978 1 58503 045 3

Orthographic
Projection
0.08 M A
8X
0.14 M
0.06 A
9.6
9.4
M42 X 1.5 - 6g
0.1 M B M
6.6
6.1
20.00 - 20.13
0.14
A C
B
44.60
44.45
9.6
9.4
25.5
25.4
31.8
31.6
0.1
36
34
8X 45
41.3
41.1
0.02
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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents
A C M
86
Unit
Engineering Graphics
Principles
A
7.9 - 8.1
Glossary
57.6
56.6
100
99
Copyright 2002
Brigham Young University
All Rights Reserved
Master Table of Contents
Slide 1
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Foreword
Orthographic projection (sometimes referred to as multi-view projection), is a geometric
procedure used in the engineering disciplines to project multiple graphic images of threedimensional objects, onto a single two-dimensional plane. The procedure is also called
engineering drawing or drafting, and is the primary means of communication used by
designers and engineers in the design process. Multiple views in an orthogonal orientation
(each rotated 90 from the other), is fundamental to the definition of feature and part
characteristicssuch as size, location, orientation, and functional relationships.
In its simplest form, orthographic projection provides a range of six orthographic-specific
views of an object. In your mind, imagine a physical stationary object that has been
suspended in the center of a glass cube. Each of the six sides of the box represents a viewing
or projection plane. The orientation of the observers line of sight must always be
perpendicular or normal to the planes on the glass box, and the sides of the box must also be
perpendicular to their adjacent sides. That being the case, the object could only be viewed
from the front, top, right side, left side, back, or bottom. With the images indelibly fixed on
the planes, and the box unfolded, the projected images or views would always be oriented
orthographically, and aligned with each other, from view to view on the drawing.
The process of orthographically projecting parts and/or feature characteristics is not
necessarily complicated, but it is complex. It is essential to the delineation of feature
geometry as an aide to the manufacturing process. This unit will give you practice using
these principles, and will increase your ability to understand and visualize the process.
Glossary
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How to Proceed
In order to produce mechanical parts, detailed design information must be provided to the
craftsmaninformation that defines and describes relevant geometry and relationships of
descriptive elements on the part. Graphic images or views, developed from specific
orientations, are major elements in this communication process. A primary objective of this
unit is to acquaint you with the process of generating multiple (albeit, geometrically
related) views of mechanical components. The basic theory, rationale, and production
techniques are presented in a systematic order. It is anticipated that you will complete this
unit in one or possibly two sessions (more time and practice may be required if you are new
to the science of engineering graphics).
Begin with a thoughtful preview of the unit objectives, and carefully consider the related
vocabulary words and terminology. As each topic is considered, keep in mind an overall
objective of being able to read an engineering drawing, or to construct correctly projected
views that would be required to describe part features, thus facilitating the manufacturing
process.
Follow each explanation, and practice each technique as outlined for solving orthographic
projection problems. Review concepts that seem unclear, and do each of the exercises that
are providedespecially the self assessment exercises at the end of the presentation. As
you complete the exercises, carefully compare your own sketched solutions with the those
provided, and review the governing principles where necessary.
Glossary
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Unit Objectives
When you have completed this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the principles upon which orthographic projection is based.
Recognize and identify horizontal, frontal, and profile planes in engineering drawings, and explain
their relationships to standard planes of projection.
Identify the six principal views which may be generated, using the concept of the viewing cube, and
explain their specific orientation and relationships to each other.
Identify normal, inclined, and oblique planes relative to the six principal projection planes.
Read an engineering drawing, and explain the necessity for creating multiple views.
Use graphic tools such as reference planes and fold lines to solve orthographic projection problems.
Apply standard line and view conventions on an engineering drawing.
Solve orthographic problems using at least two techniques of locating and applying data.
Explain and illustrate the differences between first- and third-angle projection.
Demonstrate the appropriate applications for center lines and hidden lines in multi-view drawings.
Glossary
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Topics:
Orthographic Projection -- Theory and Practice

Table of Contents
Terminology / Vocabulary
Orthographic Projection Theory (Third Angle Projection)
Glass Box Theory
Orientation of Object Features in Orthographic Projection
Directions and Orientation in Orthographic Projection
Orthographic Projection Principles Review
Orthographic Projection Theory (First Angle Projection)
Multi-view Projection Techniques
Miter Line (1)
To assist you in your study of the contents of
Miter Line (2)
Miter Line (3)
this presentation, a Table of Contents has
Miter Line (4)
been prepared. The topics listed are linked
Solid Example Problem
to the specific content by topic. When
Compass Projection Technique
selected with the mouse (in show mode), the
Projection Orientation -- View Selection
Pictorial Visualization
presentation materials will open at the
Measure and Transfer Method (1)
requested location. The navigation bar at
the bottom of the screen allows you to return
to this slide at any time. Similar tables have
Pictorial Visualization (Pyramid4a)
been included in all of the presentations that
follow.
An Alternative Solution (5a)
Inclined Surfaces in Orthographic Projection
Oblique Surfaces in Orthographic Projection
Additional Examples (Practice Problems in Orthographic Projection)
Concept Mastery Examination (Self Evaluation)
OrthographicProjection
ProjectionTable
TableofofContents
Contents
Orthographic
Glossary
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Orthographic Projection
Station Pointany location in 3-dimensional space that is infinitely displaced from the
object being viewed.
Line of Sight (LOS)the orientation of an observer relative to a specific object.
Projection Plane (also called a Viewing Plane or Picture Plane)the plane onto which
the image of an object is projected.
Visual Raysan infinite number of parallel theoretical projectors which emanate from
an object, to form the image of the object on the projection plane.
Pierce Pointsintersections created by theoretical visual rays as they pass through or
collide with a projection plane.
Graphic Imagea symbolic representation of a 3-dimensional part or assembly of
parts, or a schematic layout or organization of entities, projected onto a 2dimensional plane.
Normal Viewsviews of features or part characteristics that are oriented perpendicular
to the observers line of sight.
Contiguous Viewsadjacent, orthographically projected views of an object.
Orthogonal Viewsprojected, orthographically aligned views of an object.
Glossary
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Viewing CubeGlass Box concept; six projection planes configured as a cube.
Fold Linesthe representation of intersections between the sides of the viewing cube.
Reference Planesa base line for taking and applying measurements.
Principal Views also referred to as Primary Viewstypically the front, top, and right
side views.
Surface Viewsnon-normal views of feature surfaces that display 3-dimensional areas.
Edge Viewsall points on a planar surface aligned parallel to the line of sight.
Inclined Surfacesperpendicular to 2 of the 6 viewing planes; parallel to none.
Oblique Surfacesneither parallel nor perpendicular to any of the 6 viewing planes.
Line Weightsthere are three distinct line weights on engineering drawings; thin lines
approximately .007 - .010 wide, medium lines, approximately .015 - .020
wide, and thick lines approximately .030 - .040 wide.
Line Typesthere are many line types that are used on mechanical drawings, but there
are only six distinct line types that will be used in our discussions regarding
orthographic projection: construction, object, center, hidden, phantom, and
extension lines (also known as projection, or witness lines).
Glossary
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Orthographic Projection Theory

The basic theory of orthographic (third angle) projection, is that (1) objects are
viewed from a viewing station located an infinite distance from the object, (2) a
projection plane (often referred to as a viewing plane, or picture plane) is
established at some location between the eye of the observer and the object
perpendicular to the observers line of sight, (3) an infinite number of parallel
projectors, or visual rays, extend from the object to the projection plane, and (4) at
those points where the projectors pierce the projection plane, the two-dimensional
image of the object is created on the plane. The image, thus created, is what is
seen by the observer. It should be remembered, that the primary purpose served
by this multi-view projection process, is to generate the graphic images that are
required to understand and communicate the description or definitions of the
physical properties and characteristics of feature or part geometry.
Note: Complex geometry will likely have surfaces that would not be visible
when viewed from any specific location. Such surfaces are included in the
drawing using hidden linesconsisting of short dashes, drawn approximately 1/8
inch in length, separated by a space or gap that is approximately 1/16 inch. A
common industrial practice is to eliminate hidden lines in views, unless greater
clarity may be gained by their inclusion. In this course, however, you are required
to include hidden lines in all views.
Glossary
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Observation of an object begins with the direction from which the object is to be
viewedthe line of sight.
Glossary
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The viewing station for the observer is always an infinite distance from the object.
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Glossary
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The plane of projection is located between the viewing station and the object
(third angle projection).
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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The line of sight is always normal to the plane of projection
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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The object may be located anywhere behind the plane of projection
Object
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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Because the observation location is at infinity, parallel visual rays extend from the
object to the plane of projection, and produce the image on the projection plane.
Object
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Parallel Visual Rays
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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Viewing an Object From an Infinite

Distance
Assuming a position at infinity, and
looking towards the object, we would see
the image of the object on the projection
plane (notice the line contrast between
object, center and hidden lines).
Object
Line of Sight
Parallel Visual Rays

Projection Plane
Projection Plane
A permanent image of the
object is formed on the
projection plane by visual
rays as they pierce the
plane.
Glossary
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Visualizing orthographic views using pictorial views
Glossary
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Three-dimensional (pictorial) views of objects are frequently easier to understand than multi-view
orthographic projections of the same object. Sketching the object in a manner shown can often help students
visualize the details of the part. Students who are new to these concepts are encouraged to use sketches.
Glossary
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GLASS BOX CONCEPT
Glossary
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The glass box concept theorizes that an object is suspended inside a six-sided glass cube
(notice the use of hidden lines on the glass box, depicting lines that would not be visible
from the given perspective).
Glossary
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As the object is viewed from a specific orientation (perpendicular to one of the sides of the cube) visual
rays project from the object to the projection plane. These projectors are always parallel to each other.
Glossary
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The objects image is formed on the projection plane by the pierce points of the visual rays.
Glossary
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The process is repeated to construct the right side view on the profile plane
Glossary
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Similarly, the top view is projected

to the horizontal plane
Glossary
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For many three-dimensional objects, two to three orthographic views are sufficient
to describe their geometry.
Glossary
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The box can be unfolded to show the

multiple views in a single x-y plane
Glossary
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Because the observation point is located at

infinity, the integrity of feature size and
location are maintained, and the views are
oriented orthogonally in relationship to each
other.
TOP
RIGHT SIDE
FRONT
Glossary
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Notice that the projectors or extension lines, are

perpendicular to the folding lines of the glass box.
(Fold lines and extension lines are drawn very
lightly, when used, and are not part of the finished
drawing.)
TOP
RIGHT SIDE
FRONT
Glossary
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Dimensional Data Can then be

added to the drawing
It is important to note that all lines on engineering

drawings are the same densitythe same opacity
or darkness. The difference in line values is their
width, or thickness. There are 3 distinct line
weights to be aware of: object lines are thick
(approximately .030-.040 thick), hidden lines are
a medium thickness (.015-.020), and extension,
dimension, and center lines are thin (.007-.010).
Glossary
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The Glass Box Concept
Click on image to animate - click outside for next slide
Glossary
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ORIENTATION OF OBJECT FEATURES IN

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Glossary
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Object/Feature Orientation in Orthographic Projection

In each of the six principal orthographic views,
two specific dimensional characteristics are
provided
Glossary
Height = h
Width = w
Depth = d
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Directional Orientation in Orthographic Projection
Height = h
Width = w
Depth = d
TOP
Two or three views of a 3-dimensional

object are often sufficient for a complete
definition of part geometry. Width and
depth are displayed in the top view; height
and width in the front view, height and
depth in the side view.
d
w
FRONT
RIGHT SIDE
Glossary
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Directional Orientation in Orthographic Projection

TOP
Height = h
Width = w
Depth = d
Two of the three size characteristics are

displayed in each view. Because contiguous
views are always projected 90 to each
other, all three dimension characteristics can
be displayed in a single two-dimensional
plane.
FRONT
RIGHT SIDE
Glossary
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DIRECTION AND ORIENTATION

IN
(PRINCIPAL PROJECTION PLANES)
Glossary
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BACK
Direction and Orientation
(Behind, or in
back of)
LEFT
(To the left of)
RIGHT
(To the right of)
In each projection plane, specific directional

orientation is described.
FRONT
(Forward, or in
front of)
H
F
UP
LEFT
RIGHT
(To the left of)
DOWN
(Above, or
on top of)
(To the right of)
(Below, beneath,
or lower than)
(Above, or on
top of)
UP
FRONT
BACK
(Forward, or in
front of)
DOWN
Glossary
(Behind, or
in back of)
(Below, beneath
or lower than)
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REVIEW
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION PRINCIPLES
(Third-Angle Projection)
Glossary
Slide 36
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Review

REMEMBER,
For Third-Angle Projection Solutions,
The viewing station is an infinite distance from the object.

The line of sight is always perpendicular to projection plane.
The projection plane is always between the object and viewing station.
Visual rays are always perpendicular to the projection plane.
Projectors (visual rays for a specific view) must always be parallel to each other, and
perpendicular to projectors from adjacent views.
Glossary
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FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION
Glossary
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First-Angle Projection
The basic difference between third- and first-angle projection is that in first-angle
projection, the object is placed between the observer and the projection plane.
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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The image is always projected onto the projection plane, but in the case of first-angle
projection, it is actually projected away from, instead of towards the observer. The
image would be projected directly behind the object in each case.
Object
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
at Infinity
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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The image of the front view is formed as the projectors intersect the projection plane. It is
important to note that the front view actually ends up behind the back surface of the object.
Let me try to illustrate the concept using three planes of the glass box theory.
Object
Line of Sight
Viewing Station
an infinite distance
from the object
Projectors
(Visual Rays)
Projection Plane
(Picture Plane
Viewing Plane)
Glossary
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Object oriented in first-angle

projection framework
An illustration of
first-angle
projection. (The
traditional horizontal
(top), frontal, and
profile (right side)
panels of the glass
box have been
removed for clarity.)
You are looking
down on the
remaining three
sides of the boxa
birds eye view.
Glossary
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Object oriented in first-angle

projection framework
An object has been

suspended in the glass
box. Top, front, and
right side views will be
generated using firstangle projection.
= Line of Sight
Glossary
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First Angle Projection
The yellow arrow indicates the line

of sight. The image of the front
view is projected to the projection
plane behind the object.
Front View
Glossary
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The top (horizontal) view is projected from above the object but is created on the plane
below.
Front View
Horizontal
or Top View
Glossary
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As with the previous two projections, the right side view is projected to the opposite side of the
glass box.
Front View
Profile or
Right Side
View
Horizontal
or Top View
Glossary
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Profile or
Right Side
View
The reference frame can be

unfolded to show the multiple
views in a single X-Y plane
Front View
First-angle projection requires that

the box unfold away from the
observer rather than towards the
observer.
Horizontal
or Top View
Glossary
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Profile or
Right Side
View
The reference frame can be

unfolded to show the multiple
views in a single X-Y plane
As the box becomes fully twodimensional, the differences

between first- and third-angle
projection become obvious. The
views are reversed in their order
from third-angle projection; the top
view is below the front view and the
right side view is to the left of the
front view. If they had been
developed, the left side would be to
the right of the front view, the
bottom view would be above the
front view, and the back or aft view
would be associated with any view
other than the front view.
Front View
Horizontal
or Top View
Glossary
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The United States and Canada are the only two major countries that use thirdangle projection. All other industrial nations throughout the world use first-angle
projection. It is important that you understand the differences because many U.S.
companies are now internationally established. They will expect you to be able to
read and interpret either method used in engineering documentation.
Right Side View
Front
View
Top
View
Glossary
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MULTI-VIEW
PROJECTION TECHNIQUES
Glossary
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Orthographic ProjectionExample Number 1

This is an example of how to use a miter (45) line to assist in constructing an
orthographic solution for the top or horizontal view. The front and right side
views are given.
Glossary
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Explanations regarding solution techniques may vary between instructors, but the
results are the same. Verify the projection by placing extension lines between the
end points of the lineview to view, and label the points (care should be taken to
label the separate views consistently).
Glossary
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Establish a fold line somewhere between the views (make certain that the fold line
is perpendicular to the projection lines between the two views). Although the fold
line does not necessarily have to be between the two views, the problem is
simplified by placing it there. Later on, we will discuss placement alternatives.
Glossary
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A second fold line should be constructed perpendicular to the first, at some

convenient location, and extended to overlap both front and side views.
Glossary
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At the point where the two fold lines intersect, insert a 45 miter line. The miter
line serves to rotate points 90.
Glossary
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Project the points that define the line (1,2), in the right side view, in a direction
that is perpendicular to the fold line that is between the view and the 45 miter
line. Remember, when developing a new view, projectors between the views must
always be perpendicular to the fold lines that separate the two views.
Glossary
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The point formed by the intersection on the 45 miter line is then projected across
the vertical fold line into the horizontal view.
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 from the front view into the horizontal (top) view. Notice
that an intersection is formed by this projection line and the horizontal line
projected from the point on the 45 miter line.
Glossary
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Where the two projectors intersect, is the point (end) view of line 1,2. All of the
points are now accounted for in all three views. Label the points.
Glossary
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From a viewing position above the fold line, with the line of sight perpendicular to the
projection plane (represented by the fold line), point 1 would be closer to your eye.
Thus, point 1 is in front of point 2 in the labeling of the horizontal or top view.
1,2
Glossary
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Miter Line Technique (Example Number 2)
Glossary
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The front and side views of line 1,2 are given. Construct the horizontal or top
view of the line. Begin by verifying the projection. This is done by placing
extension (projection) lines between the views connecting the points.
Glossary
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Position a fold line at some convenient location between the views. Remember, in
every case where fold lines are constructed between adjacent orthographic views,
they must be perpendicular to the projectors.
Glossary
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At some location along the vertical fold line, construct a horizontal fold line.
Glossary
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Construct a miter (45) line through the intersection of the two fold lines.
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 from the right side view, up to intersect with the miter line.
Glossary
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At the points where the intersections are formed on the miter line, project lines
into the horizontal (top) view.
Glossary
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From the front view, project points 1 and 2 into the horizontal view to complete
the projection of the line.
Glossary
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Where the projectors intersect in the horizontal view, you have located points 1
and 2. Label and join the points together to complete the projection.
Glossary
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Clean up the drawing by eliminating the construction lines.
Glossary
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The resulting views represent the correct solution for the top, front, and right side
view of line 1,2.
Glossary
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Miter Line TechniqueExample Number 3

This drawing represents the top and front views of a line. Construct the right side
viewusing the miter line technique. Label the end points on the line.
Glossary
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Verify the projection of the two views by extending parallel lines which connect
the points of the line.
Glossary
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Construct a fold line between and perpendicular to the views of the line.
Glossary
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Next, construct a second fold line perpendicular to the horizontal one, thus
establishing the location for the right side view.
Glossary
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Establish the miter line through the point of intersection of the two fold lines.
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 in the top view horizontally across the fold line until they
intersect with the miter line.
Glossary
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From the intersections on the miter line, construct projectors vertically across the
horizontal fold line into the right side view.
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 from the front view, across the vertical fold line, into the
right side view.
Glossary
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Where the projectors from the top and front views intersect, you have located
points 1 and 2 in 3-D space. Point 1 lines up with and projects to point 1, and
point 2 likewise, lines up with and projects to point 2 in all other views. Notice
that they project in a completed rectangle. In the strictest order of six-view, glass
box projection theory, this will always be the case. Join and label
the points.
2
Glossary
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Clean up the drawing by removing the projection lines between the views.
Glossary
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The drawing is now complete, showing the front, top, and right side views of the
line.
Glossary
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Miter Line TechniqueExample Number 4

In this problem, front and top views of a skewed planar triangle in 3-D space is given.
An orthographic projection of the right side view is required. Verify the projection.
Glossary
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Set up the right side view by constructing a projection plane.
2
3
Glossary
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Establish an appropriate miter line.
2
3
Glossary
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Project the points from both views into the right side view.
2
3
Glossary
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Connect the points the same way they are connected in the parent views.
2
3
Glossary
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Clean up the construction lines.
2
3
Glossary
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The required right side view is now complete.
Glossary
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Miter Line FlexibilityA Solid Object

Front and right side views are given. Use a reference plane off of the back of the
object to determine the location of the miter line, and project the top view of this
solid object.
Glossary
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Project vertically from the front view.
Glossary
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Project the back surface vertically from the right side view.
Glossary
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Establish a horizontal line at a reasonable location along these projectors.
Glossary
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Where the two projectors (representing the back surface) intersect, construct a 45 line.
Glossary
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Project the front surface from the right side view until it intersects with the miter
line, then project the point of intersection to the horizontal view to complete the
boundary outline of the top view.
Glossary
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The boundary in the top view can be established with object lines, and the
drawing cleaned up.
Glossary
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From the profile (right side) view, project the vertical surface to the miter line, and
then to the top view.
Glossary
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The drawing can now be cleaned up by removing the construction lines.
Glossary
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Glossary
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COMPASS PROJECTION METHOD
Glossary
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This problem depicts the verified front and side views of the part. Follow the
same projection technique as in the last problem, but use the front surface to
establish the 45 miter line.
Glossary
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A point is established at the intersection of the projection from the front surface in
both the top and right side views. Project the back surface in the right side view
to intersect with the horizontal projection of the front surface from the top view.
Glossary
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Center your compass on the intersection of the front surface projectors, with a
setting equal to the distance from that point to the intersection formed by the
projection of the back surface from the right side view. Construct the arc to
intersect with the vertical projection of the front surface in the right side view.
Glossary
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Project the back and vertical surface into the top view.
Glossary
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With the boundaries of the top view established, we can clean up the view. Also,
project the features in the right side view, set your compass to the proper radius,
and complete the top view.
Glossary
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Complete the drawing by removing all of the construction lines.
Glossary
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Glossary
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VIEW SELECTION
AND
SOLUTION BY PROJECTION
Glossary
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Selecting as the front view the orientation that reveals the most detail about the part,
minimizes the requirements for additional detail projection methods. In this example, for
instance, the same part can be projected without the use of a miter line.
Glossary
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Assuming that the depth is known, and the holes centered on the part, all of the
features of the part can be adequately defined without the use of the miter line.
Glossary
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PICTORIAL VISUALIZATION
Glossary
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Sketching is a quick and easy method of solving many orthographic projection

problems. In many cases, you can start with a rectangular prism and remove those
portions of the block that do not apply. Begin by placing the appropriate views on
the surface of the block.
Glossary
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Ordinarily, the frontal plane of a technical illustration is on the left side of the
block, and the profile view (right side) is to the right of the frontal plane.
Glossary
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Sketch in the surfaces that are against the boundaries of the block in both the top
and the right side views. And complete the sketch by joining the lines that would
form the intersections of the planes on the part.
Glossary
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If necessary, at this point, you can remove the lines from the sketch that would
have been removed if the model was made from clay or soap.
Glossary
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Your 3-dimensional sketch is now complete, and shows all of the lines necessary
to define the part.
Glossary
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MEASURE AND TRANSFER

METHOD
Example Number 1
Glossary
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The Measure and Transfer Method for

Solving Orthographic Projection Problems
Up to this point, we have talked about developing orthographic views of objects
that can be defined within the standard 6 projection planes on the viewing cube. A
common thread running through all of the methods discussed and illustrated, is the
use of a 45 miter line. This method is used most often by students who are new
to the science of graphics, because of its usefulness in displaying and defining
objects whose geometry is oriented normal to the various projection planes.
However, when surfaces on an object are inclined or oblique with reference to a
projection plane, and details on such surfaces need to be defined in normal views
(which will not result in one of the 6 standard views), the miter line concept is not
a suitable alternative. Our attention needs to be directed to a system of view
development that will work under any circumstanceswhether or not the
resulting views are of the standard six. This method of arriving at projection
solutions is referred to as the measure and transfer method.
Glossary
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Measure and Transfer

Two orthogonal views of a line are given. We will construct the horizontal or top
view of the line, without using the 45 miter line.
Glossary
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Identify the end points of each view of the line by labeling them. Verify the
projection of the two views by extending parallel projectors between the two
views.
Glossary
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Next, add a fold line at some location between the views. Remember, the fold line
represents the projection plane onto which the image has been projected, when the
observer is an infinite distance from the lines. Remember also, that the fold line
must always be perpendicular to the projectors.
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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Add a second fold line that is perpendicular to the vertical fold line, and will
separate the top view from the front view.
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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Project points 1 and 2 in the front view across the fold line, into the horizontal
plane.
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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Measure the distances from the vertical fold line to the points in the right side
view, and transfer them into the horizontal view by measuring from the horizontal
fold line to ascertain the position of points 1 and 2 in the top view.
1
1
2
2
Glossary
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A rule worth remembering is that any measurement, from a reference plane or fold
line separating the front and right side views, to any point in the right side view,
will always be duplicated in the top or horizontal view when taken from its
horizontal fold line or reference plane. Now, simply joint the points together with
a line.
b
a
a
2
2
Glossary
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The drawing is now complete with a correct solution, and can now be cleaned up.
b
1
a
a
2
2
Glossary
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Note: Fold lines and reference planes are not present in the final drawing. They
are included here so that you can see the logic of their relationships to the
different views.
Glossary
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METHOD
Example Number 2
Glossary
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Measure and Transfer Technique

Reminder:
A newly projected view is constructed by measuring data points in one view from
its reference plane, and applying them in the new viewrelative to its reference
plane. This process always follows the same procedure; by pivoting around (or
skipping) one intermediate view.
To demonstrate this principle, we will solve a similar single-line problem. This
time, however, we will construct the right-side view by taking data from the top
view.
Glossary
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Front and top views of the line are given. You are required to complete the drawing by
adding the right side view of the line. The same basic principles we have practiced before
are followed again to reinforce the concepts. First, extend the projectors between the
views to verify that the projection is accurate (projectors are always parallel to each other,
perpendicular to the fold line, and will line up with the points in each of the two views).
Label the points.
Glossary
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2
1
A second fold line or reference plane needs to be constructedperpendicular to

the first one. At some point along the horizontal fold line, insert a vertical fold
line. This step determines the direction for the projection of the right side view.
Glossary
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2
1
Project the points 1 and 2 from the front view across the vertical fold line into the
area where you will be constructing the right side view. Remember, projectors
must always be perpendicular to the fold line (this rule never changes).
Glossary
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Measure the distances to points 1 and

2 from the horizontal fold line
(between the front and top views).
Then, transfer those measurements
into the new right side view by
measuring from the vertical fold line.
[My personal approach to this type of
problem is to refer to the intermediate
view as the view in the middle.] You
will notice that the orientation, as well
as the measurements, are replicated in
the two views that surround the pivot
view. This is a standing principle that
will not change.
Glossary
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With the data points established in the right side view, join them together as in the
other views, label them appropriately, and remove the construction lines.
b
2
a
a
2
1
Glossary
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Continue to clean up the drawing by deleting projectors and point labels.
Glossary
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Once again, we have let the fold/reference lines remain for visualization purposes.
Remember, however, they are not included in the final drawing.
Glossary
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METHOD
Example Number 3
Glossary
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Measure and TransferExample Number 3

Solving problems involving single lines can help us understand the concepts, but
the process becomes more interesting as the problems become more complex.
The next set of problems requires the development of orthographic solutions that
have more lines involved. In fact, they are solid, 3-dimensional objects with
specific form and mass. (Remember, if it seems confusing at first, you can reduce
most problems to a one-line-at-a-time solution procedure if necessary.)
Glossary
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The views in this problem represent a

single solid object. The front and top
views are complete as shown. The right
side view of the object is required.
Because this is the first solid object we
have had to solve, we will examine in
some detail, the procedure followed to find
a correct solution.
Glossary
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If I was given this problem to solve, I

would first want to know that all of the
points and lines in the two views are
aligned properlyin other words, I would
verify the projection. Do you understand
how to do that? First, I will extend parallel
projectors between the two views,
connecting the known corresponding
points. I will then place a fold line
between the viewsproperly oriented in
reference to the projectors. Do you
remember the relationships between
projectors and fold lines? I will also
consistently number the points in both
views that I think will be significant in
solving the problem.
Glossary
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The relationship of fold lines to projectors never

changes. They must always be perpendicular to
each other. While some rules of geometric
construction will be modified to expand the range
of possible view orientations, this rule never fails
in orthographic projectionand all of its
auxiliary extensions. Now, with this step
completed, add a vertical fold line to
accommodate the addition of the right side view.
Remember, fold lines are always

Perpendicular to projectors
Glossary
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Reflecting back on the glass box concept,

you will remember that when we restrict
our projection planes to the 6 planes on a
cube (the standard views), the fold lines
must be normal or perpendicular to each
other. Project the known boundary lines
and data points from the front view into
the area where the right side view will be
constructed.
Glossary
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Measure from the horizontal fold line to the front

and back surfaces as displayed in the top view,
and transfer those data points to the right side
viewrelative to its fold line.
Glossary
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Measure from the fold line to the frontal

plane in the top view, and transfer the
measurement along one of the projectors
into the right side view (relative to the
vertical fold line). This will establish the
front surface in the side view.
Glossary
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Repeat the procedure but measure to the back surface in the top view. Then transfer the
linear distance into the right side view (relative to the vertical fold line), to establish the
location of the back surface of the object in the right side view.
z
x
z
Glossary
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Next, determine the location of the line in the center of the top view by measuring
carefully from the horizontal fold line, and transfer that linear distance into the right side
view, applying it relative to the vertical fold line. Also, project the intermediate line from
the front view to the right side view.
z
x
z
Glossary
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Label all of the significant points in all three views, starting with the horizontal or
top view.
z
x
y
y
x
z
Glossary
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When labeling points, always place the one that is closest to the projection plane first in the order. Points 1 and
7 represent a line which is viewed from the end. Because point 1 is closest to the projection plane in the top
view, it is identified in front of point 7. The same rule applies to points 5 and 6, and 4 and 8 in the top view.
Locate the points in the front and right side views.
3
4, 8
5 6
5,
1, 7
z
9
y
y
x
z
Glossary
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Notice that some points are not labeled. Points are labeled only if they are significant to
the solution of the problem. Examine the views to ascertain whether or not all points in
the right side view are connected the same as they are connected in the front and top
views.
3
2
4, 8
5, 6
z
9
1, 7
y
y
x
1, 2
4, 3
4, 5
3, 2
8, 6
9, 7
z
Glossary
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In the front view, points 4 and 8 are connected, as are points 5 and 6. In both the top and
the front views, points 6 and 7 are connected as are points 8 and 9. Connect them in the
right side view.
3
4, 8
5, 6
z
9
1, 7
y
y
x
1, 2
4, 3
4, 5
3, 2
8, 6
9, 7
z
Glossary
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Connecting the points in the right side view, the same as they are connected in the
parent views, completes the problem solution. There are no missing lines in any
of the 3 views. A pictorial view of the object will help you to visualize the object.
3
4, 8
5, 6
z
9
1, 7
y
y
x
1, 2
4, 3
4, 5
3, 2
8, 6
9, 7
z
Glossary
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This slide depicts the three orthographic views of the object;

front, top, and right side, plus a pictorial view showing all three
projection planes in one axonometric view.
Glossary
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Problem Number 3 Animation

If you are in Show Mode, you can activate the animation of the previous problem by a
single click within the black area on the screen. If you are not in Show Mode, you can
activate the animation with a double click within the black area on the screen. You may
run the animation as many times as you desire. The animation can be stopped by a single
click of the mouseanywhere on the screen. If the animation is stopped by clicking the
mouse when the cursor is inside the black area, however, a second click will be required
outside the darkened area to resume the presentation.
click on image to animate - click outside for next slide

Glossary
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METHOD
Example Number 4
Glossary
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This problem represents another solid object. The front and right side views are
complete as shownno lines are missing in either view. You are to project the
top view from the information provided in the two given views. Begin by
extending the projectors between the two given views, to verify the projection.
Glossary
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In this example, we will use a reference plane instead of a fold line. Remember
that typically, a reference plane either contacts the object, or passes through it.
Lets establish the reference plane through the center of the object in the right side
view.
Glossary
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Construct a second reference plane, perpendicular to the first, that will pass
through the center of the object in the top or horizontal view.
Glossary
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Project the points (intersections) from the front view into the top view.
Glossary
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The Concept of the View in the Middle

The orthographic principle of measure and transfer does not change when a
reference plane is used in place of a fold line. However, there is one change that
may be required. Remember that a geometric rule demands that all points
(relative to their reference plane or fold line) in the view being constructed, must
be exactly the same in their orientation relative to the reference plane or fold line
in the view from which they are taken. In other words, the relationship of points
to their reference plane in a top view, must be exactly the same as the relationship
of points to their reference plane in the view from which the information is taken.
In this case the front view is the middle view about which the information is
measured and applied. If measurements are taken toward the view in the middle
to obtain the data points, you must also apply the data by measuring toward the
view in the middle to apply the measurement. Similarly, if you measure away
from the view in the middle to acquire the data points, you must also measure
away from the view in the middle to apply the data. The concept of the view in
the middle is significant, and will be used frequently throughout this unit and the
next. One final note concerning the view in the middle; the view in the middle is
always the view from which a new view is being projected .
Glossary
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To establish the boundaries of the top view, take measurements from the reference
plane in the right side view, to the outer limits (front and back) on the baseline or
bottom of the part.
Glossary
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Notice that the measurements d1 and d2 are taken in opposite directions.

Measurement d1 is taken by measuring from the reference plane towards the view
in the middle (the front view), whereas the measurement d2 is taken by measuring
from the reference plane, moving away from the view in the middle. These
measurements must be applied in precisely the same orientation relative the their
reference plane in the top view.
d2
d1
Glossary
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The distance d1 is applied by measuring from the reference plane towards the front view (the view in
the middle), while distance d2 is applied from the reference plane, but in a direction oppositeaway
from the front view. Heavy up the outline of size boundaries in the top view, clean up the drawing and
label all of the points.
d2
d1
d2
d1
Glossary
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Examine the drawing views to ensure that all of the points are connected
consistently in all three views. For example, points 4 and 5 in the right side view
(and front view) are connected with a line. Construct a line in the top view that
connects points 4 and 5. Likewise follow through with all of the other points, to
show connecting lines where intersections of planes occur in the top view.
1
2
5
3, 1
4, 2
4, 3
Glossary
2, 1
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The correct projection of the top view in this problem is now complete. All points
and lines are shown in all views, and have been verified using a reference plane.
2
5
3, 1
4, 2
4, 3
Glossary
2, 1
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A pictorial view of this problem, which is a 4sided pyramid, can assist in visualizing the
characteristics of the model.
Glossary
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If you are in Show Mode, you can activate an orthographic projection animation of
the previous problem by a single click within the black area on the screen. If you
are not in Show Mode, you can activate the animation with a double click within
the black area on the screen. You may run the animation as many times as you
desire. The animation can be stopped by a single click of the mouseanywhere
on the screen. If the animation is stopped by clicking the mouse when the cursor
is inside the black area, however, a second click will be required outside the
darkened area to resume the presentation.

Glossary
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PICTORIAL VISUALIZATION
Problem Number 4a
Glossary
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Sketching a solution, by removing pieces from a rectangular prism, can clarify

uncertainties about specific orthographic views of an object. In the case of the 4sided pyramid, for instance, locate the center of the block on the top surface, and
remove the front portion which extends down to the baseline in the frontal plane.
Glossary
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Remove the back portion in the same way, creating a triangular prism.
Glossary
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Next, locate the center point along the ridge at the top, and remove the portion
extending from that point to the baseline on the right side.
Glossary
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Finally, remove the left portion of the object in the same way you removed the
right side; from the mid-point on the top ridge line to the base of the left side of
the object.
Glossary
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The finished sketch or model, depicted in a 3-dimensional illustration, leaves little

doubt about the characteristics of the object.
Glossary
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It should be clear to you now that when viewed from the front and right side, the
resulting views appear as triangles.
Glossary
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The complete set of 3 orthographic views and one axonometric

(pictorial) view, provides the means for a full definition the
characteristics of the objectin sufficient detail that the part
could be produced.
Glossary
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METHOD
Example Number 5
Glossary
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In this example, we will once again use a reference plane. The

two views that are shown in the illustration are complete (no
lines are missing in either view). The right side view is
required. The projection has been verified, and the horizontal
reference plane correctly positioned. Construct the reference
plane to project the right side view.
Glossary
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Project all relevant points from the front view into the right side view. Remember the
strict orientation between projectors and reference planes.
Glossary
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Reference planes are effective in many ways. One

advantage they provide is that measurements need
not be taken and transferred for locating points that
lie on the reference plane. The front surface in the
top view is on the reference plane. Therefore, the
front surface in the right side view must also be on its
reference plane.
Glossary
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Measure the distance from the horizontal reference plane to the back surface in the
top view, and transfer that distance to the right side viewrelative to the vertical
reference plane.
Glossary
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In similar fashion, transfer all of the data points from the top view into the right
side view, and using the projections from the front view, complete the boundaries of
the right side view.
Glossary
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Next, label all of the significant points and intersections in the top view and identify the
corresponding points in the front and right side views.
a
b
a
b
Glossary
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Carefully examine the front and top views to determine

which points are joined by connecting lines. Complete
the right side view by connecting the same points that
are connected in the front and top views.
1, 2
3, 2
Glossary
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Notice the interconnectivity of points 3, 4, and 5 in the top

and front views. Completing the right side view requires
that these points be joined by connecting linesthe same
as in the parent views. This is the most obvious solution.
An alternative solution to this problem also exists,
however, which we will consider presently.
1, 2
3, 2
Glossary
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Once again, a pictorial view adds clarity to the

orthographic solution to this problem.
Glossary
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If you are in Show Mode, you can activate an orthographic projection animation of the
previous problem by a single click within the black area on the screen. If you are not in
Show Mode, you can activate the animation with a double click within the black area on
the screen. You may run the animation as many times as you desire. The animation can be
stopped by a single click of the mouseanywhere on the screen. If the animation is
stopped by clicking the mouse when the cursor is inside the black area, however, a second
click will be required outside the darkened area to resume the presentation.

Glossary
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AN ALTERNATE SOLUTION
TO THE SAME PROBLEM
Example Problem 5a
Glossary
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3, 6
One might determine that another point or intersection (point 6)

could exist in the top view, below point number 3. Considering
that possibility, point 6 has been located in the front view, behind
point 5, and on the back surface in the right side view as shown.
1, 2
5, 6
5
Glossary
3, 2
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3, 6
Verify that all of the points joined together with lines in the top and
front views are also connected in the right side view. Notice that
points 4 and 6 are also connected in the top and front views. Connect
points 4 and 6 in the right side view for an alternate solution.
1, 2
5, 6
5
Glossary
3, 2
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The alternate solution is valid, and has application in a

study of orthographic projection principles. However,
part function would determine the design before any
drawing was created. This exercise is given simply to
demonstrate the geometric possibilities that existbased
upon how points and lines are perceived on the drawing.
4
6
Glossary
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The pictorial (in addition to the orthographic views)

assists us in perceiving an alternate right side view
solution. This is an example of a need for 3 views to
define and control part geometry.
Glossary
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Problem Number 5 Animation (Alternative Solution)

If you are in Show Mode, you can activate an orthographic projection animation of the
alternative solution by a single click within the black area on the screen. If you are not in
Show Mode, you can activate the animation with a double click within the black area on the
screen. You may run the animation as many times as you desire. The animation can be
stopped by clicking the mouse when the cursor is inside the black area, however, a second
click will be required outside the darkened area to resume the presentation.

Glossary
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INCLINED SURFACES IN
Example Number 6
Glossary
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(Inclined Surfaces)
A
B
C
The top and right side views are complete as shown (no missing lines).
Complete the front view. Note: Surfaces A, B, and C are inclined surfaces
Glossary
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Inclined Surfaces
From earlier discussions on the subject of inclined surfaces in orthographic
projection, you will recall that an inclined surface is one that is not parallel to any
of the six principle planes on the viewing cube, but it is perpendicular to two of
them. (Whenever a surface is oriented in 3-dimensional space so that it is
perpendicular to one of the six projection planes in the viewing cube (glass box
concept), it logically follows that it would also be perpendicular to the opposite
plane.) Therefore, it would be perpendicular to two of the six planes which make
up the cube. A principle you must remember is that an inclined surface will
always appear as an edge view in those views where it is perpendicular to its
projection plane. In this next problem, we are required to construct a right side
view of an object that has three inclined, planar surfaces. The top and right side
views are complete as shown. The fact that surfaces A, B, and C are inclined in
this problem, limits the possibility of a correct answer to one. Remember, an
inclined surface, in orthographic projection, will display as an edge view of the
surface in one out of every three contiguous orthographic views.
Glossary
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Given this problem to solve, I would project the points identified in the top view,
into the front view, and extend the top surface in the front view to comply with the
projection form the top view.
A
B
C
Glossary
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Project the lines defining and delimiting the right side view into the front view.
A
B
C
Glossary
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Label the points on the highest surface in the top view and transfer the data to the front and right side views. The height
of the object is given in both the front and right side views. Notice that the left side of the front view displays the full
height of the objectas determined by the right side view. For the time, label only the left portion of the top view.
A
B
C
Glossary
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Where no hidden lines are given in the top view, which by definition is a complete
view, we are assured that the bottom of the object will fall directly underneath the
outline of the top surface (object lines always take precedence over all other lines
on the drawing). So, extend the bottom surface to the same size extents as the top
surface.
2
4
1
1,2
4,1
3,2
A
B
C
Glossary
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A basic principle regarding inclined planes is that they will always display as edge views in
one out of three contiguous orthographic views. Notice that points 4 and 3 are separated in
the front view, along the top surface. That fact alone denies the possibility of an edge view of
surface A in the front view. Therefore, lets presume that the edge view of surface A is in the
top view, and assign labels beneath points 3 and 4 in addition to other points defining the top
2
3
view.
4
1
1,2
4,1
3,2
A
B
C
Glossary
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Points 5, 6, 7, and 8 are all on the same horizontal plane. They are also depicted
connected. Construct a line from point 5 through point 8 in the front view. Also,
based upon the conclusion that the bottom is exactly the same as the top, connect
all of the points on the line directly below points 5 through 8 in the front view.
2
3
6
4
1
1,2
6 7
4, 1
8
7, 5
3, 2
8, 6
B
C
Glossary
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Lines 3, 6 and 4, 5 are shown to be connected in the top view and right side views.
Connect them in the front view to display surface A. Also, because no hidden lines are
present in the complete top view, we have presumed that the bottom surface has the same
characteristics as the top. Therefore, connect the lines that would imply intersections on
surface C, and show this surface.
2
3
6
4
1
1,2
6 7
4, 1
8
7, 5
3, 2
8, 6
B
C
Glossary
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Complete the projection drawing of the orthographic views by adding the object
lines in the front view, depicting the intersections shown in the top view, and
outlining the extents of surface B.
A
B
Glossary
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Understanding that surfaces A, B, and C are inclined, and given the fact that the
top and right side views (as shown) are complete, and no lines are missing in
either, the front view solution is limited to the one we have constructed. Had the
surfaces been oblique, several possible solutions could have been considered.
A
B
Glossary
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A pictorial sketch, in addition to the orthographic views can assist us in our

interpretation of the solution of this problem.
A
B
Glossary
Slide 204
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If you are in Show Mode, you can activate an orthographic projection animation of this
problem by a single click within the black area on the screen. If you are not in Show
Mode, you can activate the animation with a double click within the black area on the
screen. You may run the animation as many times as you desire. The animation can be
stopped by clicking the mouse when the cursor is inside the black area, however, a
second click will be required outside the darkened area to resume the presentation.
click on
image to
animate click outside
for next slide
Glossary
Slide 205
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OBLIQUE SURFACES IN
Example Number 7
Glossary
Slide 206
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Front and top views of this oblique planar surface are given. They are complete as shown.
You are to construct the right side view. To demonstrate the compatibility of the reference
plane and the 45 miter line, both techniques will be shown.
Glossary
Slide 207
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Reaching back to an earlier part of this unit, you will recall that as we discussed inclined
and oblique surfaces, the principle was emphasized that oblique planar surfaces are neither
parallel nor perpendicular to any of the six normal (principal) projection planes in the
viewing cube. This is significant because the true shape and size of geometric
characteristics and features on parts are shown only in normal views. Oblique lines are
foreshortened. They do not display true lengths, and therefore, the true sizes and shapes of
features are not displayed in oblique views.
Glossary
Slide 208
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To complete the right side view, using both a miter line and the measure and transfer
method, you will have to create a reference plane somewhere on or through the object.
For simplification, construct a reference plane that is associated with the frontal line on
the surface in both views.
Glossary
Slide 209
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Verify the projection by extending the points from the top view into the front
view. Remember, projectors (extension lines) between views must be
perpendicular to the reference plane or fold line set between the views.
Glossary
Slide 210
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To demonstrate the consistency between

techniques of projection, add a 45 line at the
intersection of the reference planes, and project
the points from the top view through the 45
degree line, and down into the right side view.
Glossary
Slide 211
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Labeling points can be very helpful. Label the points in the top view and transfer
them to the front view.
Glossary
Slide 212
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Verify the consistency of the two systems of projection by measuring the points
from the reference plane in the top view, and transferring the locations into the
right side view from its reference plane.
3
6
4
5
2
7
4
1
Glossary
Slide 213
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Having verified the point locations in the right side view, connect the points in the
same way they are connected in the front and top (parent) views.
3
6
4
5
2
7
2
4
4
6
Glossary
Slide 214
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The right side view is completeand correct. Both measure and transfer, and use
of the miter line, work well to produce views that would be projected in a line of
sight that is perpendicular to the projection plane on the viewing cube (glass box).
3
6
4
5
2
7
2
4
4
6
Glossary
Slide 215
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To provide a better understanding how the surface could be viable and actually
exist on a part, a block has been added to the surface to illustrate the relationship
of the surface to the part.
Glossary
Slide 216
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The visual images in this animation are produced slightly different than the others. An
actual orthographic image is burned onto the screen, showing the actual orthographic
projection from the various positions, as the part rotates through the procedure. Run it
enough times that you are comfortable with the principles involved.

Glossary
Slide 217
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Oblique Surfaces
Glossary
Slide 218
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An oblique surface is
one that is neither
parallel nor
perpendicular to any of
the 6 principal planes on
the viewing cube. All
of the surfaces on the
object in the center of
the viewing cube are
parallel and
perpendicular to at least
two of the projection
planes on the cube
except the corner that
has been removed.
Normal views of all
surfaces except the
oblique plane would
result in all six
projection planes.
Oblique Surfaces
Glossary
Slide 219
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A front view projection results in a normal view of all but the oblique plane.
Glossary
Slide 220
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Because the oblique surface is not parallel to the projection plane, some of the lines on the
image will be foreshortened, thus the true size and shape view of the oblique surface will
not display on the projection plane.
Glossary
Slide 221
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A similar problem is encountered in the right side view of the object. A majority
of the surface will be displayed in true size and shape. But the oblique view will
be foreshortened.
Glossary
Slide 222
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As may be seen, all but the oblique surface is shown in its true size and shape.
Once again, the oblique surface is foreshortened.
Glossary
Slide 223
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Projecting the horizontal or top view results in a similar problem.
Glossary
Slide 224
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The image on the projection plane is correctprojection wise, but the true size
and shape of the oblique surface is not displayed on the projection plane.
Glossary
Slide 225
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It should be clear to you by now, that there must be methods of constructing auxiliary
views to display true sizes and shapes of surfaces that are inclined or oblique to viewing
cube projection planes. Those types of developed views will be discussed in unit 2.
All six standard views

will produce a view of
the surface that is
foreshortened along at
least two axes. This is
the case with all oblique
surfaces in orthographic
projection.
Glossary
Slide 226
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Practice Problems
Glossary
Slide 227
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There are missing lines in all three views in this

problem. Study the views carefully. There is
enough information provided to complete all
three views. Use any projection technique that
you are most familiar with. Take some time
right now. Using Problem #1 in your book,
project all of the missing lines. When you have
finished, check your answer against the solution
slides that follow.
Glossary
Slide 228
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Most of the missing lines can be added by projecting feature characteristics from
one view to the other. Project the overall sizes between each view. Then project
the internal characteristics as they apply.
Glossary
Slide 229
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Next, heavy-up the lines that would be visible from your viewing station, and add
any hidden line characteristics that would not be visible from the given
perspective. Be sure to construct a center line depicting the axis of the hole.
Glossary
Slide 230
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Use either the front or back surface in the top view and locate the hole axis, and
transfer that date point to the right side view.
Glossary
Slide 231
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Add the missing lines depicting the hole in the right side view.
Glossary
Slide 232
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The problem is now complete. There are no missing lines in any of the three
views. Clean up the drawing by removing the construction lines.
Glossary
Slide 233
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While you probably followed a slightly different procedure, your answer and mine
should agree. Yours should look just like this one. A significant number of
practice problems follow. They have been designed to reinforce the principles of
orthographic projection. Do each problem on your own before looking at the key.
Glossary
Slide 234
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This problem also has missing lines in all three views. See how far you can get without
looking at the procedure key that follows. Stop now. Using Problem #2 in your book, add
all of the lines that are missing in each of the three orthographic views. Then check your
work against the next sequence of slides.
Glossary
Slide 235
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Begin by projecting all of the known information

between the views. Remember that points that
represent end views of lines will project to lines
again in the next view. Keep the projectors
parallel and if you use labeling, be consistent from
view to view.
Glossary
Slide 236
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Heavy-up all of the object lines that depict visible

object lines, and show surfaces that would not be
visible in the specific orientation, using hidden
lines. Next, using a reference plane or fold line,
ascertain the location of the partition in the middle
of the part in the top view, and transfer the data to
the right side view.
Glossary
Slide 237
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Complete the right side view by projecting all of

the relevant lines and points. Clean up the
drawing.
a
b
b
a
Glossary
Slide 238
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All of the orthographic views are now complete;

there are no missing lines in any of the three
views. Remove the final construction lines to see
the finished drawing.
a
b
b
a
Glossary
Slide 239
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Hopefully, your sketch turned out the same as this

drawing. If it did not, you may want to try it
again. Did you remember to insert a center line to
represent the axis of the hole? Did you use a fold
line or reference plane to get the distances you
needed?
Whenever you feel that you are ready, advance to
the next problem.
Glossary
Slide 240
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As has been the case with all of the previous

problems, there are missing lines in all three
of the orthographic projections of this object.
Using Problem #3 in your book, add all lines
that are missingin each view. Once again,
do as much as you can without checking your
work against the key. When you have
completed your sketch, cycle through the
solution series, beginning with the next slide.
Suggestion: When solving this problem, use
the 45 miter line technique.
Glossary
Slide 241
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Project either the front or back surface on the object, in both the top and right side
views, to the point of intersection. At that point of intersection, construct a 45
miter line.
Glossary
Slide 242
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Project the significant and obvious points and lines between these two views.
Also, project the basic feature characteristics between the front and top views.
Glossary
Slide 243
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One of the most obvious characteristics is the vertical feature at the back of the
object. Project it vertically from the right side view until an intersection is formed
with the miter line, then horizontally through the object. Convert the projection
line into an object line through the extents of the part (right to left sides).
Glossary
Slide 244
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The surfaces created by the removal of the cornerin the upper right side of the
front view, can be projected to both the top and right side views. Construct object
lines where the actual edge views of the surfaces would be on the object.
Glossary
Slide 245
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Continue projecting the feature characteristics between the views, and where
applicable, clean up the drawing by converting the extension (projection) lines
into the appropriate line style and weight.
Glossary
Slide 246
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Using the miter line again, add the details with reference to the hole in the front
and right side views.
Glossary
Slide 247
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Complete the drawing by eliminating the construction lines and miter line.
Glossary
Slide 248
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The drawing is now complete. There is enough graphic information given that
dimensions could be assigned, and the part produced.
Glossary
Slide 249
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This problem also has missing lines in all three views. Follow the same procedure and
complete all three views. Refer to Problem #4 in your book. After completing your solution
sketch, check your work against the series of slides that follow this one.
Glossary
Slide 250
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As the part is examined, you will discover

that there is a vertical portion at the back of
the object, as shown in the right side or
profile view. Using the back surface as a
reference plane measure the thickness and
transfer the measurement to the top view.
Also the flat horizontal plane in the front
view can be projected into the right side
view.
Glossary
Slide 251
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The V-notch in the vertical up-right at the

back can be projected to the top and right
side views. The axes for the two holes can
also be projected from the front view into
the top and right side views.
Glossary
Slide 252
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Their locations projected, heavy-up the

object lines for clarity. Next complete the
detail of the holes in the top and right side
views.
Glossary
Slide 253
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Notice that the hidden lines representing the

hole surfaces is suppressed by the object line in
the top view. Only one step remains: measure
from the back surface to the back side of the
large notch best shown in the top view, and
transfer the distance into the right side view
(also measured from the back surface). Then,
complete the problem by projecting the right
and left surfaces of the notch into the front view.
Glossary
Slide 254
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Check the drawing carefully to see if any lines are missing in any view. If it is
complete remove your construction lines.
Glossary
Slide 255
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How did you do? Did you remember the rule about center lines depicting axes of
holes?
Glossary
Slide 256
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Use Problem #5 in your book, and sketch in all of the missing lines. Employ whatever
technique suits you, but follow the rules governing center and hidden lines. Complete this
problem before checking the key in the slides that follow.
Glossary
Slide 257
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I will use the 45 miter line as an exclusive method to solve this problem. Begin
by projecting either the front or back surfacein both the front and profile views,
to establish the intersection point through which the miter line must pass (I elected
to use the front surface.
Glossary
Slide 258
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With the miter line set, project the most obvious points and features into the right side and
front views. While doing this task, convert the projection lines into their proper line types
and establish them in the appropriate views. We can start with the vertical element at the
back of the object, and the horizontal shelf in the profile view.
Glossary
Slide 259
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Next project the contours in the top view into the front and side views. You may
also project the center axes for the two holes into the top and profile views. Then
finish the drawing by projecting the hole diameter details into the top and profile
views.
Glossary
Slide 260
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Your answer should be just like this one. If it is not, go back through the
development series and determine where the differences are. Dont rush through
these problems; they are designed to help you understand the projection process
and give you important practice.
Glossary
Slide 261
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Practicing orthographic projection problems like

these builds confidence and self assurance. There
are several more problems to comesome more
complex than others. Collectively, they are
designed to broaden your awareness of principles
that guide solution philosophies. The more of
them you do, the more confident (and competent)
you will become.
This problem needs additional lines in all three
views. Work with it until you are sure of your
answers. Use Problem #6 in your book. When
you have finished, check yourself against the slide
series that guides the solution.
Glossary
Slide 262
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This problem, like all of our earlier problems in

orthographic projection, requires additional lines
in each view to be complete. Study it carefully.
Begin by projecting the obvious points and lines
between the views.
Glossary
Slide 263
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Convert the lines to reflect their true type and

characterization.
Glossary
Slide 264
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Measure from the front or from the back of the

object in the top view to determine the depth of
the protrusion on the right side. Also, measure
for location of the intermediate step, and
transfer these two locating measurements to the
profile (right side) view.
Glossary
Slide 265
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Measure from the front or from the back of the object in the top view to determine the depth
of the protrusion on the right side. Also, measure for location of the intermediate step, and
transfer these two locating measurements to the profile (right side) view. Heavy up the lines
depicting edge views.
d1
d2
d2
d1
Glossary
Slide 266
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Complete the drawing by measuring from the reference plane on the back of the
part, to the center axis of the holein the right side view. Transfer the
measurement to the top view and add the hole at its proper location.
d1
d1
Glossary
Slide 267
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The problem is complete now, which means that there are no missing lines in any
of the three views. You have probably noticed that in each instance, both
projection and measurements are used to complete the drawings.
Glossary
Slide 268
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In solving this problem, I want you to analyze the drawing carefully. Use Problem #7 in
your book, and add the lines that are missing in each view. Use any technique that you are
comfortable with, but do not look at the solution (next slide), until you have done all you
can do to complete the drawing. When you have finished, advance to the next slide. There
will not be a series of slides to guide you through a process of solving the problemonly
the solution itself. Be sure you understand the solution, and that you are comfortable with at
least one method of achieving the same results.
Glossary
Slide 269
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How closely does your solution resemble the key? Was there any part of this problem that
presented special concerns? Are you prepared to move on? Study and review this problem
until you completely understand the process used to solve it.
Glossary
Slide 270
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Using the illustration on Problem #8 in your book, construct the three standard front, top, and right side
orthographic views of the object. Determine a scale that suits you, and sketch the views of the object,
showing the proper orientation and relationships between the views. When you have completed your
sketch, advance to the next screen and compare your drawing to the answer key.
Front
Glossary
Slide 271
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Your sketch should look like the layout on the

screen. How did you do? Pictorial views are
typically easier to read than orthographic
drawings. However, pictorial (axonometric)
drawings are foreshortened on one, two, or all
three axes, in order to minimize the distortion
that would occur if full-size dimensions were
used. The next slide shows the two depictions,
side by side.
Glossary
Slide 272
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Here you see the differences and comparisons on the same slide. Many students, new to the
science of graphics, experience difficulties reading orthographic drawings.
During the Second World War, many women and young people worked in the arms plants
across America. It was discovered that orthographic drawings of parts or assemblies were
difficult for untrained people to understand. In consequence of that finding, pictorial views
were added to assist in the interpretation of complex drawings.
Glossary
Slide 273
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This exercise is similar to the last one. A pictorial drawing of an object is given, and you are
to sketch the three principle orthographic projectionstop, front, and right side views. Use
Problem #9 in your book. Do not continue on to the next slide until you have completed your
sketch. Then check your work against the answer key which follows.
Glossary
Slide 274
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This is the arrangement and orientation of views that you should have drawn in
your sketch. If you do not have this solution, advance to the next screen to see the
pictorial and orthographic projections together on the same slide. Make sure you
understand this development before you progress to the next exercise.
Glossary
Slide 275
Quit
Carefully compare your sketch to this solution.

The additional pictorial drawing may help you
to understand the placement of all lines on the
object. When you are ready, advance to the next
exercise.
Notice that the right side

and the frontal plane rest
on the same horizontal
bottom plane of the part.
The front is not
elevated. Many make
the mistake of trying to
justify a different
solution based upon the
angular cut on the
front/right corner.
Glossary
Slide 276
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SELF EVALUATION
Glossary
Slide 277
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Self-Evaluation (Problems 10-14)

This is Problem #10 found in your book. Complete the projection by adding all lines that may be missing in one,
two, or all three views. Use whatever method seems easiest to you, but make certain that all object, hidden, and
center lines are accounted for in each of the three views.
Glossary
Slide 278
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Self-Evaluation
There may be missing lines in any, or all of the three views. The solution will not extend beyond the
boundaries of the object lines shown in any view. Using Problem #11 in your book, complete the drawing
by adding the lines that are missing.
Glossary
Slide 279
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Self-Evaluation
There are some things about this exercise that will be slightly different from the previous ones;
the object is cylindrical as shown in the right side view, and the front view is complete as
shown. The projection principles remain constant, so you should have no problem with the
solution. Using Problem #12 in your book, sketch the completed solution.
Glossary
Slide 280
Quit
Self-Evaluation
This problem presents the same challenges that previous problems have; find in any or all of the
orthographic projections of the object, any missing lines that need to be included to properly
display the completed views. Use Problem #13 in your book, and sketch its solution.
Glossary
Slide 281
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Orthographic Projection Exercise Number One

This is the last problem in the orthographic series of practice exercises. There may be missing lines in one, two, or
all three views. Use Problem #14 in your book, and add all lines that are missing in each of the views. Use the
projection technique that you are most comfortable withor you may try combining techniques as we have done on
some other problems. Hint: The small hole in the front view is a threaded (tapped) hole.
Glossary
Slide 282
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End of Unit One
When you are comfortable with the information covered in this presentation, you
will be ready to complete the Content Mastery Evaluation for orthographic
projection. If you feel uncertain about your knowledge related to some of the
basic principles or materials included in this presentation, it may be wise to
consider a careful review. Take the time that is necessary to thoughtfully evaluate
the illustrations and accompanying text to assure yourself that you are ready.
When you feel prepared, call for the evaluation. There are 51 objective questions
in the evaluation on orthographic projection principles and conventional practices.
Good luck!
Glossary
Slide 283
Quit

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Orthographic

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Orthographic Projection -- Theory and Practice

Master Table of Contents

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Orthographic Projection Theory

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Orthographic Projection Theory

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Orthographic Projection Theory

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Orthographic Projection Theory

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Orthographic Projection Theory

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Orthographic Projection Theory

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Orthographic Projection Theory

Parallel Visual Rays

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Orthographic Projection Table of Contents

Master Table of Contents

Viewing an Object From an Infinite

Parallel Visual Rays

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Visualizing orthographic views using pictorial views

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GLASS BOX CONCEPT

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