoir, usually made of earth, built to store polluted runoff.

Homeowner water system

A water system that supplies piped water to a single residence.

Humidification
The addition of water vapour to air.

Hydraulic conductivity
The rate at which water can move through a permeable medium.

Hydraulic gradient
In general, the direction of groundwater flow due to changes in the depth of the water table.

Hydrocarbon
Organic compounds that are built of carbon and hydrogen atoms and are often used in petroleum
industries.

Hydroelectric power water use

The use of water in the generation of electricity at plants where the turbine generators are driven
by falling water.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

A gas emitted during organic decomposition by a select group of bacteria, which strongly smells
like rotten eggs.

Hydrogeology
The science of chemistry and movement of groundwater.

Hydrograph

A chart that measures the amount of water flowing past a point as a function of time.

Hydrolysis
The decomposition of organic compounds by interaction with water.

Hydrologic cycle
The natural cycle of water passing through the environment, including evaporation, condensation,
retention and run-off.

Hydrophilic
Having an affinity for water.

Hydrophobic
Having an aversion for water.

Hydrosphere
Region that includes all the earth's liquid water, frozen water, floating ice, frozen upper layer of
soil, and the small amounts of water vapour in the atmosphere.

Hypo chlorite
An anion that forms products such as calcium and sodium hypo chlorite. These products are often
used for disinfection and bleaching.

Hypoxic waters
Waters with dissolved oxygen concentrations of less than 2 mg/L, the level generally accepted as
the minimum required for life and reproduction of aquatic organisms.

Ice
The solid form of water.

Imhoff cone
A clear, cone-shaped container used to measure the volume of settle able solids in a specific
volume of water.

Immiscibility
The inability of two or more solids or liquids to readily dissolve into one another.

Impermeable
Not easily penetrated by water.

Impurities
Particles or other objects that cause water to be unclear.

Indicator
Any biological entity or process, or community whose characteristics show the presence of specific
environmental conditions or pollutants.

Indicator organisms
Microrganisms, such as coliforms, whose presence is indicative for pollution or for the presence
more harmful microrganisms.

Indicator tests
Tests for a specific contaminant, group of contaminants, or constituent which signals the presence
of something else.

Indirect discharge
Introduction of pollutants from a non-domestic source into a publicly owned wastewater treatment
system. Indirect dischargers can be commercial or industrial facilities whose wastes enter local
sewers.

Infiltration
Penetration of water into a medium, for instance the soil.

Influent
The stream of water that enters any system or treatment unit.

Inhibitor
chemical that interferes with a chemical reaction, such as precipitation.

Injection
The introduction of a chemical or medium into the process water to alter its chemistry or filter
specific compounds.

Ion
An atom in a solution that is charged, either positively (cations) or negatively (anions).

Ion exchange
The replacement of undesirable ions with a certain charge by desirable ions of the same charge in
a solution, by an ion-permeable absorbent.
More info on ion exchange

Inorganic chemicals
Chemical substances of mineral origin, not of basically carbon structure.

Irrigation
Applying water or wastewater to land areas to supply the water and nutrient needs of plants.

Jar test
A laboratory test procedure with differing chemical doses, mix speeds, and settling times, to
estimate the minimum or ideal coagulant dose required to achieve water quality goals.

Kinetic Energy
Energy possessed by moving water.

Kinetic rate coefficient

A number that describes the rate at which a water constituent such as a
biochemical oxygen demand or dissolved oxygen rises or falls.

Laboratory water
Purified water used in the laboratory as a basis to create solutions or making dilutions. It contains
no interfering substances.

Lagoon
A shallow pond where sunlight, bacterial action, and oxygen work to purify wastewater.

Lake
An inland body of water, usually fresh water, formed by glaciers, river drainage, etc. It is usually
larger than a pool or pond.

Laminar flow
A flow in which rapid fluctuations are absent.

Land Application
Discharge of wastewater onto the ground for treatment or reuse.

Langelier Index (LI)

An index reflecting the equilibrium pH of a water with respect to calcium and alkalinity; used in
stabilizing water to control both corrosion and scale deposition.

Large water system

A water system that services more than 50,000 customers.

Leachate
Water that contains solute substances, so that it contains certain substances in solution after
percolation through a filter or soil.

Leaching
The process by which soluble constituents are dissolved and filtered through the soil by a
percolating fluid.

Leakage
A species of ions in the feed of an ion exchanger present in the effluent.

Light absorption
The amount of light a certain amount of water can absorb over time.

Lime
Common water treatment chemical. Lime can be deposed on walls of showers and bathrooms,
after lime has reacted with calcium to form limestone.

Limnology
The study of the physical, chemical, hydrological, and biological aspects of fresh water.

Liquid
A state of matter, neither gas nor solid, that flows and takes the shape of its container.

Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL)

The maximum level of a contaminant allowed in water by federal law. Based on health effects and
currently available treatment methods.

Mechanical aeration
Use of mechanical energy to inject air into water to cause a waste stream to absorb oxygen.

Mechanical flotation
A term used in the mineral industry to describe the use of dispersed air to produce bubbles that
measure 0.2 to 2 mm in diameter.

Media
Materials that form a barrier to the passage of certain suspended solids or dissolved liquids in
filters.

Medium-size water system

A water system that serves 3,300 to 50,000 customers.

Melting
The change of a solid into a liquid.

Membrane
A thin barrier that allows some compounds or liquids to pass through, and troubles others. It is a
semi-permeable skin of which the pass-through is determined by size or special nature of the
particles. Membranes are commonly used to separate substances.

Mesotrophic
Reservoirs and lakes which contain moderate quantities of nutrients and are moderately productive
in terms of aquatic animal and plant life.

Metabolise
Conversion of food, for instance soluble organic matter, to cellular matter and gaseous by-products
through a biological process.

MFS
Micro Filtration System, it serves full automatic solid/ liquid separation.
More info on MFS

Microbial growth
The multiplication of microrganisms such as bacteria, algae, diatoms, plankton, and fungi.

Micron
A unit to discribe a measure of length, equal to one millionth of a metre.

Microrganisms
Organisms that are so small that they can only be observed through a microscope, for instance
bacteria, fungi or yeasts.

Mineral Water
Contains large amounts of dissolved minerals such as calcium, sodium, magnesium, and iron.
Some tap waters contain as many or more minerals than some commercial mineral waters. There
is no scientific evidence that either high or low mineral content water is beneficial to humans.

Miscibility
The ability of two liquids to mix.

Mist
Liquid particles measuring 40 to 500 micrometers, are formed by condensation of vapour. By
comparison, fog particles are smaller than 40 micrometers.

Mixture
Various elements, compounds or both, that are mixed.

Molecules
Combinations of two or more atoms of the same or different elements held together by chemical
bonds.

Municipal discharge
Discharge of effluent from wastewater treatment plants, which receive wastewater from
households, commercial establishments, and industries in the coastal drainage basin.

Municipal sewage
Liquid wastes, originating from a community. They may have been composed of domestic
wastewaters or industrial discharges.

Municipal Sludge
Semi liquid residue that remains from the treatment of municipal water and wastewater.

Neutralization
The addition of substances to neutralize water, so that it is neither acid, nor basic. Neutralization
does not specifically mean a pH of 7.0, it just means the equivalent point of an acid-base reaction.

Neutrons
Uncharged building blocks of an atom that play a part in radio-activity. They can be found in the
nucleus.

Nitrification
A biological process, during which nitrifying bacteria convert toxic ammonia to less harmful nitrate.
It is commonly used to remove nitrogen substances from wastewater, but in lakes and ponds it
occurs naturally.

Non-point sources
Diffuse water pollution sources without a specific point of origin. The pollutants are generally
carried off the land by storm water. Common non-point sources are agriculture and atmospheric
disposal.

Non-potable

Water that is unsafe or unpalatable to drink because it contains pollutants, contaminants, minerals
or infective agents.

Nucleus
The center of an atom, that contains protons and neutrons and carries a positive charge.

Nuisance Contaminant
Constituents in water, which are not normally harmful to health but may cause offensive taste,
odor, color, corrosion, foaming, or staining.

Nutrient
Any substance that promotes growth with living organisms. The term is generally applied
to nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater, but is also applied to other essential and trace
elements.

Nutrient Pollution
Contamination of water resources by excessive inputs of nutrients. In surface waters, excess algal
production is a major concern.

Oligotrophic lakes
Deep clear lakes with few nutrients, little organic matter and a high dissolved-oxygen level.

Organic matter
Substances of (dead) plant or animal matter, with a carbon-hydrogen structure.

Osmosis
Water molecules passing through membranes naturally, to the side with the highest concentration
of dissolved impurities.

Outfall
The place where a wastewater treatment plant discharges treated water into the environment.

Overflow rate
One of the guidelines for design of the settling tanks and clarifiers in a treatment plant to
determine if tanks and clarifiers are used enough.

Oxidation
A chemical reaction in which ions are transferring electrons, to increase positive valence.

Oxidation pond
A man-made body of water in which waste is consumed by bacteria.

Oxidation-reduction potential
The electric potential required to transfer electrons from the oxidant to the reductant, used as a
qualitative measure of the state of oxidation in water treatment systems.

Oxygen depletion
The reduction of the dissolved oxygen level in a water body.

Ozone
An unstable oxidizing agent, that consists of three oxygen atoms and can be found in the ozone
layer in the atmosphere. It is produced by electrical discharge through oxygen or by specifically
designed UV-lamps.

Ozone generator
A device that generates ozone by passing a voltage through a chamber that contains oxygen. It is
often used as a disinfection system.
More info on ozone and ozone generators

Parameter
A variable, measurable property whose value is a determinant of the characteristics of a system
such as water. Temperature, pressure, and density are examples of parameters.

Partial pressure
That pressure of a gas in a liquid, which is in equilibrium with the solution. In a mixture of gases,
the partial pressure of any one gas is the total pressure times the fraction of the gas in the mixture
(by volume or number of molecules).

Particle size
The sizes of a particle, determined by the smallest dimension, for instance a diameter. It is usually
expressed in micron measurements.

Particulate loading
The mass of particulates per unit volume of water.

Parts per billion

Expressed as ppb; a unit of concentration equivalent to the g/l.

Parts per million

Expressed as ppm; a measure of concentration. One ppm is one unit weight of solute per million
unit weights of solution. In water analysis the ppm is equivalent to mg/l.

Pasteurisation

The elimination of microrganisms by heat applies for a certain period of time.

Pathogens
Disease-producing microrganisms.

Percent saturation
The amount of a substance that is dissolved in a solution compared to the amount that could be
dissolved in it.

Percolating water
Water that passes through rocks or soil under the force of gravity.

Periodic chart
Arrangement of elements in order of increasing atomic numbers, created by a scientist called
Mendelejef.

Permeability
The ability of a medium to pass a fluid under pressure.

Persistence
Refers to the length of time a compound stays in the environment, once introduced.

pH
The value that determines if a substance is acid, neutral or basic, calculated from the number
of hydrogen ions present. It is measured on a scale from 0 to 14, on which 7 means the substance
is neutral. pH values below 7 indicate that a substance is acidic and pH values above 7 indicate
that it is basic.

Phase
A state of matter. This can be solid, liquid or gaseous.

Photosynthesis
The process of conversion of water and carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. It takes place in the
presence of chlorophyll and is activated by sunlight. During the process oxygen is released. Only
plants and a limited number of microrganisms can perform photosynthesis.

Physical and chemical treatment

Processes generally used in wastewater treatment facilities. Physical processes are for instance
filtration. Chemical treatment can be coagulation, chlorination, or ozon treatment.

Physical weathering

Breaking down of rock into bits and pieces by exposure to temperature and changes and the
physical action of moving ice and water, growing roots, and human activities such as farming and
construction.

Phytoplankton
Free-floating, mostly microscopic aquatic plants.

Pilot tests
The testing of a cleanup technology under actual site conditions in a laboratory in order to identify
potential problems before implementation.

POE-treatment
Point-Of-Entry treatment. Total water treatment at the inlet to an entire building or facility.

Pore
An opening in a membrane or medium that allows water to pass through.

Point source
A stationary location from which pollutants are discharged. It is a single identifiable source of
pollution, such as a pipeline or a factory.

Polar substance
A substance that carries a positive or negative charge, for instance water.

Pollutant
A contaminant at a concentration high enough to endanger the life of organisms.

POP's
Persistent Organic Pollutants, complex compounds that are very persistent and difficultly
biologically degradable.

Potable water
Water that is safe for drinking and cooking.

Potentiation
The ability of one chemical to increase the effect of another chemical.

Potentiometric surface
The surface to which water in an aquifer can rise by hydrostatic pressure.

POU-treatment
Point-Of-Use treatment. Water treatment at a limited number of outlets in a building, for less than
the whole building.

Precipitate
An insoluble reaction product in an aqueous chemical reaction.

Precipitation process
The altering of dissolved compounds to insoluble or badly soluble compounds, in order to be able
to remove the compounds by means of filtration.

Pressure sewers
A system of pipes in which water, wastewater, or other liquid is pumped to a higher elevation.

Pre-treatment
Processes used to reduce or eliminate wastewater pollutants from before they are discharged.

Primary wastewater treatment

The removal of suspended, floating and precipitated solids from untreated wastewater.
Click here for an overview of the wastewater treatment process

Process water
Water that serves in any level of the manufacturing process of certain products.

Product water
Water that has passed through a water treatment plant and is ready to be delivered to consumers.

Protons
Positively charged building blocks of an atom that are centered in the nucleus.

Protozoa
Large microrganisms, which consume bacteria.

Public water system

A system that provides piped water for human consumption to at least 15 service connections or
regularly serves 25 individuals.

Putrefaction

Biological decomposition of organic matter; associated with anaerobic conditions.

Pyrogen
Substance that is produces by bacteria and it fairly stable. It causes fever in mammals.

Qualitative water assessment

Analyses of water used to discribe the visible or aestetic charcteristics of water.

Quantitative water assessment

Use of analyses of water properties and concentrations of compounds and contaminants in order to
define water quality.

Quicksilver water
A solution of mercury nitrate used in gilding.

Radioactive
Having the property of releasing radiation.

Raw sewage
Untreated wastewater and its contents.

Raw water
Intake water before any treatment or use.

Reaeration
Renewing air supplies in the lower layers of a reservoir in order to raise oxygen levels.

Recarbonization
Process in which carbon dioxide is bubbled into treatment water in order to lower the pH.

Receiving waters
A river, lake, ocean, stream or other watercourse into which wastewater or treated effluent is
discharged.

Recharge Area
An area where rainwater soaks through the ground to reach an aquifer.

Recirculation

Recycling water after it is used. Often it has to pass a wastewater purification system before it can
be reused.

Redox
Shortened term for reduction/ oxidation reactions. Redox reactions are a series of reactions of
substances in which electron transfer takes place. The substance that gains electrons is called
oxidising agent.

Reduction
A chemical reaction in which ions gain electrons to reduce their positive valence.

Regeneration
Putting the desired counter-ion back on the ion exchanger, by displacing an ion of higher affinity
with one of lower affinity.

Reserve Capacity
Extra treatment capacity built into wastewater treatment plants and sewers to be able to catch up
with future flow increases due to population growth.

Reservoir
A natural or artificial holding area used to store water.

Residue
The dry solids remaining after the evaporation of a sample of water or sludge.

Resolution
The breaking of an emulsion into its individual components.

Reverse Osmosis process

The Reversed Osmosis (RO) process uses a semi-permeable membrane to separate and remove
dissolved solids, organics, pyrogens, submicron colloidal matter, viruses, and bacteria from water.
The process is called 'reverse' osmosis since it requires pressure to force pure water across a
membrane, leaving the impurities behind.
More info on reversed osmosis

Run-Off
The part of precipitation water that runs off the land into streams or other surfacewater.

Safe water
Water that does not contain harmful bacteria, toxic materials, or chemicals, and is considered safe
for drinking.

Safe yield
The annual amount of water that can be taken from a source of supply over a period of years
without depleting that source beyond its ability to be naturally refilled.

Salinity
The presence of soluble minerals in water.

Sand filtration
Sand filtration is a frequently used and very robust method to remove suspended solids from
water. The filtration medium consists of a multiple layer of sand with a variety in size and specific
gravity. Sand filters can be supplied in different sizes and materials both hand operated and fully
automatically.
More info on sand filtration

Saturated zone
The area below the water table where all open spaces are filled with water.

Saturation
The condition of a liquid when it has taken into solution the maximum possible quantity of a given
substance.

Scale
The precipitate that forms on surfaces in contact with water as the result of a physical or chemical
change.

Screening
Use of screens to remove coarse floating and suspended solids from sewage.

Secondary treatment
The removal or reduction of contaminants and BOD of effluent from primary wastewater
treatment.
Click here for an overview of the wastewater treatment process

Sedimentation
Settling of solid particles in a liquid system due to gravity.

Sediments
Soil, sand, and minerals washed from land into water, usually after rain.

Semi-confined aquifer

An aquifer partially confined by soil layers of low permeability through which recharge and
discharge can still occur.

Semipermeable
A medium that allows water to pass through, but rejects dissolved solids, so that it can be used to
separate solids from water.

Separate sewer
A sewer system that carries only sanitary sewage; no storm-water runoff. When a sewer is
constructed this way, wastewater treatment plants can be sized to treat sanitary wastes only and
all of the water entering the plant receives complete treatment at all times.

Separation
The isolation of the various compounds in a mixture.

Septic tank
An underground storage tank for wastes from homes not connected to a sewer line. Waste goes
directly from the home to the tank.

Settleable solids
Those suspended solids in wastewater that will settle over a certain period of time and are
removed in that way.

Settling
The process of sinking of a substance sinking in water. This occurs when the substance does not
dissolve in water and its density is larger than that of water.

Sewage
Waste fluid in a sewer system.

Sewage contamination
The introduction of untreated sewage into a water body.

Sewage sludge
Sludge produced in a public sewer.

Sewerage
The entire system of sewage collection, treatment, and disposal.

Sludge

A semi-solid residue, containing microoroganisms and their products, from any water treatment
process.

Softening
The removal of calcium and magnesium from water to reduce hardness.

Soft water
Any water that does not contain large concentrations of the dissolved minerals calcium or
magnesium.

Solidification
Removal of wastewater from a waste or changing it chemically to make it less permeable and
susceptible to transport by water.

Solubility
The amount of mass of a compound that will dissolve in a unit volume of water.

Solute
Matter dissolved in a liquid, such as water.

Solvent
Substance (usually liquid) capable of dissolving one or more other substances.

Sparger
A device that introduces compressed air into a liquid.

Sparging
Injection of air below the water table to strip dissolved volatile organic compounds and to facilitate
aerobic biodegradation of organic compounds.

Specific conductance
Method to estimate the dissolved solid content of a water supply by testing its conductivity.

Spring
Ground water seeping out of the earth where the water table exceeds the ground surface.

Stoke's Law
A method to calculate the rate of fall of particles through a fluid, based on density, viscosity and
particle size.

Sublimation
The transitions of water directly from the solid state to the gaseous state, without passing through
the liquid state.

Surface tension
The elastic-like force in a body, especially a liquid, tending to minimize, or constrict, the area of
the surface.

Surface water
All water naturally open to the atmosphere, concerning rivers, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, streams,
impoundments, seas, estuaries and wetlands.

Suspended solids
Solid organic or inorganic particles that are held in suspension in a solution.

Synergism
The combined action of several chemicals, which produces a total effect greater than the effects of
the chemicals separately.

Tertiary treatment
Advanced cleaning of wastewater that goes beyond the secondary or biological stage, removing
nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and most BOD and suspended solids.

Thermal pollution
Discharge of heated water from industrial processes in receiving surface water, causing death or
injury of aquatic organisms.

Titration
An analytical technique to determine how much of a substance is present in a water sample by
adding another substance and measuring how much of that substance must be added to produce a
reaction.

TDS
Total Dissolved Solids. The weight per unit volume of water of suspended solids in a filter media
after filtration or evaporation. Please use also our information about TDS and conductivity.

TH
Total Hardness. The sum of calcium and magnesium hardness, expressed as a calcium carbonate
equivalent.

TS

Total Solids. The weight of all present solids per unit volume of water. It is usually determined by
evaporation. The total weight concerns both dissolved and suspended organic and inorganic
matter.

Total solids
All the solids in wastewater or sewage water, including suspended solids and filterable solids.

Toxic water pollutants

Compounds that are not naturally found in water at the given concentrations and that cause death,
disease, or birth defects in organisms that ingest or absorb them.

Transmission lines
Pipelines that transport raw water from its source to a water treatment plant.

Transmissivity
The ability of an aquifer to transmit water.

Transpiration
The process by which water vapour is released into the atmosphere after transpiring of living
plants.

Treatment plant
A structure built to treat wastewater before discharging it into the environment.

Trickling filter
A wastewater treatment unit that contains medium material with bacteria. The stream of
wastewater is trickled over the medium and the bacteria break down the organic wastes. Bacteria
are collected on the filter medium.

THM
Trihalomethanes. Toxic chemical substances that consist of a methane molecule and one of the
halogen elements fluorine, bromine, chlorine and iodine attached to three positions of the
molecule. They usually have carcinogenic properties.

Tube settler
Device using bundles of tubes to let solids in water settle to the bottom for removal by sludge.

Turbidity
A measure of non-transparency of water due to the presence of suspended matter.

Turbulent flow

A flow that contains may rapid fluctuations.

Ultra-violet oxidation
A process using extremely short wave-length light that can kill micro-organisms (disinfection) or
cleave organic molecules (photo oxidation) rendering them polarized or ionized and thus more
easily removed from the water.

Unloading
The release of the contaminant that was captured by a filter medium.

Unsaturated Zone
The area above the water table where soil pores are not fully saturated with water.

Up-flow
An upward flow of water.

UP-water
Ultra pure water creation demands a specialised way of working. A number of techniques are used
amongst others; membrane filtration, ion exchanges, sub micron filters, ultra violette and ozone
systems. The produced water is extremely pure and contains none to very low concentrations of
salts, organic/ pyrogene components, oxygen, suspended solids and bacteria.
More info on UP-water

Urban run-off
Water from city streets domestic properties that carries pollutants into the sewer systems and
receiving waters.

UV
Ultra Violet. Radiation that has a wavelength shorter than visible light. It is often used to kill
bacteria and destroy ozone.

Vapour
The gaseous phase of substances such as water.

Vaporize
Conversion of a liquid into vapour.

Venturi
A channel that serves the measurement of water flows.

Viruses

The smallest life forms known, that are not cellular in nature. They live inside the cells of animals,
plants and bacteria and often cause disease. They are made up of a chromosome surrounded by a
protein shell.

Viscosity
The syrupiness of water and it determines the mobility of the water. When the temperature rises,
the viscosity degrades; this means that water will be more mobile at higher temperatures.

VOC
Volatile Organic Compound. Synthetic organic compounds which easily vaporize and are often
carcinogenic.

Wastewater
The spent or used water from a home, community, farm, or industry that contains dissolved or
suspended matter.

Wastewater infrastructure
The plan or network for the collection, treatment, and disposal of sewage in a community.

Water monitoring
The process of constant control of a body of water by means of sampling and analyses.

Water pollution
The presence in water of enough harmful or objectionable material to damage water quality.

Water quality
The condition of water with respect to the amount of impurities in it.

Water recycling
Using water again for the same or another process step, after a small form of purification is
applied.

Watershed
A land area from which water drains to a particular water body.

Water solubility
The maximum possible concentration of a chemical compound dissolved in water.

Water storage pond

An impound for liquid wastes designed to accomplish some degree of biochemical treatment.

Water supply system

The collection, treatment, storage, and distribution of water from source to consumer.

Water system
A river and all its branches.

Water table
The surface of groundwater in the soil.

Weir
A spill over device used to measure or control water flows.

Well
A deep hole with the purpose to reach underground water supplies.

Wetland
An area that is saturated by surface water or groundwater, with vegetation adapted for life under
those soil conditions.

Wettability
The relative degree to which a fluid will spread into solid surface in the presence of other
immiscible fluids.

Xenobiotic
Any biological substance, displaced from its normal habitat; a chemical foreign to a biological
system.

Yield
The rate of production of cake from a dewatering device.

Zero discharge water

The principle of zero discharge is recycling of all industrial wastewater. This means that
wastewater will be treated and used again in the process. Because of the water reuse wastewater
will not be released on the sewer system or surface water.

Zeta potential
An electrokinetic measurement which can be used for the control of coagulation processes.

Zone of saturation

The space in the soil below the water table in which all the pores are filled with water. The water in
the zone of saturation is groundwater.

Zooplankton
Tiny aquatic animals eaten by fish.

Zwitter ions
Act as cations or as anions according to the environment in which they find themselves. In water
technology they are usually organic macromolecules.

Matter cycles
The earthly cycles of water, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and carbon
All elements of the periodic chart can be found on earth in many different forms. The elements
may differ in physical form and be either solid, liquid or gaseous, or they may differ in their overall
form as a result of chemical reactions they have undergone.
Elements such as nitrogen can be found on many different locations. Nitrogen is present in water
as well as in air and soil and the supplies are always restored. This is because nitrogen, just like
many elements, moves across the earth in a matter cycle; the nitrogen cycle. The most important
cycles of matter will be described here; those of water, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and carbon.

I) Hydrological cycle

H2O water FAQ water glossary

Water will circulate primarily between the oceans, the continents and the atmosphere. These are
the main parts of the hydrological cycle, also known as the water cycle. As the water cycle takes
place, water can be found on earth in different physical states: in solid, liquid and gaseous form.
For more information on the route water will follow on earth, move on to the hydrological cycle

II) Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is a substance that is essential for all life on earth. Most nitrogen can be found in air in
the gaseous form, but nitrogen can also be found in water and soil in different forms. There, it will
be decomposed by bacteria and absorbed by plants and animals.
For more information on the route nitrogen will follow on earth, move on to the nitrogen cycle

III) Phosphorus cycle

Phosphorus is an element that can be found in the DNA structures of organisms. Phosphorus is the
main limiting growth factor for ecosystems, because the phosphorus cycle is mainly concerned
with the movement of phosphorus between continents and the ocean. Contrarily to the nitrogen
cycle there is no gaseous phase found in air.
For more information on the route phosphorus will follow on earth, move on to the phosphorus
cycle

IV) Sulfur cycle

Sulfur is present within every organism in small quantities, mainly in the amino acids. It can be
found in air as sulfur dioxide and in water sulfuric acid and in other forms. The sulfur cycle is not
only concerned with natural processes, but also with human additions through industrial
processes.
For more information on the route sulfur will follow on earth, move on to the sulfur cycle

V) Carbon cycle

Carbon is a very important element, as it is a building block of all organic matter, including parts
of the human body, such as proteins, fats, DNA and RNA. Carbon can mainly be found in air as
carbon dioxide, but as a part of the carbon cycle it may also be dissolved in water or stored in
sediments.

Where can water be found?

Water can be found everywhere on earth, as most of the earth consists of water; namely the
oceans. On land water cannot only be found in taps and toilets, but also outside the house in
streams, lakes, wetlands and reservoirs. This is called surface water.
What we cannot see with our own eyes is that water can also be found in the ground, this is called
groundwater. Groundwater is rainwater that infiltrates into the soil and is stored in pores. The soil
consists of different layers, the so-called aquifers, that all contain certain amounts of water. The
layer that consists mainly of groundwater is called the saturation layer. When rain falls the
saturation layer will grow wider as a result of an expanding amount of groundwater.
Finally water can be found in gaseous state in the sky as moist or in cloud form.

How does the water cycle work?

The freshwater we use from the surface first arrives as a result of rainfall,
known as precipitation. Part of the precipitation falls on land and infiltrates
into the ground. Another part of the precipitation evaporates and thereby
returns to the atmosphere, to fall down again when it is raining. The last
part of the precipitation is called surface run-off. Surface run-off flows
directly into streams, lakes, wetlands and reservoirs.
The precipitation that infiltrates into the ground moves downwards through
pores, which are small voids in the soil. The precipitation moves towards a
zone that consists merely of water, and then becomes groundwater.
Groundwater slowly moves towards surface water in streams and lakes.
Eventually all the precipitation will end up in surface waters at some point.
Precipitation
Then the top layer of the water evaporates and rises up into the sky to
form clouds. When the pressure builds due to increasing amounts of water,
the clouds move inland and it starts to rain. The whole cycle as described
here starts over again and will go on and on.
Click here for a schematic representation of the water cycle

How does water spread through the ground?

The ground is made up of different types of layers vertically, called the aquifers. Groundwater
spreads through the ground horizontally; it moves from the area of infiltration through an aquifer
and out to a discharge area, as a part of the water cycle. This can be a well, a lake, a stream or
even an ocean. Groundwater normally moves from points of high elevation and pressure to points
of lower elevation and pressure. This movement is quite slow, typically only 1 meter or so per year
and rarely more than 0.3 meter per day.

1) Precipitation
Transported through the circulating atmosphere the clouds move themselves inland, as a result of
gravity, and lose their water as it falls back unto the ground. This phenomenon is called rain or
precipitation.

2) Infiltration
Rainwater infiltrates into the ground and sinks to the saturated zone, where it becomes
groundwater. Groundwater slowly moves from places of high elevation and pressure to places with
low elevation and pressure. It moves from the area of infiltration through an aquifer and out to a
discharge area, which can be either a sea or an ocean.

3) Transpiration
Plants and other forms of vegetation take up water from the soil and excrete it again as water
vapour. About 10% of the precipitation that falls on the ground vapourizes again through
transpiration of plants, the rest evaporates from seas and oceans.

4) Surface run-off
The rainwater that does not infiltrate into the soil will directly reach the surface water, as it will
run-off to rivers and lakes. After that it will be transported back to the seas and oceans. This
water is called surface run-off.

5) Evaporation
Due to the influence of sunlight the water in oceans and lakes will warm up. As a result of that it
will evaporate and rise up into the atmosphere. There it will form clouds that will eventually cause
rainwater to fall back on earth. The evaporation of oceans is the most important kind of
evaporation.

6) Condensation
In contact with the atmosphere the water vapour will transform back to liquid, so that it will be
visible in the air. These accumulations of water in the air are what we call clouds.

Which factors determine water quality?

Water quality is determined by the presence and quantity of contaminants, by physical/ chemical
factors such as pH and conductivity, by the number of salts present and by the presence of
nutrients. Humans largely influence all these factors, as they discharge their waste in water and
add all kinds of substances and contaminants to water that are not naturally present.
More information on physical/ chemical properties of water.

What is the difference between salt water and freshwater?

Salt water is water that contains a certain amount of salts. This means that its conductivity is
higher and its taste much saltier when one drinks it. Salt water is not suited to be used as drinking
water, because salt drains water from human bodies. When humans drink salt water they risk
dehydration. If we want to drink seawater, it needs to be desalinated first. Salt water can be found
everywhere on the surface of the earth, in the oceans, in rivers and in saltwater ponds. About 71%
of the earth is covered with salt water.
Freshwater is water with a dissolved salt concentration of less than 1%. There are two kinds of
freshwater reservoirs: standing bodies of freshwater, such as lakes, ponds and inland wetlands and
floating bodies of freshwater, such as streams and rivers. These bodies of water cover only a small
part of the earth's surface, and their locations are unrelated to climate. Only about 1% of the
earth's surface is covered with freshwater, whereas 41% of all known fish species live in this water.
Fresh water zones are usually closely connected to land; therefore they are often threatened by a
constant input of organic matter, inorganic nutrients and pollutants.

How is water quality assessed?

To determine water quality, certified agencies take samples; small amounts of water in a medium
which can be tested in a laboratory. Laboratories test these samples on various factors, and see if
they suffice water quality standards.
One of these factors is the number of colonies of coliform bacteria; these are an indicator for
drinking or swimming water quality. Another factor is the concentration of certain contaminants
and other substances, such as eutrophication agents.

What are water quality certificates?

When water serves a certain purpose, such as swimming water or drinking water, people that use
it need to know whether it is safe. A water quality certificate is a piece of paper that is given out
by a certified agency for water quality assessment, after the assessments have taken place, when
the company is content about the water quality. These certificates show people that water is safe
to swim in or to drink. Water quality certificates are given out for example to pool owners. Bottled
water sometimes includes a safety brand on the bottles, which shows that a certificate has been
given to the supplying company.

What is water purification?

Water purification generally means freeing water from any kind of impurity it contains, such as
contaminants or micro organisms.
Water purification is not a very one-sided process; the purification process contains many steps.
The steps that need to be progressed depend on the kind of impurities that are found in the water.
This can differ very much for different types of water.

In which ways is polluted water treated?

Settling
Before the purification process begins some contaminants, such as oil, can be settled in a settling
tank. They can then be removed easily, after they have reached the bottom of the tank.
Removal of dangerous microorganisms
Often polluted water has to be freed from microorganisms. The water is than disinfected, usually
by means of chlorination.
Removal of dissolved solids
Microrganisms are not only a threat to water; they can also be an advantage when it comes to
water purification processes. They can convert harmful contaminants to harmless substances. This
biological purification process usually takes a long time and it is only used for water that is polluted
with contaminants that the microrganisms, usually bacteria, can convert.
Physical/ chemical techniques
When treatment by microrganisms is not an option we often use different treatment techniques,
called physical/ chemical treatment techniques. Chemical treatment often deals with the addition
of certain chemicals, in order to make sure that the contaminants change structure and can then
be removed more easily. Fertilizers such as nitrates are removed this way. Removal of
contaminants can also be done through more difficult specific chemical processes. It takes a lot of
education to fully understand these purification steps. Physical treatment usually deals with
purification steps such as filtration.
More information on water treatment chemicals

Water pollution treatment process

More detailed descriptions of water purification steps are available here

How can bacteria be removed from water?

Bacteria and other microorganisms are removed from water through disinfection. This means that
certain substances are added to kill the bacteria, these are called biocides. Sometimes disinfection
can also be done with UV-light.

What is aerobic water treatment?

When bacteria are used for water purification there are two sorts of transfer; one of these is
aerobic transfer. This means, that bacteria that are oxygen dependent are converting the
contaminants in the water. Aerobic bacteria can only convert compounds when plenty of oxygen is
present, because they need it to perform any kind of chemical conversion. Usually the products
they convert the contaminants to are carbon dioxide and water.

What is anaerobic water treatment?

When bacteria are used for water purification there are two sorts of conversion; one of these is
anaerobic transfer. This means, that bacteria that are NOT oxygen dependent are converting the
contaminants in the water. Anaerobic bacteria can only convert when oxygen levels are low,
because they use other sorts of substances to perform chemical conversion. Anaerobic bacteria do
not just develop carbon dioxide and water during conversion, but also methane gas. This can be
used to keep the machinery that supports the purification going. The anaerobic conversion of a
substance requires more steps than aerobic conversion, but the final result is often less
satisfactory. After anaerobic conversion usually aerobic bacteria (bacteria that do use oxygen) still
need to finish the process, because the water is not clean enough yet.

How are fertilizers removed from water?

Fertilizers such as phosphate are removed through addition of another chemical, usually iron. The
substances than become solid precipitates, that can be filtered from the water.
The removal of ammonium and nitrates is a little bit more complicated; it is a purification process
that takes both aerobic and anaerobic conversion to remove them.
In the aerobic conversion stage there are two bacterial species involved. Nitrosomonas bacteria
that convert ammonia to nitrite and Nitrobacter bacteria that convert nitrite to nitrate after that.
Although nitrate does not represent a direct health threat to most fish, high levels are still
undesirable. Apart from encouraging abnormal extensive algal growth, it is now believed that high
nitrate levels are implicated in some fish diseases. This means that the process cannot be stopped
here.
The anaerobic bacteria take over; they convert nitrate to atmospheric nitrogen gas. This process
only occurs in the absence of oxygen. The first stage is the reverse of the nitrification process, it
converts nitrate back to nitrite. The second stage of denitrification converts nitrite to nitrogen gas
(N2). This gas can be freely released into the atmosphere without causing environmental damage.

What is microbiology?
Microbiology is the scientific field that is occupied with the study of microscopic organisms,
commonly known as microrganisms.

What are microrganisms?

All living creatures consist of cells. Cells are very small basic units of life. They are the smallest
structures capable of basic life processes, such as taking in nutrients and expelling waste. Cells
can only be made visible by microscopes.
Microrganisms are organisms that usually consist of one single cell. Because of this, they are often
referred to as "single-celled organisms". They are so small, that humans cannot visualise them.
We can only see them through microscopes, by which the cells are greatly enlarged.
At first, microorganisms were not seen as a separate kind. Microrganisms that carried out
photosynthesis (see carbon cycle) were classified in the plant kingdom, and microrganisms that
ingested food were placed in the animal kingdom. However, in the 19th century, scientists had
identified a wide variety of microrganisms with diverse cell structures, very specific internal
structures, and specific reproductive patterns that made them realize these organisms did not
belong to the plant or animal kingdom.

What kinds of microrganisms are there?

Microrganisms are divided up by their cell characteristics, in the same way as plants and animals.
There are two kinds of (micr)organisms. The first kind is the eukaryotic organism (protista). Most
organisms are eukaryotic, which basically means that the cells they consist of contain nucleuses
and other internal parts, surrounded by membranes. The second kind of microrganisms is the
prokaryotic organism (monera). Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a membrane, but they contain
no nucleus or other internal parts (organelles), contrary to eukaryotic cells.
Monera and protists
The monera are bacteria and cyanobacteria. They are single-celled prokaryotic microrganisms, as
was mentioned earlier. Bacteria are very important for other organisms, because they break down
organic matter. During this process nutrients are formed, which are reused by plants and animals.
Some of the bacteria that live on earth can cause disease, but most of them are quite useful as
they aid animals in the decomposition of food in their bodies. Bacteria differ from other types of
cells in the fact that they do not have a nucleus. With plants and animals this is where the DNA
(genetic information) can be found. With bacteria the genetic material floats within the cell. They

reproduce by first copying their DNA and than performing cell division. Bacteria also lack
membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria, the cell structures involved in energy
metabolism.
Bacterial cells are so small that scientists measure them in units called micrometers (m), a
millionth of a meter. An average bacterium is about one micrometer long.
Bacteria know several different kinds of subdivisions, such as spherical (coccus) and rod-shaped
(bacillus) bacteria.

Spherical bacteria

Rod-shaped bacteria

The protists are single-celled eukaryotic microrganisms, as mentioned earlier. Examples are
amoebas, diatoms, algae and protozoa. These can be a danger to human and animal health, as
certain protists can cause diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness. There are a wide
variety of protists, and they inhabit many different environments; fresh water, seawater, soils, and
the intestinal tracts of animals, where they perform crucial digestive processes.
Many species of protists can produce their own nutrients by the process of photosynthesis and
many protists can also move around on their own accord. Protists vary greatly in size and shape;
the green alga Nanochlorum is only 0.01 mm long, but giant kelps can grow to 65 m or more in
length.

Which microrganisms in water cause diseases?

Sometimes microrganisms that cause health effects can be found in drinking water. However, as
drinking water is thoroughly disinfected today, disease caused by microrganisms is rarely caused
by drinking water.
People that swim in swimming pools will find that the water they swim in is disinfected with either
chlorine, ozone, UV or chlorine dioxide. But there are people that swim outside in surface water
every year. These are the people that are most susceptible to bacterial infections and infections
caused by other microrganisms, because microrganisms often enter surface water through
industrial discharge and animal excrements. When you are an outside swimmer, you always have
to be careful and read the signs placed by the waterside, because the water you are swimming in
may be infected, for example with botulism.
There are various bacteria and protozoa that can cause disease when they are present in surface
water.
Bacteria are not only known to cause disease when they enter a human body through food,
surface water may also be an important source of bacterial infection. In this table you can see
various bacteria that can be found in surface water, and the diseases they cause when swallowed
in large amounts, along with the symptoms.
Bacteria

Disease/ infection

Symptoms

Aeromonas

Enteritis

Very thin, blood- and mucuscontaining diarrhoea

Campylobacter jejuni

Campilobacteriose

Flue, diarrhoea, head- and

stomachaches, fever, cramps and
nausea

Escherichia coli

Urinary tract infections, neonatal Watery diarrhoea, headaches,

meningitis, intestinal disease
fever, homiletic uraemia, kidney
damage

Plesiomonas shigelloides

Plesiomonas-infection

Nausea, stomachaches and

watery diarrhoea, sometimes
fevers, headaches and vomiting

Salmonella

Typhoid fever

Fevers

Salmonellosis

Sickness, intestinal cramps,

vomiting, diarrhoea and
sometimes light fevers

Streptococcus

(Gastro) intestinal disease

Stomachaches, diarrhoea and

fevers, sometimes vomiting

Vibrio El Tor (freshwater)

(Light form of) Cholera

Heavy diarrhoea

Protozoa can accumulate in certain body parts, after they have penetrated a human body. The
accumulations are called cysts.
Because of their parasitic nature, protozoa can cause various diseases. In this table you can see
various protozoa that can be found in surface water, and the diseases they cause when swallowed
in large amounts, along with the symptoms.
Microrganism

Disease

Symptoms

Amoeba

Amoebic dysentery

Severe diarrhoea, headache, abdominal pain,

chills, fever; if not treated can cause liver abscess,
bowel perforation and death

Cryptosporidium
parvum

Cryptosporidiosis

Feeling of sickness, watery diarrhoea, vomiting,

lack of appetite

Giardia

Giardiasis

Diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, flatulence, belching,

fatigue

Toxoplasm gondii

Toxoplasmosis

Flu, swelling of lymph glands

With pregnant women subtle abortion and brain
infections

How do we eliminate harmful microrganisms from water?

To eliminate harmful microrganisms from water we tend to use disinfectants. Examples of
disinfectants are chlorine, UV, ozone (O3) and chlorine dioxide (ClO2). There are several different
advantages and disadvantages to the various disinfection techniques, as shown on our disinfection
page. Chemicals that are harmful to certain types of microrganisms are often used to eliminate
them. These chemicals are known as biocides, because they are mortal to microrganisms.

How can microrganisms be made useful during water

treatment?

Microrganisms can be used to decompose contaminants in wastewater. This kind of water

treatment is called biological water treatment. During biological water treatment microrganisms
break down organic matter, nitrates and phosphates. This is a brief explanation of how these
biological water treatment processes work.
Removal of organic matter
Biological water purification is performed to lower the organic load of dissolved organic
compounds. Microrganisms, mainly bacteria, do the decomposition of these compounds. There are
two main categories of biological treatment: aerobic treatment and anaerobic treatment. Aerobic
water treatment means decomposition of organic matter by bacteria that need oxygen during the
decomposition process. Anaerobic water treatment means decomposition of organic matter by
microrganisms that do not use oxygen.
In aerobic systems the water is aerated with compressed air (in some cases merely oxygen),
whereas anaerobic systems run under oxygen free conditions.
Removal of ammonium and nitrates
The removal of ammonium and nitrates is quite complex. It is a water treatment process that
takes both aerobic and anaerobic conversion to remove the contaminants.
In the aerobic conversion stage there are two bacterial species involved. Firstly, Nitrosomonas
bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite. Secondly, Nitrobacter bacteria convert nitrite to nitrate. These
two processes together are commonly known as the nitrification process.
After that, the anaerobic bacteria take over. These bacteria convert nitrate to atmospheric nitrogen
gas. This process is called denitrification. Denitrification is accomplished with many anaerobic
bacteria, such as Achromobacter, Bacillus and Pseudomonas. The first stage of denitrification is the
reverse of the nitrification process, it converts nitrate back to nitrite. The second stage of
denitrification converts nitrite to nitrogen gas (N2). This gas can be freely released into the
atmosphere without causing environmental damage.
Removal of phosphates
Phosphates can be removed from wastewater by an aerobic (oxygen-dependent) bacterium, called
Acinetobacter. This bacterium accumulates polyphosphates in the cell tissues.
The Acinetobacter can take up a higher amount of phosphates than it needs for its cell synthesis.
The extra amounts of phosphates are stored in the cells as polyphosphates.
The storage of polyphosphates causes the Acinetobacter to be able to temporarily survive
anaerobic circumstances. When the Acinetobacter resides in an anaerobic zone in the wastewater,
it takes up fatty acids to store them as spare substances. During this process, polyphosphates are
decomposed for energy supply, causing phosphates to be released into the aerobic zone. When the
Acinetobacter enters the aerobic zone it takes up phosphates and stores them as polyphosphates
in the cell tissues. This causes the phosphate content of the wastewater to decrease.

The question library on hard water and water softening

This water softener FAQ is made up of eight parts:
1. Hard water questions
2. Water softening questions

Schematic
representation
of a water
softener

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Softening salts questions

Softening costs questions
Softening drinking water questions
Softeners maintenance questions
Softener operational questions
Softener in households questions

1. Hard water
1.1 What is hard water?
When water is referred to as 'hard' this simply means, that it contains more minerals than ordinary water.
These are especially the minerals calcium and magnesium. The degree of hardness of the water increases,
when more calcium and magnesium dissolves.
Magnesium and calcium are positively charged ions. Because of their presence, other positively charged ions
will dissolve less easily in hard water than in water that does not contain calcium and magnesium.
This is the cause of the fact that soap doesn't really dissolve in hard water.
1.2 Which industries attach value to hardness of water?
In many industrial applications, such as the drinking water preparation, in breweries and in sodas, but also for
cooling- and boiler feed water the hardness of the water is very important.

2. Water softening
2.1 What is water softening?
When water contains a significant amount of calcium and magnesium, it is called hard water. Hard water is
known to clog pipes and to complicate soap and detergent dissolving in water.
Water softening is a technique that serves the removal of the ions that cause the water to be hard, in most
cases calcium and magnesium ions. Iron ions may also be removed during softening.
The best way to soften water is to use a water softener unit and connect it directly to the water supply.
2.2 What is a water softener?
A water softener is a unit that is used to soften water, by removing the minerals that cause the water to be
hard.
2.3 Why is water softening applied?
Water softening is an important process, because the hardness of water in households and companies is
reduced during this process.
When water is hard, it can clog pipes and soap will dissolve in it less easily. Water softening can prevent these
negative effects.
Hard water causes a higher risk of lime scale deposits in household water systems. Due to this lime scale buildup, pipes are blocked and the efficiency of hot boilers and tanks is reduced. This increases the cost of domestic
water heating by about fifteen to twenty percent.
Another negative effect of lime scale is that it has damaging effects on household machinery, such as laundry
machines.
Water softening means expanding the life span of household machine, such as laundry machines, and the life
span of pipelines. It also contributes to the improved working, and longer lifespan of solar heating systems, air
conditioning units and many other water-based applications.
2.4 What does a water softener do?
Water softeners are specific ion exchangers that are designed to remove ions, which are positively charged.
Softeners mainly remove calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions. Calcium and magnesium are often
referred to as 'hardness minerals'.
Softeners are sometimes even applied to remove iron. The softening devices are able to remove up to five
milligrams per litre (5 mg/L) of dissolved iron.
Softeners can operate automatic, semi-automatic, or manual. Each type is rated on the amount of hardness it
can remove before regeneration is necessary.
A water softener collects hardness minerals within its conditioning tank and from time to time flushes them
away to drain.
Ion exchangers are often used for water softening. When an ion exchanger is applied for water softening, it will
replace the calcium and magnesium ions in the water with other ions, for instance sodium or potassium. The
exchanger ions are added to the ion exchanger reservoir as sodium and potassium salts (NaCl and KCl).
2.5 How long does a water softener last?
A good water softener will last many years. Softeners that were supplied in the 1980's may still work, and

many need little maintenance, besides filling them with salt occasionally.

3. Softening salts
3.1 Which types of salt are sold for application in a water softener?
For water softening, three types of salt are generally sold:
- Rock salt
- Solar salt
- Evaporated salt
Rock salt as a mineral occurs naturally in the ground. It is obtained from underground salt deposits by
traditional mining methods. It contains between ninety-eight and ninety-nine percent sodium chloride. It has a
water insolubility level of about 0.5-1.5%, being mainly calcium sulphate. Its most important component is
calcium sulphate.
Solar salt as a natural product is obtained mainly through evaporation of seawater. It contains 85% sodium
chloride. It has a water insolubility level of less than 0.03%. It is usually sold in crystal form. Sometimes it is
also sold in pellets.
Evaporated salt is obtained through mining underground salt deposits of dissolving salt. The moisture is then
evaporated, using energy from natural gas or coal. Evaporated salt contains between 99.6 and 99.99% sodium
chloride.
3.2 Should we use rock salt, evaporated salt or solar salt in a water softener?
Rock salt contains a lot of matter that is not water-soluble. As a result, the softening reservoirs have to be
cleaned much more regularly, when rock salt is used. Rock salt is cheaper than evaporated salt and solar salt,
but reservoir cleaning may take up a lot of your time and energy.
Solar salt contains a bit more water-insoluble matter than evaporated salt. When one makes a decision about
which salt to use, consideration should be given to how much salt is used, how often the softener needs
cleanout, and the softener design. If salt usage is low, the products could be used alternately.
If salt usage is high, insoluble salts will build up faster when using solar salt. Additionally, the reservoir will
need more frequent cleaning. In that case evaporated salt is recommended.
3.3 Is it harmful to mix different kinds of salt in a water softener?
It is generally not harmful to mix salts in a water softener, but there are types of softeners that are designed
for specific water softening products. When using alternative products, these softeners will not function well.
Mixing evaporated salt with rock salt is not recommended, as this could clog the softening reservoir. It is
recommended that you allow your unit to go empty of one type of salt before adding another to avoid the
occurrence of any problems.
3.4 How often should one add salt to a softener?
Salt is usually added to the reservoir during regeneration of the softener. The more often a softener is
regenerated, the more often salt needs to be added.
Usually water softeners are checked once a month. To guarantee a satisfactory production of soft water, the salt
level should be kept at least half-full at all times.
3.5 How come water sometimes does not become softer when salt is added?
Before salt starts working in a water softener it needs a little residence time within the reservoir, since the salt
is dissolving slowly. When one immediately starts regeneration after adding salt to the reservoir, the water
softener may not work according to standards.

When the water softening does not take place it could also indicate softener malfunction, or a problem with the
salt that is applied.

4. Softening costs
4.1 How much does a water softener cost?
Some softeners are more efficient than others and as a result the prizes may differ. There are time operated
softeners and water meter-controlled softeners available. The water meter-controlled units produce the softest
water per pound of salt.
Some softeners work on electricity, but some more recent water softeners use waterpower. Costs of a water
softener greatly depend upon the type of water softener and the type of energy that is used, but also upon the
hardness of the water that needs softening and the water use. When the water is very hard and it is used
heavily, the costs of softening will rise.
Generally the costs of a water softener can vary between 0,20 and 0,40 a day.
The costs of water softeners are usually far outweighed by the benefits and cost savings obtained, through
using softened water.
4.2 How much does a water softener cost during operation?
The running cost is merely the cost of salt. This is likely to be around 1,95 per person in the household in a
month.

5. Softening drinking water

5.1 Do water-producing companies always produce softened water?
Although water-producing companies do have the opportunity to produce softened water, they will not always
do so. A water producing company only has to add a water softener in its water purification system, to produce
softened water cheaply.
But than consumers would not be able to have the choice to drink un-softened water.
Hard water problems are most likely to occur when water is heated. As a result, hard water causes few
problems to the water supplying companies, especially when only cold water runs through their pipes.
5.2 Is softened water safe to drink?
Softened water still contains all the natural minerals that we need. It is only deprived off its calcium and
magnesium contents, and some sodium is added during the softening process. That is why in most cases,
softened water is perfectly safe to drink. It is advisable that softened water contains only up to 300mg/L of
sodium.
In areas with very high hardness the softened water must not be used for the preparation of baby-milk, due to
the high sodium contant after the softening process has been carried out.
5.3 Can salt from softening installations enter drinking water?
Salt does not have the opportunity to enter drinking water through softening installations.
The only purpose of salt in a water softener is to regenerate the resin beads that take the hardness out of
water.
5.4 How much sodium does one absorb from softened water?
The sodium uptake through softened water depends on the hardness of the water. Averagely, less than 3%

sodium uptake comes from drinking softened water.

Estimates say that a person consumes about two to three teaspoons of salt a day, from various sources.
Assuming a daily intake of five grams of sodium through food and the consumption of three quarts of water, the
contribution of sodium (Na+) in the water from the home water softening process, is minimal compared to the
total daily intake of many sodium-rich foods.
5.5 Will softening drinking water deprive it of essential minerals?
Softening will not deprive water of its essential minerals. Softening only deprives drinking water of minerals
that cause the water to be hard, such as calcium, magnesium and iron.

6. Softeners maintenance
6.1 When does a softener resin need replacement?
When the water does not become soft enough, one should first consider problems with the salt that is used, or
mechanical malfunctions of softener components. When these elements are not the cause of the unsatisfactory
water softening, it may be time to replace the softener resin, or perhaps even the entire softener.
Through experience we know that most softener resins and ion exchanger resins last about twenty to twentyfive years.
6.2 Does a softener brine tank need cleaning?
Usually it is not necessary to clean out a brine tank, unless the salt product being used is high in waterinsoluble matter, or there is a serious malfunction of some sort.
If there is a build-up of insoluble matter in the resin, the reservoir should be cleaned out to prevent softener
malfunction.
6.3 What is 'mushing' and why should we avoid it?
When loosely compacted salt pellets or cube-style salt is used in a resin, it may form tiny crystals of evaporated
salt, which are similar to table salt. These crystals may bond, creating a thick mass in the brine tank. This
phenomenon, commonly known as 'mushing', may interrupt brine production. Brine production is the most
important element for refreshing of the resin beads in a water softener. Without brine production, a water
softener is not able produce soft water.

7. Softener operational questions

7.1 Can brine from softeners damage a septic tank?
The Water Quality Association has performed studies on this subject. These studies have indicated that a
properly placed septic tank that works adequately cannot be damaged by brine that is discharged from a water
softener. And softened water can sometimes even help reduce the amount of detergents discharged into a
septic tank.
7.2 Can a water softener be used with lead pipes?
Lead pipe systems have to be replaced, before softened water can flow through them. Although lead pipe
systems in hard water areas may not cause a problem, it is advisable to replace them anyway. When naturally
or artificially softened water ends up in these lead pipe systems, it may cause the pickup of lead.
7.2 Can one measure water hardness inline?

Yes, although the measurement system is mainly applied in industrial water softeners.
The Testomat inline water hardness instrument

8. Softening in households
8.1 Can a water softener be taken along during moving?
With modern water softeners, it is very possible to take them along during moving. Installation techniques
involve quick fitting connections, similar to those used for laundry machines.
All that has to be done is closing off the inlet and outlet valves of the softener and open up the bypass valve,
allowing hard water to flow to the storage tank and household taps. After that the softener can be
disconnected, moved to its new location and placed there.
8.2 Can waste from a water softener be discharged directly in the garden?
As brine alters the osmotic pressure that plants rely upon to regulate water needs, direct discharge of either
sodium or potassium chloride brine should be avoided.
8.3 Is softened water any help for dry skin conditions?
There are cases to be noted, in which people with dry skin conditions have benefited from water softening,
because soft water is kinder to the hair and skin.