GG 454

March 31, 2002

THE WAVE EQUATION (30)

I

Main Topics
A Assumptions and boundary conditions used in 2-D small wave theory
B The Laplace equation and fluid potential
C Solution of the wave equation
D Energy in a wavelength
E Shoaling of waves
I I Assumptions and boundary conditions used in 2-D small wave theory
Small amplitude surface wave
L

H = 2A = wave height

Still water
level

Water depth = +d
y = -d

x
u

Depth above
bottom = d+y Particle
orbit

v
Particle
velocity

Modified from Sorensen, 1978

A No geometry changes parallel to wave crest (2-D assumption)

B Wave amplitude is small relative to wave length and water depth; it
will follow that particle velocities are small relative to wave speed
C Water is homogeneous, incompressible, and surface tension is nil.
D The bottom is not moving, is impermeable, and is horizontal
E Pressure along air-sea interface is constant
F The water surface has the form of a cosine wave
H
x t
= cos 2
L T
2

Stephen Martel

30-1

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

III The Laplace equation and fluid potential

A Conservation of mass
Consider a box the shape of a cube, with fluid flowing in and out or it.
v+v

(out)
u+u

u
(in)

(out)

v
(in)

The mass flow rate in the left side of the box is:
1a

m1
t

V
xyz
x
V
=
=
= yz
= ( )( yz )(u)
t
t
t
t

The mass flow rate out the right side is

1b

m 2
t

= ( )( yz )(u + u) .

For the bottom of the box, mass flow rate in is

1c

m3
t

= ( )( xz )(v) ,

and the mass flow rate out the top is

1d

m 4
t

= ( )( xz )(v + v)

If the fluid is incompressible (so no fluid can be compressed and stored in

the box), then: a) the fluid mass flowing into the box in a given increment
of time must equal the fluid mass flowing out of the box in that same
increment of time, and b) the density of the fluid ( ) is a constant.
Remember that u and v are velocities in the x and y directions,
respectively. So, what goes in equals what comes out:
2a
or
2b

m1
t

m1
t

Stephen Martel

m3
t

m 2
t

=
+

m 2
t

m3
t

m 4
t

m 4
t

.
= 0.

30-2

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

Substituting equations (1) into (2b)

( )( yz )(u) ( )( yz )(u + u) + ( )( xz )(v) ( )( xz )(v + v) = 0.
3
Dividing out the terms and z
( y)(u) ( y)(u + u) + ( x )(v) ( x )(v + v) = 0.
4
Now let u = x [u/x] and v = y [v/y]
( y)(u) ( y)(u + x[u / x ]) + ( x )(v) ( x )(v + y[v / y]) = 0.
5
This simplifies to
6

( y)( x

u
v
) ( x )( y ) = 0.
x
y

After dividing out the x and y terms

7a

u v

= 0,
x y

or 7b

u v
+
= 0,
x y

or 7c

u
v
= .
x
y

Equation 7c states that a change in flow in the x direction must be

compensated for by an opposite change in flow in the y-direction if mass
is to be conserved.

Stephen Martel

30-3

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

B Conservation of angular momentum

[Conditions of irrotational flow (vorticity = 0)]
We don't want our box to rotate. Experiments with submerged floats
beneath waves show that the floats do not spin.
u + u
u
v + v

v
y

x
u

Flow velocities on box sides

If there is no rotation, then there can be no moment:
8
( Force) y (lever arm) y = ( Force) x (lever arm) x
The shear force is related to the shear stress ( ) as follows:
9

Fshear = ( )(area)

Substituting equation (9) into equation (8) yields.

10

( xy [yz])(x) = ( yx [xz])(y)

For linear fluids, the shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient
11a

xy =

du
dy

11b

yx =

dv
dx

( = viscosity)

Substituting equations (11) into (10) then gives:

12
Hence
13a

[ yz ] ( x ) = [ xz ] ( y)
y

u v
=
y x

Stephen Martel

or

13b

u v

= 0 (vorticity = 0)
y x

30-4

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

C Irrotational potential flow and the Laplace equation

The Laplace equation is one of the most common equations in physics. It
describes how the second partial derivatives of a function ( ) are related:
2 2
14a
+
=0
or
14b 2 = 0 .
2
2
x
y
In the context of waves, will represent a fluid potential function.

You

are already familiar with gravitational potential energy U:

U = mgy

15

y = height

Partial derivatives of potential functions, taken with respect to position,

yield measurable physical quantities (e.g., gravitational potential U):

16

U
= mg = Fy F y= gravitational force
y

(Note that 2U = 0).

Darcy's law for one-dimensional fluid flow can be written in terms of

fluid potential :

q x = k x
x

17

where qx = flux (m/s), kx = permeability in the x-direction (m2 ), = density

(kg/m 3 ), = fluid viscosity (kg m-1 s-1 ), and x = position (m).
Suppose that a potential function exists that satisfies the Laplace
equation, and that the following conditions apply:
18a
18b

= u,
x

= v,
y

where u =horizontal component of particle velocity

where v =vertical component of particle velocity.

Now let us substitute the expressions of equations (18) into the Laplace
equation (equation 14a); this yields the continuity equation (7b).

y
u v
x
19
+
=
+
=0

Does the vorticity condition hold?

Stephen Martel

Inserting eqs. (18) into eq. (13b):

30-5

University of Hawaii

GG 454

20

March 31, 2002

y 2 2
x
u v
=

=0

y x
y
x
xy yx

So vorticity = 0.

So the Laplace equation can be used to study water waves.

Solutions to the Laplace equation also obey an averaging procedure, where
the value of the function at a point on a square grid is the average of the
values at the nearest four gridpoints.
y

2
6

1
x

4
x
0 = 1/4 [ 1 + 2 + 3 + 4]

Stephen Martel

30-6

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

IV Solutions for wave speed and particle velocities

(see appendix for derivation)
A General solutions

H g cosh([2 / L][d + y] sin(2 x / L 2 t / T )

(2 / T ) cosh(2 d / L)
2

1 Wave speed or wave celerity (C)

C = (gT /2 ) tanh(2 d/L)
T = wave period = constant
Function of wave period and relative water depth
2 Wave length (L)
L = CT
3 Horizontal particle velocity amplitude (|u|)
|u| = (H / T ) (cosh [2 (d + y ) / L ])/(sinh [2 d / L ] )
Function of wave height and relative water depth and relative
distance above bottom
4 Vertical particle velocity amplitude (|v|)
|v| = (H / T ) (sinh [2 (d + y ) / L ])/(sinh [2 d / L ] )
5 Amplitude of horizontal particle displacement (||)
|| = |u| (T/2)
6 Amplitude of vertical particle displacement (||)
| | = |v| (T/2)
B Deep-water solutions (d/L > 0.5, or 2d/L > , so tanh(2d/L) 1)
1 Wave speed (C)
a C = gT/2
(function of wave period; independent of depth)
2 Wave length (L)
a L = CT
b L = (gT 2 )/2
(function of wave period; independent of depth)
3 Horizontal particle velocity amplitude (|u|)
|u| = ( H/T)(e 2 y/ L ).
The horizontal velocities decrease exponentially with depth (y<0)
4 Vertical particle velocity amplitude (|v|)
|v| = ( H/T)(e 2 y / L ).
The vertical velocities decrease exponentially with depth (y<0)
5 Amplitude of horizontal particle displacement (||)
|| = (H /2) (e 2 y / L ) .
Exponential decay with depth
6 Amplitude of vertical particle displacement (| | )
| | = (H /2) (e 2 y / L ) .
Exponential decay with depth
Stephen Martel

30-7

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

C Shallow-water solutions (d/L < 0.05, or 2 d/L < /10)

Examples: tides, tsunamis,
1 Wave speed (C)
[tanh(2 d/L) 2 d/L]
C = (gT)(d/L) = (gd)(T/L) = (gd)(1/C) C = (gd) 1 / 2

5
6
7

i Function of water depth; independent of period

i i As water depth decreases, wave speed decreases
Wave length (L= CT)
L = (gd)1/2 T
i As water depth decreases, T stays constant, L decreases
i i Waves will bunch together as they enter shallower water
Horizontal particle velocity amplitude (|u|)
|u| = (H/T)/(2 d/L) = HL/2dT = (L/T)(H/2d) = C (H/2d)
|u| is independent of distance above bottom; |u| 0 at bottom
Vertical particle velocity amplitude (|v|)
|v| = (H/T) [(d + y)/d]
|v| = 0 at bottom and increases linearly to H/T at surface (y=0)
Amplitude of horizontal particle displacement (||)
|| = (H/2)/(2 d / L ) = (L/ )(H/d)
Independent of y
Amplitude of vertical particle displacement (||)
| | = (H/2) [(d + y)/d]
Decays linearly with y
Wave base: y = -L/2 (e- = 0.04)

Deep
water

Shallow
water

L/2
(wave base)
Not to scale

Modified from Sorenson, 1978

Stephen Martel

30-8

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

V Energy in a wavelength (per unit length along wave crest)

A Kinetic energy = (Ek )/z = gH 2 L/16
So Ek = Ep!
B Potential energy = (Ep )/z = gH 2 L/16
C Total energy = (ET )/z = (Ek +E p )/z = gH 2 L/8
V I Shoaling of waves
Assuming no energy loss as a wave shoals*

Case1:
Wave crest
is unstretched

Case 2:
Wave crest
is shortened

N
B1

B1

B2

B2

A E1 = E2
B (B 1 gH 1 2 L 1 )/8 = (B2 gH 2 2 L 2 )/8
C (H 2 /H 1 ) = (L1 /L 2 ) 1/2 (B1 /B 2 ) 1 / 2
1 As L decreases, H increases
2 As B decreases, H increases
D Wave steepness = H/L
E Waves get taller and steeper as they shoal because:
L decreases and H increases (conservation of energy)
F Waves break when (H/L) = 1/7 tanh (2d/L)

Stephen Martel

30-9

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

10

Hyperbolic Functions

3
5
e e
sinh( ) =
= +
+
+ ...
3!
5!
2
Shallow water:

As 0, sinh ()

Deep water:

As , sinh () (e )/2

(from series expansion)

(from definition)

sinh () = 11.549

2
4
e + e
cosh( ) =
= 1 +
+
+ ...
2!
4!
2
Shallow water:

As 0, cosh () 1

(from definition)

Deep water:

As , cosh () (e )/2

(from definition)

cosh () = 11.592

tanh( ) =

3
2 5
e e
=

+
+ ...
3
15
e + e

Shallow water:
Deep water:

As 0, tanh ()
As , tanh () 1

for <

(from series expansion)

(from definition)

tanh () = 0.9963
In the expressions below, k = 2/L
ek(d+y) + ek(d+y)

cosh k(d + y)
=
sinh kd

Shallow water:
Deep water:

2
kd
e ekd
2

ekd eky + ekd eky

ekd ekd

As kd 0 ,

cosh k(d+y) 1, sinh kd kd, so...

[cosh k(d+y)]/sinh kd 1/kd
As kd , [cosh k(d+y)]/sinh kd eky

ek(d+y)
sinh k(d + y)
2
=
kd
sinh kd
e
2

ek(d+y)
ekd

ekd eky + ekd eky

ekd ekd

Shallow water: As kd 0 , sinh k(d+y) k(d+y), sinh kd kd, so...

[sinh k(d+y)]/sinh kd (d + y)/d = height above bottom/depth
Deep water:
As kd , [sinh k(d+y)]/sinh kd eky
Stephen Martel

30-10

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

11

Appendix
Derivation of the small amplitude wave equation
(from Sorenson, R.M., 1978, Basic coastal engineering: Wiley, New York,
227 p.)
Small amplitude surface wave
L

H = 2A = wave height

Still water
level

Water depth = +d
y = -d

x
u

Depth above
bottom = d+y Particle
orbit

v
Particle
velocity

Modified from Sorensen, 1978

The original solution is attributed to Airy (Airy, C.B., 1845, On tides and
waves, in Encyclopedia Metropolitana, London, p. 241-396).
H
x t
= cos 2
(30A.1)
L T
2
or
H
cos 2 ( kx t)
2
where
2
k=
( wave number)
L
2
=
( wave angular frequency )
T
The flow normal to the sea bed is zero, so

v=
= 0 at y = d
y

(30A.2)

(30A.3)
(30A.4)

(30A.5)

This is the first boundary condition.

The unsteady Bernoulli equation for irrotational flow is
1 2
2 + gy + p + = 0
u
+
v
(30A.6)

2
t
where g = gravitational acceleration, p is the pressure, is fluid density,
and the last term is a dynamic pressure term associated with
Stephen Martel

30-11

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

12

accelerations. If the squares of the velocity terms are assumed to be

small relative to the other terms, and if the particle velocities are small
relative to the wave speed, then at the surface (i.e., at y = ), where the
pressure is taken as zero, the unsteady Bernoulli equation yields
1
y=
at y =
(30A.7)
g t
This yields the second boundary condition is at y=0,
1
=
at y = 0
g t

(30A.8)

The velocity potential should vary with depth, and should have the same
cycle as the wave. If the depth contribution (Y) can be separated from the
cyclic contribution (a common assumption in solving differential
equations), then the velocity potential would have the following form:
= Y sin( kx t)
(30A.9)
where Y = Y(y).
2 2
+
=0
2
2
x
y

Upon insertion of this function into the Laplace equation

(30A.10)

one obtains
2 Y sin( kx t)

x 2

) + 2 (Y sin(kx t)) = 0

(30A.11)

y 2

This simplifies first to

2 (sin( kx t))
2Y
Y
+ sin( kx t)
=0
x 2
y 2

(30A.12)

and then to
k 2Y sin( kx t) + sin( kx t)

2Y
2Y
= k 2Y +
=0
y 2
y 2

(30A.13)

The solution to this differential equation is well known

Y = Ae ky + Beky

(30A.14)
and can be verified by substitution into (30A.13). Substituting this into
(30A.9) yields a general solution of the Laplace equation .
= Ae ky + Beky sin( kx t)
(30A.15)
The two constants A and B now need to be solved for using the two
boundary conditions (30A.5) and (30A.8). Inserting (30A.15) into (30A.5)

Stephen Martel

30-12

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

13

Ae ky + Beky sin( kx t)
= 0 at y = d
v=
y

(30A.16)

or
k Aekd Be kd sin( kx t)
=0
v=
y

(30A.17)

The only way this can hold for all values of x and t is if
Aekd Be kd = 0

(30A.18)

or
A=B

e kd
ekd

(30A.19)

Inserting this back into (30A.15) yields with one unknown constant

e kd
e ky
eky
= B
e ky + Beky sin( kx t) = Be kd
+
sin( kx t)
(30A.20)
kd
kd e kd

e
e
or

= Be kd e k ( y + d ) + ek ( y + d ) sin( kx t)

(30A.21)

The term in the large parentheses equals 2cosh[k(d+y)], so

= Be kd (2cosh k ( y + d )) sin( kx t)
Now the form of the water surface is
H
x t
= cos 2
L T
2
So at t=0, x=0
H
=
2
Now the second boundary condition comes into play.
1
=
at y = 0
g t

(30A.22)
(30A.1)

(30A.23)

(30A.8)

So at t=0, x=0, and y=0

H 1
=
2
g t

(30A.24)

The derivative on the right side of (30A.24) is found from (30A.22)

(30A.25)
= Be kd (2cosh( kd )) cos( kx t)( )
t

Substituting this back into (30A.24)

H 1 kd
= Be (2 cosh( kd )) cos( kx t)( )
2
g
This is solved for Bek d most readily where cos(kx- t) =1:

Stephen Martel

30-13

(30.A26)

University of Hawaii

GG 454

March 31, 2002

gH
= Be kd
2 (2 cosh( kd ))

14

(30.A27)

This goes into (30A.22) to yield the expression for the velocity potential
gH
(30A.28)
=
(cosh k ( y + d)) sin(kx t)
2cosh[ kd ]
The wave speed (or celerity) is a key term we wish to find. We find it by
evaluating the vertical velocity at the surface in two ways. First, using
the expression for the water height above still water level
1
=
at y = 0
(30A.8)
g t
we obtain
1 2
v=
=
at y = 0
g t2
t

(30A.29)

Also the vertical velocity is given by

v=
y

(30A.30)

So at the surface
1 2
=
at y = 0
g t2 y

(30A.31)

Inserting (30A.28) , gives

gH
gH
2
(cosh k ( y + d)) sin(kx t)
(cosh k ( y + d)) sin(kx t)
2 cosh[ kd ]
1 2 cosh[ kd ]
=
at y = 0
y
g
t2
(30A.32)
Taking the derivatives yields
gH
gH
2
(cosh k ( y + d)) sin(kx t) = k
(sinh k ( y + d)) sin(kx t) at y = 0
g 2 cosh[ kd ]
2 cosh[ kd ]
(30A.33)
Now set y= 0, and solve for . Many terms can be dropped from both sides.
k sinh( kd )
= gk tanh( kd )
2 = g
(30A.34)
cosh k ( d )
Now the wave speed C = L/T = /k, so
gk tanh( kd )
g
gL
2d
C=
(30A.34)
=
tanh( kd ) =
tanh
k
k
2
L

Stephen Martel

30-14

University of Hawaii