The thorax or chest (Greek: , Latin: thorax) is a part of the anatomy of humans and

various other animals located between the neck and the abdomen. [1][2]The thorax includes
the thoracic cavity and the thoracic wall. It contains organs including
the heart,lungs and thymus gland, as well as muscles and various other internal structures.
Many diseases may affect the chest, and one of the most common symptoms is chest pain.
In humans and other hominids, the thorax is the chest region of the body between
the neck and the abdomen, along with its internalorgans and other contents. It is mostly
protected and supported by the rib cage, spine, and shoulder girdle.

Contents[edit]
An X-ray of a human chest area, with some structures labeled

The contents of the thorax include the heart and lungs and the thymus gland); the
(major and minor pectoral muscles, trapezius muscles and neck muscle); internal structures
such as the diaphragm, esophagus, trachea and a part of the sternum known as thexiphoid
process), as well as the content of the thoracic abdomen
(stomach, kidney/adrenal, pancreas, spleen, and loweroesophagus). Arteries and veins are

The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and
most invertebrate animalsonly a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea
squirts and starfish do not have a brain, even if diffuse neural tissue is present. It is located
in the head, usually close to the primary sensory organs for
such senses as vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. The brain is the most complex
organ in a vertebrate's body. In a typical human, the cerebral cortex (the largest part) is
estimated to contain 1533 billion neurons,[1] each connected by synapses to several
thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate with one another by means of
long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action
potentials to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.
Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs
of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle
activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control
allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment. Some basic types
of responsiveness such as reflexes can be mediated by the spinal cord or

peripheral ganglia, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex

sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain.
The kidneys are bean-shaped organs that serve several essential regulatory roles
in vertebrates. They remove excess organic molecules from the blood, and it is by this
action that their best-known function is performed: the removal of waste products of
metabolism. They are essential in the urinary system and also serve homeostatic functions
such as the regulation of electrolytes, maintenance of acidbase balance, and regulation
of blood pressure (via maintaining salt and water balance). They serve the body as a
natural filter of the blood, and remove water soluble wastes, which are diverted to
the bladder. In producing urine, the kidneys excrete wastes such as urea and ammonium,
and they are also responsible for the reabsorption of water, glucose, and amino acids. The
kidneys also produce hormones including calcitriol, erythropoietin, and the enzyme renin,
the last of which indirectly acts on the kidney in negative feedback.
Located at the rear of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneal space, the kidneys receive
blood from the paired renal arteries, and drain into the paired renal veins. Each kidney
excretes urine into a ureter, that empties into the bladder.

The lung is the essential respiration organ in many air-breathing animals, including
most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. Inmammals and the more complex life forms,
the two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their principal
function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to
release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. A large surface area is
needed for this exchange of gases which is accomplished by the mosaic of
specialized cells that form millions of tiny, exceptionally thin-walled air sacs called alveoli.
To understand the anatomy of the lungs, the passage of air through the nose and mouth to
the alveoli must be studied. The progression of air through either the mouth or the nose,
travels through the nasopharynx and oropharynx of the pharynx, larynx, and
the trachea(windpipe). The air passes down the trachea, which divides into two
main bronchi; these branch to the left and right lungs where they progressively subdivide

into a system of bronchi and bronchioles until the alveoli are reached. These many alveoli
are where the gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen takes place. [2]
Breathing is driven by muscular action; in early tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by
the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping, which is still found in

The stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the digestive system which functions as
an important organ of the digestive tract in some animals,
including vertebrates, echinoderms, insects (mid-gut), and molluscs. It is involved in the
second phase of digestion, following mastication (chewing).
In most vertebrates, the stomach is located between the esophagus and the small intestine.
It secretes protein-digesting enzymescalled proteases and strong acids to aid in food
digestion, (sent to it via esophageal peristalsis) through smooth muscular contortions (called
segmentation) before sending partially digested food (chyme) to the small intestines.
The stomach lies between the esophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small
intestine). It is on the left upper part of the abdominal cavity. The top of the stomach lies
against the diaphragm. Lying behind the stomach is thepancreas. The greater
omentum hangs down from the greater curvature.
Two sphincters keep the contents of the stomach contained. They are the lower esophageal
sphincter (found in the cardiac region, not an anatomical sphincter) dividing the tract above,
and the pyloric sphincter dividing the stomach from the small intestine.

The human body refers to the entire structure of a human being and comprises
a head, neck, trunk (which includes
thethorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet. Every part of the body is
composed of various types of cell.[1]
At maturity, the estimated average number of cells in the body is given as 37.2 trillion. This
number is stated to be of partial data and to be used as a starting point for further

calculations. The number given is arrived at by totalling the cell numbers of all the organs of
the body and cell types.[2] The composition of the human body is made up of a number of
certain elementsincluding carbon, calcium and phosphorus.
The study of the human body involves anatomy and physiology. The human body can show
anatomical non-pathological anomalies known as variations which need to be able to be
recognised. Physiology focuses on the systems and their organs of the human body and
their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis.
Skeletal structure frames the overall shape of the body and does not alter much over a
lifetime. General body shape (andfemale body shape) is influenced by the distribution
of muscle and fat tissue and is also affected by various hormones. The average height of an