1

UNIT I

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT MBA

UNIT I Environment and its components Ecology Forest wild
life Biotic and abiotic

environment Agricultural fisheries-

cycling of materials in the ecosystem eco friendly farming

Lithosphere atmosphere- hydrosphere stratosphere Food chainclimate change Carbon credit
1. Environment The term may be defined in a number of ways (in the
context of human beings)
Environment is the sum total of all social, economical, biological,
physical and chemical factors which constitute the surroundings of
humans, who are both the creators and moulders of the
environment.
The terms environment means surroundings, in which the
organisms live.
Environment is sum total of influences which modify and
determine the development of life and its characteristics.
It is the sum of all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors that
surround and potentially influence an organism (ie, Environment is
the physical and Biotic Habitat that surround us)

2
ie, -

Environment creates favourable conditions for the existence

and development of living organisms.

Some component of Environment serve as resource (e.g. soil,

water, etc) while others act as regulatory factor (eg.
Temperature, light, etc)

Different components of the environment are interlinked and

interdependent

Everything we need to survive comes from air, water, soil and

energy

The quality of our lives depends completely on the health

and vigor of the web of living things that clean, the air and
water, create soil, capture sunlight and provides us with food
and resources.

I.

(A)

Organisms and Environment

-

Nature

consists

of

two

very

much

complex

interdependent mutually reactive and interrelated

entities the organisms and the Environment
-

The

organisms

environments

can

interact

survive

only

in

appropriate

with each other,

and are

influenced by the whole complex of Environmental

factors.
(a)

Organism

3
-

It is a form of life composed of mutually

interdependent parts that maintain various vital
process

It is a creature such as a single-celled life form (plant

or animal) or something that has interdependent
parts.

Single celled microorganisms were the first forms of life

to develop on earth
Examples: Bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae viruses

Organisms/micro organisms live in any part of the

Biosphere including soil, hot springs, on the ocean
floor, high in the atmosphere and deep inside rocks,
within the Earths crust.

Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient cycling in

Ecosystems, as they act as decomposers.

As some Microorganisms fix nitrogen, they are a vital

part of the nitrogen cycle.

Recent studies indicate that airbone micro organisms

may play a role in precipitation and weather.

Micro organisms are often referred to as microbes, but

this usually used in reference to pathogens.

4
-

Micro organisms are also exploited in Biotechnology

both in traditional food and beverage preparation and
in modern technologies based on genetic engineering.

I(b)

Types of Environment
Environment may be divided into the following categories
(i) Natural Environment (ii) Anthropogenic Environment
(Man-made Environment)

I(b)

1.

Natural Environment
The Environment that comes into existence without
interference of man is called Natural Environment

Natural Environment includes such as air, water, soil,

land, forest, wild life, flora, fauna

This environment operates through a self- regulating

mechanism, therefore any change brought about by
one

component

of

the

Environment

is

counter

balanced by some other changes in another component

of the Environment.
-

The Natural Environment is never static, the changes

may sometimes be negligible, while at other times,
they may be drastic. These changes may be either
beneficial or harmful to the living in the Environment.

5
-

That means Natural Environment operates through

self-regulating

mechanism

called

Homoeostatic

Environment Mechanism ie, any change in the

Natural ecosystem is brought by Natural process is
counter balanced by changes in other components of
the Environment.
I (b)

2.

Concept of Homeostasis (Equilibrium)

The challenge of every cell is to maintain intracellular

conditions

that

may

differ

from

the

external

environment, yet still communicate with Environment

-

The term Homeostasis found by Walter Cannon

(1929)

Constancy of milieu interne (stability of its internal

environment) as essential for the existence of freeliving organisms ie the ability of a cell to sustain its
intracellular and extra cellular milieu.

Broadly defined, homeostasis represents the sum of

the physiological process, in an organism, a multi
cellular system, or a cell that maintain the relative
stability of its internal environment, and thus provide
the basis for its survival and function.

6
-

Maintenance of the internal milieu is an active

process requiring the intricate the interaction of
numerous biochemical and biophysical processes,
using or utilizing most of metabolic energy of the cell.

Homeostasis is controlled on two different levels. One

is the maintenance of the individual intracellular
milieu. The other is the maintenance of the extra
cellular milieu, within a multi cellular organization.

I (b) 3.

The Natural Environment of the Earth is divided

into

four

realms,

namely

(i)

Lithosphere

(ii) Hydrosphere (iii) Atmosphere (iv) Biosphere (The

four spheres of the earth)
-

i.e. The area near the surface of earth can be divided

into four inter-connected geo-spheres

The names of the four spheres are derived from the

Greek words for (1) Stone (litho), (2) Water (Hydro) (3)
Air (atmo) and (4) life (Bio)
Fig: Four realms of Earth

I (b) 3.1

Lithosphere is the solid shell of the planet. It is the

rigid outer most shell of a rocky planet. It can be
identified on the basis of its mechanical properties.

7
-

On the Earth it comprises the crust and the portion of

the upper mantle ie, the crust and the upper mantle
form the lithosphere.

The lithosphere extends from the surface of the Earth

to a depth of 70-100 km.

1.b 3.1 (a) Earth Crust

-

The outer most layer is called Earths crust

The crust is inorganic and is composed of rocks

minerals and soil.

The thickness of the crust varies. Crust has two parts

(i) continental (ii) oceanic Under the oceans the crust
is only about (5-10 km) thick. Under the continents,
the crust thickens to about 35 km and reaches depth
upto 60 km.

1 (b) 3.1 (b) Mantle

-

Below the crust is the mantle and mantle makes up

the largest volume of Earths interior. The mantle has
two parts (i) An upper layer (ii) and a lower mantle.

(i) Upper Mantle

Beneath the crust is a layer of rock materials that is
also solid, rigid and relatively cool, but is made up of
dense material. This layer is called the upper mantle,
and it varies in depth from 50-100 km, below Earth
surface.

The combination of the crust, and this upper part of

the upper mantle, which are both composed of
relatively cool and rigid rock material, is called the
lithosphere.

1 (b) 3.1 (c) Temperature of Below Lithosphere

-

1000oC. So there is some molten material at this depth

(about 10%)

1 (b) 3.2 Hydrosphere

It includes the surface water and its surrounding interfaceliquid components of earth)
-

It includes all liquid and frozen surface waters, ground

water held in soil and rock and atmospheric water
vapour.

Due to the range of surface temperatures and

pressures, water exist in all three states: solid (ice),
liquid (water) and gas (water vapour) on earth.

So the hydrosphere includes all the water on the

Earth. Most of which is contained in the oceans. The
presence of water on Earth, gives it the name Blue
planet

9
-

The Earths hydrosphere consists chiefly of the ocean,

but technically include clouds, inland, seas, lakes,
rivers and underground water.

The abundance of water on Earth is a unique feature,

that distinguishes our Blue planet from others in
the solar system.

Approximately 70.8 percent of the Earth is covered by

water.

The Hydrosphere plays a key role in the development

and sustenance of life.

The Hydrosphere like the atmosphere is always in

motion. The motion of rivers and streams can be seen
easily, while the motion of water within lakes and
ponds is less obvious. Some of the motions of oceans
and seas can be seen easily, while the large scale
motions that move water greater distance, such as
between tropics and poles or between continents are
more difficult to be seen.

These types of motions are in the form of currents,

that move warm waters, in the tropics toward the poles
and colder water from the polar regions, toward the
tropics. These current exist on the surface of the ocean
and at great depths in the ocean (upto about 4 km)

10

The characteristics of the ocean which affects its

motion are its temperature and salinity.

I (b) 3.2 (a) Water cycle or Hydrological cycle

-

Central to any discussion on Hydrosphere is water

cycle. The water cycle also known as the Hydrological
cycle or the H2O cycle describes the continuous
movement of water on above and below the surface of
the earth ie, the movement of water from the earth
surface to atmosphere through hydrological cycle.

The mass of water on Earth, remains fairly constant,

over time, but the partitioning of the water, into major
rivers of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric
water is variable depending on a wide range o climatic
variables.

The water moves from one reservoir to another, such

as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to
atmosphere, by the physical process of evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runof and
substance flow. In doing so the water goes through
different phases : liquid, solid (ice) and gas (vapour).
So due to the range of surface temperature and
pressures, water exist in all three states : solid (ice),
liquid (water) and gas (water vapour) on earth.

11

The water cycle involves the exchange of energy,

which leads to temperature changes. For instance,
when water evaporates, it takes up energy from the
surroundings and cools the Environment. When it
condenses,

it

releases,

energy

and

warms

the

Environment. These heat exchange influence climate.

-

Water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of

most life and ecosystem on the planet.

1 (b) 3.3.

Atmosphere (Atmosphere of Earth)

-

Atmosphere is a layer of gases, surrounding

the

planet earth and that is retained by Earths gravity or

simply the layer of gases surrounding the earth is
called the atmosphere.
-

It (Earths atmosphere) is a complex fluid of gases, as

suspended particles, did not have its origin in the
beginning of the plant.

The atmosphere as of today has been derived from the

Earth itself by Chemical- Bio-chemical reactions.

Atmosphere forms an envelop of gaseous around the

earth.

12
-

The

atmosphere

protects

the

life

on

Earth

by

absorbing ultraviolet-solar radiation, warming the

surface through heat retention (green house effect)
and reducing temperature extremes between day and
night (the diurnal temperature variation).
-

The gases like Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, CO2 and water

vapour, etc together make up the total volume of
Atmosphere.

Earths Atmosphere, which is mostly nitrogen.

Its current composition is the product of Billions of

years

of

Biochemical

modifications

of

the

paleo

atmosphere by living organisms.

1 (b) 3.3 (a) Atmospheric composition
There are eleven most abundant gases found in the Earths
atmosphere by volume. Of the gases listed; nitrogen, oxygen, water
vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone are
extremely important to the Health of Earths Biosphere. Of these
Nitrogen and oxygen, together constitute about 99% of the gas in
the atmosphere.
Average composition of the Atmosphere up to an attitude of 25 km
No.

Gas Name Chemical Formula

Percentage volume

1.

Nitrogen

N2

78.08%

2.

Oxygen

O2

20.95%

13
3.

Argon

Ar

0.93%

4.

Carbondioxide

CO2

0.036%

5.

Neon

Ne

0.0018%

6.

Helium

He

0.0005%

7.

Methane

CH4

0.00017%

8.

Hydrogen

H2

0.00005%

9.

Nitrous Oxide

N2O

0.00003%

10.

Ozone

O3

0.00004%

11.

Water

H2O

1-4%

1 (b) 3.3(b). Structure of Atmosphere

Principal Layers (Atmospheric Stratification)
Earths Atmosphere can be divided (called Atmospheric
Stratification) into five main layers. From the highest to lowest.
(i)

Exosphere

>700 Km (>440 miles)

(ii)

Thermosphere

80 to 700 Km (50-440 miles)

(iii)

Mesosphere

50 to 80 Km (31 to 50 miles)

(iv)

Stratosphere

12 to 50 Km (7 to 31 miles)

(v)

Troposphere

0 to 12 Km (0 to 7 miles)

1 (b) 3 (b)(i) Exosphere

-

It is the outer most layer of Earths Atmosphere (ie, the

upper limit of the atmosphere).

14
-

It is located at the top of the thermosphere at an

attitude of about 700 Km above the sea level to about
10,000 Km.

The exosphere merges with the emptiness of outer

space where there is no atmosphere.

This layer is mainly composed of extremely low,

densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier
molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
Dioxide closer to exobase.

The atoms and molecules, are so far apart, that they

can travel, hundred of kilometers, without colliding
with one another. Thus exosphere no longer behaves
like a gas and the particles constantly escape in to
space.

1 (b) 3 (b)(ii) Thermosphere

-

Thermosphere is the second highest layer of Earths

Atmosphere. It lies at the lower boundary of the
exosphere and hence it is also referred to as exobase.

The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 Km to

550 Km above the Earths surface contains the
ionosphere.

15
-

This atmospheric layer, undergoes a gradual increase

in temperature with height. The temperature of this
layer can rise as high as 1.500oC (2,700oF).

(iii)

Mesosphere
The third highest layer of Atmosphere, occupying the region
above the stratosphere.
-

It extends from the stratopause at an attitude of

about 50 Km to mesopause at 80-85 Km above the
sea level.

Temperature drops with increasing attitude to the

mesopause that marks, the top of this middle layer of
atmosphere.

It is the coldest place on atmosphere has an average

temperature

around

85oC.Just

below,

the

mesopause, the air is so cold.

-

The Mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors

burn upon atmospheric entrance.

(iv)

Stratosphere
-

The Stratosphere is the second lowest layer of

Earths Atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and
is separated from it by the tropopause.

16
-

This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at

roughly

12

Km

above

Earths

surface

to

the

Stratopause at an attitude of about 50 to 55 Km.

-

Stratosphere defines a layer, in which temperature rise

with increase in attitude.

This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of

ultraviolet radiation (UV) from the sun, by the ozone
layer. Although the temperature may be 60oC at the
Tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much
warmer and may be near 0oC.

The stratospheric temperature profile creates very

stable, atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere,
lacks the weather producing air turbulance that is so
prevalent

in

the

troposphere.

Consequently

the

Stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and

other forms of weather.
(v)

Troposphere
-

The

troposphere

is

the

lowest

layer

of

Earths

Atmosphere. It extends from the Earths surface to an

average height of about 12 Km, although this attitude
varies from about 9 Km (30,000 ft) at poles of 17 Km
(56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to
weather.

17
-

The troposphere is bounded above the tropopause.

Temperature usually declines with increasing attitude,

in the troposphere. The lowest part of the troposphere
(ie, Earth surface) is the warmest section of the
troposphere, because the troposphere is mostly heated
through energy transfer from the surface.

The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass

of the Earths atmosphere. The troposphere is denser
than all its overlying atmosphere layers, because, a
larger atmospheric weight sits on the top of the
troposphere and causes, it to be most severely
compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the
atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 Km (18,000 ft)
of the troposphere. It is primarily composed of
Nitrogen

(78%)

and

Oxygen

(21%)

with

small

concentration of other trace gases.

-

Nearly all atmospheric water vapour or moisture is

found in the Troposphere, so it is the layer, where most
of Earths weather take place.

Most conventional aviation actively takes place in the

troposphere and it is the only layer, that can be
assessed by propeller driven aircraft.

1 (b) 3 (c)

Other layers of Atmosphere

18

Layer

(1) Ozone layer (2) Ionosphere (3) Planetary Boundary

1.

Ozone Layer

It is contained within the Stratosphere. The ozone

concentrations in the stratosphere are about 2 to 8
PPM (Parts Per Million), which is higher than in the
lower atmosphere.
-

The ozone layer is mainly located in the lower portion

of the stratosphere from about 15-35 Km, though the
thickness varies seasonally and geographically.

About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is

contained within the stratosphere.

2.

Ionosphere
The Ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere, that is
ionized by Solar Radiation. It is responsible for
auroras. During the day time hours, it stretches from
50 to 1,000 Km, which includes the Mesosphere
Thermosphere and parts of the Exosphere. However,
ionization in the mesosphere, largely cease during the
night, So auoras are normally seen only in the
thermosphere and lower exosphere.

19
-

The

ionosphere

forms

the

inner

edge

of

magnetosphere. It has practical importance, because

it influences, for example, radio propagation on earth.
3.

Planetary Boundary Layer

The planetary boundary layer, is the part of the
troposphere that is closes to Earths surface and is
directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent
difusion. During the day, the planetary boundary
layer usually is well-mixed, where as at night it
becomes, stably stratified, with weak or intermittent
mixing.

The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges

from, as little as about 100 meters on clear, calm
nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in dry
regions.

1 (b) 3 (d)

Physical properties of Atmosphere

(i)

Pressure
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level.

Average atmosphere pressure at sea level is 1 standard

atmosphere (atm) = 10.3 KPa (Kilo Pascals)

But Atmospheric pressure = Total weight of the air above

Total area

20
Ie, Total weight of the air above unit area, where
the pressure is measured.
-

Thus the air pressure varies with location and weather

Atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with

attitude, dropping by half every 5-6 Km (18,000 ft).

In summary, the mass of Earth Atmosphere is

distributed approximately as follows.
50% is below 5.6 Km (18,000 ft)
90% is below 16 Km (52,000 ft)
99.99997% is below 100 Km

Commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 Km

(33,000 ft) and 13 Km (43,000 ft) where thinner air improves

fuel economy.
(ii)

Temperature & Speed

Temperature decreases with attitude starting at sea

level but variations, in the trend begin above 11 Km.

In the stratosphere,

staring

above

20 Km, the

temperature increases with highest due to heating

within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant
ultraviolet radiation, from the sun, by the dioxin and
ozone gas in this region.

21
-

Still another region of increasing temperature with

attitude

occurs

at

very

high

attitudes,

in

the

thermosphere above 90 Km.

(iii)

Sound
Speed of sound depends only on temperature and not
on the gas pressure or density.

(iv)

Density & Mass

The density air at sea level is about 1.2 Kg/m2.

Atmospheric

density

decreases

as

the

attitude

increases.
1 (b) 3.4

Biosphere
-

The Biosphere is the thin shell of organic matter on

surface of earth comprising all the living things.

It encompasses all zones on the earth in which life is

present ie, entire Bio-resources of the earth.

It developed on earth since 4.5 Billions year through

evolutionary process.

It is a part of Earth which includes, air, land, surface

rocks and water, an all components with in which life
occurs.

22

It is the life-zone of earth and includes all living

organism.

It occupies the least volume of all the spheres, but it

is the cause of majority of the flow of matter through
nature.

Relative to the volume of earth, the Biosphere, is the

only very thin surface layer, that extends from
11,000 meters ie, 8 km below sea level to 15,000
meters ie, 8 km above in to the atmosphere. At the top
of the lithosphere, throughout hydrosphere and into
the lower atmosphere, life of diverse types (Biosphere)
exist. Biosphere layer there fore extends over most of
the surface of earth. It includes the upper layers of the
Earths crust and the thin layer- These bioresources
and their surrounding constitute Biosphere, where
man kind is acting as the most evolved creature .Crust
and the thin layer soil that support life.

Biosphere is responsible for the grand scale, recycling

of energy and matter on earth.

Biosphere is the global sum of all eco systems.

It is therefore termed as the zone of life on earth, a

closed system and largely self-regulating.

23

By the most general bio physiological definition the

Biosphere is the global ecological system, integrating
all living beings and their relationship, including their
interaction with the element.

1 (b) 3.4 (a) Biome

With in the Biosphere there are several major regions,
containing specific types of Ecosystems. These major regions
are called Biomes.
-

Biomes are then recognized by the types of dominant

ecosystems tropical rain forest, temperate forests,
deserts, prairies and Arctic Tundra.

A Biome is a homogeneous ecological formation that

exist over a vast region, such as tundra or steppes.

The Biosphere comprises all of the Earths Biomes

the entirely of places, where life is possible from the
highest mountains to the depth of the oceans.

The Biosphere contains great quantities of elements

such

as

elements,

carbon,
such

as

nitrogen

and

phosphorous,

oxygen.
calcium

Other
and

potassium are also essential to life, yet are present in

smaller amounts. At the ecosystems and biosphere
levels, there is a continual recycling of all these

24
elements which alternate their mineral and organic
states.
-

Biomes are regional ecosystems and the Biosphere is

the largest of all possible ecosystems.

I (b), 2.

Man made or Anthropogenic Environment (Human

Impact on Environment)

The environment which has been modified by human

activities is called man made activities.

Human impact on the Environment or anthropogenic

impact on the Environment includes impacts on bio
physical

Environments,

biodiversity

and

other

resources.
-

Man is the Highest of all the creatures on this earth.

He is modifying the environment according to his own
needs and ways without taking into account its
consequences.

Increase in the scientific technologies which are the

product of Human brain is now deteriorating the
environment.

The term anthropogenic designates an effect of

object resulting from Human activity.

25

The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution

emissions that are produced as a result of human
activities but applies broadly to all major, human
impacts on Environment.
Few examples of Human impacts on the Environment
or (Anthropogenic factor) are:

(1)

Environmental impacts caused by the application of

Technology

(leading

to

negative

Environmental

consequences)
(2)

The Environmental Impact of agriculture, varies based

on vide variety of Agricultural practices employed
around the world.

(3)

Environmental Impact of fishing: Such as (i) Over

fishing (ii) Pollution (iii) Poor fishery management

(4)

Environmental Impact of Irrigation Due to Over

irrigation
-

Over irrigating the field causes, the problems of

water logging and increases the salinity of the
soil (changes in the quality of soil and water)

(5)

Continuous cutting of trees Deforestation

26
-

Deforestation increases, soil erosion, loss of

fertility and loss of water, accelerating the
process of desertification

(6)

Overgrazing leads to Barren land : Heavy grazing by

the increasing cattle population in grass lands, is
continuously denuding the land area, resulting in the
land becoming barren

(7)

Excessive ploughing leads to desertification

-

Excessive ploughing makes the soil particles

loose and leads to desertification.

(8)

Conversion of pastures to arable land ultimately leads

to desertification
-

Where large areas of pasture lands are converted

to arable land, soil is let loose and is easily
blown by winds, further increasing the problems
of desertification.

(8)

Excessive use of fertilizers :- Top soil becomes loose

pollution

Owing to excessive use of fertilizers, the top soil

becomes loose, and is blown, away by the wind.

27
III.

Components

of

Environment

or

Biotic

and

Abiotic

Components of Environment
-

Natural Environment includes all the living and nonliving components occurring naturally on Earth.

The Biological components of the ecosystem, that is

the Biotic components interact with the physical
entities (abiotic components)

The scientific study of the interaction of Biotic

components

with

each

other

and

with

abiotic

components is known as Ecology

(a)

Abiotic Components
-

The abiotic components are also known as abiotic

factors

The way in which plants and animals grown and carry

out their activities, is a result of several abiotic factors

The abiotic factors in Ecology consists of non-living,

physical and chemical factors of the Environment
Examples of abiotic components (physical factors) are
air water, soil, rocks, etc.
The Chemical factors of abiotic components are gas,
acids, inorganic elements and components (such as

28
soil, water, calcium, oxygen and variety of organic
components such as humus and different climatic
conditions,

such

as

light,

temperature,

wind

precipitation)
-

All of these factors, affect different organisms to

different extents. For examples, if there is little or no
sunlight then plants may wither and die from not
being

able

to

get

enough

sunlight

to

do

photosynthesis.
-

Abiotic components are essential for the living world,

as life cannot exist without abiotic factors (such as
sunlight, water, air and minerals).

The quality of the abiotic environment is a critical

factor for life. Water for examples, cannot only vary in
terms

of

availability,

characteristics
levels,

such

amount

of

as

but

also

turbidity,

dissolved

in

terms

of

alkalinity,

PH

oxygen

and

the

concentration and combinations of various chemicals.

-

Changes in the abiotic environment can affect the

conditions of living organisms and vice-versa.

Human

activities

are

currently

resulting

in

considerable changes, in the abiotic environment of

Earth, including changes in the global cycles, hence

29
causing harmful environmental effects such as global
warning.
-

So the abiotic or non-living components include

climatic and edaphic factors. The climatic factors
include temperature, humidity, rain snow fall, etc.

The edaphic factors comprise the soil, substratum etc.

(b) Biotic components of Environment

-

Biotic components are the living things that shape an

Ecosystem (ie, the living organisms from the Biotic
Components of Environment).

A Biotic factor is any living component that affects

another organism, including animals that consume
the organisms in question and the living food that the
organisms consumes.

Each Biotic factor needs food and energy to work and

for proper growth. Biotic factors include human
influence also.

Based on the role the biotic components in the

ecosystem, they are categorized in to three main
categories.

30
Producers, ie, auto tropes : eg. Plants they convert
the energy (from Photo synthesis) in to food (in the
transfer of sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into
energy)
Ie,

producers

are

organisms,

that

synthesise

organic substances. Example- plant.

Consumers
depend

ie,

heterotophs

upon

producers

eg.

Animals,

(occasionally

they
other

consumers) for food (that is consumers are

organisms that feed on other organisms).
Consumers

are

of

three

types

(i)

primary

consumers (ii) secondary consumers (iii) tertiary

consumers.
Decomposers
bacteria.

They

ie,

detritivores

break

down

eg.

Fungi

chemicals

and
from

producers and consumers (usually dead) into

simpler form, which can be reused.
-

Ie, These are saprophytes micro organisms that feed

on dead and decayed waste matter

The non-green organisms like the fungi and some

bacteria, which are in capable of producing their food,
live on the dead and decaying plant or animal parts.

IV.

Ecology

31

(A)

Definition : Ecology is the study of the relationship

between living organisms and their environment
-

It is the study of organisms in their natural habitat.

It is the study onthe set of relationship of a particular

organisms with its Environment.

Ecology proceeds at three levels: (1) the individual

organisms

(2)

individuals

of

the
the

population
same

species

(consisting
and

(3)

of
the

community (consisting of number of populations)

-

At the level of the organisms, ecology deals with how

individuals are affected by and how they affect their
Environment? For example: Is the green house effect a
real danger? and what are the implications for human
life as the earth heats up further?

At the level of population ecology (population ecology)

deals with the presence or absence of particular
species and with trends and fluctuations in their
numbers. It is concerned with interrelationship of coactions

between

individuals

within

and

between

species. Co-actions may be beneficial to participants or

harmful to them.

32
-

Community ecology deals with the composition or

structure

of

communities

and

with

the

natural

resources, affected by them.

-

Ecologist
organisms,

try

to

predict

populations

or

what

will

happen

communities

under

to
a

particular habitat.
-

The topic of interest to ecologists include the diversity,

amount

(biomass),

number

(population)

of

organisms, as well as competition between them

within and among ecosystems
-

Ecology is an interdisciplinary field that includes

Biology and Earth science.

It is usually considered as a branch of Biology.

The word ecology (Okologie) was coined in 1896 by

the German Scientist Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919)

Ancient Greek Philosophers, such as Hippocrates and

Aristotle, laid the foundations of ecology in their
studies on Natural History.

Modern

Ecology

transformed

science in the late 19th century.

into

more

rigorous

33
Evolutionary concepts on adaptation and natural

selection became corner stones, of modern ecological

theory.
-

Ecology

synonymous

is not

environmentalism,

with

natural

environment,
history

or

environmental science.
It is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics

and ethology.
-

An understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological

functions, is an important area in ecological studies.

Role of Ecologists
-

Ecologists

try

to

predict,

what

will

happen

to

organisms (any form of life, it includes, all plants and

animals), Populations (group of individuals organisms
of

the

same

species

living

within

an

area)

or

communities (any assemblage of populations in a

prescribed

area

or

physical

habitat

that

has

characteristics, in addition to its individual and

population components) under a particular habitat.
-

Ecologists, seek to explain.

Life processes, interactions and adaptations

34

The movement of materials and energy through living

communities.

The successional development of Ecosystems and

The abundance and distribution of organisms and

biodiversity in the context of environment

(C)

Ecology is a human science as well.

(i)

There are many practical applications of ecology

in Conservation Biology. Wet land Management,
natural

resource

management

(agro

ecology,

agricultural, forestry, agro forestry, fisheries) City

Planning

(urban

ecology)

Community

health

economics, basic and applied science and human

social interaction (human ecology).
(ii)

Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science. Because of

its focus on the Higher levels of the organization of life
on earth and on the interrelations between organisms
and their environment, ecology draws, heavily on many
other branches of science, especially Geology and
Geography,

Meterology,

Pedology,

Chemistry

and

Physics. Thus, ecology is said to be a holistic science,

one that over arches old disciplines, such as biology,
which

in

this

view

become

contributing to ecological knowledge.

sub-disciplines,

35

(iii)

The terms Ecology is sometimes confused with the

term Environmentalism. Environmentalism is a
social movement aimed at the goal of protecting
natural resources of the environment and which may
involve political lobbying, activism, education and so
forth.

(iv)

Ecology

is

organisms

the
and

science
their

that

studies,

interactions

with

living
the

Environment. As such ecology involves scientific

methodology and does not dictate what is right or
wrong. However findings in ecology may be used to
support or counter various goals, assets or actions of
environmentalists.
(v)

Disciplines of Ecology :
Ecology is a broad science, which can be subdivided
into major and minor sub-disciplines. The major subdisciplines include
(1)

Physiological ecology of (eco physiology)

(2)

Behavioural ecology

(3)

Population ecology

(4)

Community ecology (or synecology)

(5)

Ecosystem Ecology (which studies the flow of

energy and matter through eco system)

36
(6)

Medical Ecology

(7)

Landscape Ecology

(8)

Evolution Ecology

Ecology can be sub-divided on the basis of Target group

(1) Annual Ecology (2) Plant Ecology (3) Insict Ecology
(4) Human Ecology, etc
Basic concepts of Ecology are:
(1) Ecological unit (2) the ecosystem (3) energy flow (4)
nutrient cycles (5) species interaction (6) productivity (7)
Ecological challenges
IV (D) Eco system
-

An Ecosystem is a biotic assemblage of plants,

animals and microbes (a community of living
organisms) taken together with their physio-chemical
environment.

The Physio chemical environment are :

(1) Light, temperature, humidity, rain, mineral, soil,
etc.
(2) Gases acids, water, inorganic elements, organic
substances, etc.

ie,

an

Ecosystem

organism,
components.

in

is

community

conjunction

with

of

living

non-living

37
-

The Ecosystem concepts was introduced by the British

Ecologist, Arthur Tansley in 1935.

An ecosystem consists of two components (i) Biotic

and (ii) Abiotic

Biotic

components

consists

of

(1)

Producers

(2) Consumers (3) Decomposers.

The essential Abiotic components consists of (1) Water
(2) Nitrogen (3) Soil (4) Mineral, etc.
-

In an ecosystem the Biological cycling of material is

maintained

by

three

groups

viz

(1)

Producers

(2) Consumers and (3) Decomposers/recyclers

-

In an ecosystem the biotic and abiotic components

are regarded as linked together through nutrient
cycles and energy flow.

The Energy that flows, through Ecosystem is obtained

primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system
through photosynthesis.

Energy does not recycle through an ecosystem. But

chemicals do

Eco

systems

are

(1)

(2) Artificial Ecosystem

Natural

Ecosystem

and

38

Natural Ecosystems are (1) Terrestrial (Forest, grass

land, dessert) (2) Aquatic (Fresh water, marine)

Artificial Eco systems are (1) Lentic (standing water)

Lake, pond, swamp (2) Lotic (Running water)- River,
spring stream.

(a) Major Ecosystems are :

(1)

Forest Ecosystem (2) Grass Land Ecosystem (3) Desert

eco system (4) Aquatic Ecosystem

Few examples of Ecosystems in India are

(1)

Mountains Himalayas

(2)

Mountains Nilgiris

(3)

Indo-gangetic plains.

(b) Biome and Ecosystem

In Ecology, a Biome is a major regional group of distinctive
plant and animal communities best adapted to regions
physical natural environment, latitude, elevation, terrain.
-

Biomes are defined as the worlds major communities,

classified according to the predominant vegetation and
characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular
Environment.

39
-

An ecosystem is often much smaller than a Biome,

although the size varies.

Biome is major habitat type

Classification : Biomes are classified in various ways (five major

types)
(1) Aquatic (2) Desert (3) Forest (4) Grass Lands (5) Tundra
(c) Major Biomes of the World

(d)

Mountain (High Elevation)

Tropical Dry Forest

Tundra

Cold climate Forest

Temperate Forest

Grass land

Marine/Island

Savannah

Desert

Tropical Rain Forest

Biome in Local name

Biomes are often known in English by local names.
For example : a temperate grass land or shrub land biome is
known commonly a steppe in Central Asia Praisie in North
America, Pampas in South America.
-

Tropical grassland are known as Savanna in Australia

Climate is a major factor determining the distribution of

Terrestrial Biomes. Most important climate factors, are (1) Latitude
(2) Humidity (3) Elevation

40
IV (e) Cycling of materials in the Ecosystem
The movement of materials in an ecosystem is material cycling.
The concept cycles in Ecology refers to circulation of certain
elements like water or carbon, in the atmosphere. The circulation is
from the Environment organisms and back to the Environment.
It is also called nutrient cycling or mineral cycling, because
elements such as (1) Nitrogen (2) Phosphorous (3) Potassium are
minerals that provide nutrient to plants.
-

Materials move through ecosystem in a cycle of

production and consumption. The most important element
are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which are required for
photosynthesis
calcium

and

and

nitrogen,

magnesium

which

phosphorous,
are

required

sulphur,
for

the

construction of proteins and other structural compounds

in the bodies of living organisms.

Potassium and some minor elements (iron, copper,

boron, zinc, manganese) are also necessary to plant growth.

These elements are transferred from soil and water to

green plants when the plants grow (ie, production). They are
returned to soil and water whenever, carbon chains are
broken, apart during consumption.

41
-

Consumers use the carbon chains in their food, as

building blocks, for their bodies. When consumers derive
more, mineral nutrients from their bodies than they need for
their own, bodies, they release, the extra minerals, into their
environment. For example, nitrogen is excreted as ammonia
or urea. The minerals return to the soil where they serve as
nutrients for plants.

Most of the micro organisms are decomposers which

consume, the bodies, of dead plants, animals and other
micro organisms, to obtain the carbon, (chain building
blocks) that they need for their growth. They release, any
surplus,

mineral

nutrients

from

their

food

into

the

environment, where the mineral nutrients are available for

use by plants. The basic function of discomposes, in the
ecosystem is in many ways similar to consumers.
IV (E) A metaphor for material cycling and energy flow in ecosystem
-

Let us consider a plot of water on a stove. A fire heats the

water at the bottom of the pot changing it to a higher energy
level (hot objects have a higher energy level than the cold
objects). Because the warmer water is lighter in weight than
cold water, the heated water rises to the top of the pot while
the heated water is at the top of the pot, it becomes cooler as
heat energy moves from the heated water to the cooler air
above. After losing heat, the water (which is now cooler and
heavier) sinks to the bottom of the pot, to replace, newly

42
heated water, that is rising. The result is water circulation
a physical cycle. The fire is the energy input to the system
and the heat loss, from the water at the top of the pot, is the
energy output the system.
-

Because of the energy input (the fire) the water in the pot is
self-organising. It makes, its own structure. The water in
the pot forms a material cycle, but the energy does not
cycle. Energy enters the pot from fire, moves from the
bottom of the pot to the top with the heated water and
leaves, the pot as low-level heat. This known as energy flow.
If the fire (the energy input) is turned off, the water, in the
pot stops cycling energy stops flowing and the water loses its
self-organizing structure.

V.

Matter cycle / Bio- Geo Chemical Cycles (Cycling of materials

in the Ecosystem or Nutrients cycle or substance turnover)
-

Movement of nutrient within an ecosystem is called

Biogeochemical cycles or Nutrient cycle.

In Earth Science Biogeochemical cycle or substance

turnover, or cycling of substance is a path way by
which a chemical substance moves through both biotic
(Biosphere) and abiotic (Lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere) Components of Earth.

43
-

A cycle is a series of change which comes back to the

starting point and which can be repeated.

Water for example is always recycled through water

cycle: Water undergoes evaporation, condensation and
precipitation falling back to earth.

Elements, chemical compounds and other forms of

matter are passed from one organism to another and
from one part of the Biosphere, through Bio chemical
cycles.

The

term

Biogeochemical

cycles

tell

us

that

Biological, geological and chemical factors are all

involved.

The circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon,

oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium, water, etc
through the biological and physical world are, known
as Bio chemicals.

In effect the element is recycled although in some

cycles, there may be places (called reservoirs) where
the element is accumulated or held for a long period of
time (such as an ocean or lake for water)

So Reservoirs are those parts of cycle where the

chemical is held in large quantities for a long period of

44
time. The length of time a chemical is held in an
exchange pool or reservoir is termed its residence
time.

The oceans are a reservoir for water, while a cloud is

an exchange pool (where the material/water held for
shorter period of time). Water may reside in an ocean
for thousand of years, but in a cloud for a few days
only.

The Biotic community includes all living organisms.

This community may serve an exchange pool and also
serve to move chemicals from one stage of cycle to
another.
For instance, the trees of the tropical rain forest bring
water up from the forest floor to be evaporated into the
atmosphere. The energy for most of the transportation
of chemicals from one place to another, is provided
either, by the sun or by the heat released from the
mantle, and core of the earth.

V (a) Important matter cycles or biogeochemical cycles are:

1.

The Carbon cycle

2.

The Nitrogen cycle

3.

The Oxygen cycle

4. The Phosphorous cycle

5. The Sulfur cycle
6. The Water cycle
7. The Rock cycle

45

V (b) Newly studied Bio geochemical cycles are

1). The mercury cycle, 2) The Human Caused cycle of
atrazine. They affect some species.
-

They are relatively unknown cycles

As the Bio geochemical cycles describe the movement

of substance, on the entire globe, the study of these is
inherently multi disciplinary. The carbon cycle may be
related

to

research

in

ecology

and

atmospheric

sciences.
-

Biogeo chemical dynamics, would also be related to the

fields of geology and pedology (soil study)

V (c) Two types of Material cycles

There are two types material cycles (i) the gaseous cycle
and (ii) the sedimentary cycle.

In the gaseous cycle of the material cycle , the element

or compound can be converted to a gaseous form, diffuse through
the atmosphere and they arrive over land or sea, to be used by the
Biosphere, in a much shorter time.
-

In a gaseous cycle the air is the reservoir or oceans

(via evaporation).

46
-

The gaseous cycles include those of nitrogen, oxygen,

carbon and water.

In the sedimentary cycle, the compound or element, is

released from the rock by weathering, then follows, the movement
of running water either, in solution or as sediment to the sea.
Eventually, by precipitation and sedimentation these materials are
converted into rock. When the rock is uplifted and exposed to
weathering the cycle is completed.
-

In the sedimentary cycle, Earth Crust is the reservoir.

Sedimentary cycle include those of iron, calcium,

phosphorous and other earth bound elements.
AGRICULTURE

VI.
1.

Definition : Agriculture or Farming is the cultivation of animal,

plant and other life forms for food, fibre, bio fuel, medicinals and
other products used to sustain and enhance human life.
-

Agriculture was not only for growing food for people

and animals but also for growing other things like flowers,
ornamental plants, nursery plants, animals, etc.

Agriculture was the key development dates back to

thousands of years.

47
-

Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of

Human population laboured (labored) in agriculture.

2.

Subsistence Agriculture
Pre

industrial

agriculture

was

typically

subsistence

agriculture/self sufficiency agriculture in which the farms raised

most of their crops for their own consumption, instead of crash
crops for trade.
In other words, the Subsistence Agriculture means growing
only enough to feed the farmer his family and his animals.
3.

Agriculture in India
The written history of agriculture in India dates back to
Rig Veda written about 1100 B.C.
-

The Rig Veda hyms for example, describes, ploughing,

fallowing, irrigation, fruit and vegetables cultivation. Other
historical evidence suggests, rice and cotton were cultivated
in the Indus Valley. The middle ages saw irrigation channels
reach a new level of sophistication in India. Land and Water
Management systems were developed with the aim of
providing uniform growth.

Today India ranks second world wide in farm output.

Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry and fisheries
accounts for 13.7% of the G.D.P in 2013.

48
-

The Economic contribution of Agriculture in Indias GDP is

steadily declining with countrys broad based economic
growth. Still agriculture, is demographically, the broadest
economic sector and plays a significant role, in the overall
socio-economic fabric of India.

4.

Agriculture and colonism

-

Over 2500 years ago, Indian Farmers had discovered

and begun many species and sugar cane.

Prior to 18th century cultivation of sugar cane was

largely confined to India.

Sugarcane does not grow, in cold, frost prone climate.

Therefore tropical and semi tropical colonies were sought.

The history and past accomplishments of Indian

Agriculture thus influenced, in part, colonism, first slavery,
then slavery like indentured labor practices in the new
world.

5.

Indian Agriculture since 1947

-

68 years, since its independence, India has made immense,

progress towards food security (to be sure that, there is
enough food for everyone). Indian population has tripled, but
food-grain production, more than quadrupled, there has

49
thus been substantial increase in available food grain per
capita.
6.

Green Revolution in India

-

Prior to the mid 1960s India, relied on imports and

food aid to meet domestic requirements. However, two years
of severe drought in 1965 and 1966, convinced India to
reform its agricultural Policy and that India, could not rely
on, foreign aid and foreign imports for food security. India
adopted significant policy reforms, focused on the goal of
food grain self sufficiency. This ushered in Indias Green
Revolution.

It began with the decision to adopt super yielding,

disease resistant, wheat varieties in combination with better
farming knowledge to improve productivity.

The

Indian

state

of

Punjab

led

Indias

Green

Revolution and earned itself the distinction of being the

countrys bread basket.

The initial increase in production, was centered on the

irrigated areas of the Indian states of Punjab, Haryana and
Western

Uttar

Pradesh.

With

both

the

farmers

and

Government officials focusing on farm productivity and

knowledge transfer, Indias total food grain, production

50
soared. A hectare of Indian wheat farms, that produced on
average of 0.8 tonnes of wheat in 948, produced 4.7 tonnes
of wheat in 1975, from the same land. Such rapidly growths
in farm productivity enabled India to become self-sufficient
by the 1970s. By 2000, Indian farms were adopting wheat
verities , capable of yielding 6 tonnes of wheat per hectare.

With agricultural policy success in wheat Indias

Green Revolution Technology spread to rice. However,
since irrigation infrastructure, was very poor, Indian farmer
innovated with Tube wells, to harvest ground water. When
grains from the new technology reached their limits in the
states of initial adoption, the technology spread in the 1970s
and 1980s to the states of Eastern India- Bihar , Odisha and
West Bengal.

In the 1980s Indian Agricultural policy shifted to

evolution of a production pattern in line with the
demand pattern leading to a shift, in emphasis, to other
agricultural commodities like oil seed, fruit and vegetables.
Farmers

began

adopting,

improved

methods

and

technologies in dairying, fisheries and livestock and meeting

the diversified food needs of Indias growing population.

As with rice the lasting benefits of improved seeds and

improved farming technologies now largely depends on,

51
whether India develops infrastructure such as irrigation
network, flood control systems, etc.

Indias Agricultural economy is undergoing structural

changes between 1970 and 2011, the G.D.P share of
Agriculture has fallen from 43 to 16%. This is not because of
reduced importance in Agriculture or a consequence of
Agricultural policy. This is largely because of rapid growth in
services, industrial output non agricultural sectors in India
between 2000 to 2012.

(7)

Environmental Impact of Agriculture

(1) Change of climate (2) Deforestation (3) Genetic Engineering
(4) Irrigation (5) Pollutants (6) Soil retrogruism and degradation (7)
Waste

1.

Change of climate

Climate

change

and

Agriculture

are

interrelated

processes.

Agriculture has been shown to produce significant

impacts

on

climate

change,

primarily,

through

the

production and release of green house gases, such as

carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, but also by
altering the Earths Land corer, which can change its ability

52
to absorb or reflect heat and light, thus contributing to radio
active forcing.

Land

use

change

such

as

deforestation

and

desertification together with use of fossil- fuels are the

major anthropogenic sources of Co2 is Agriculture itself with
major contributor to increasing methane and nitrous oxide
concentration in earths atmosphere.

Agriculture becomes more dependent on fossil-based

inputs.

Intensification

of

rice

production

leads

to

agricultural waste

Ultimately Leads to production of methane with

atmosphere.

2.

Deforestation
-

One of the causes of deforestation is to clear land for

pasture or crops.

3.

Genetic Engineering : Genetic Engineering has caused

controversies. Seed contamination is problematic. In genetic
Engineering seed contamination may refer to unwanted
genes found in a seed or pieces of DNA from other genetically
engineered seeds. It (seed contamination) is the mixing of

53
seeds used for Agriculture with other seeds, which are not
desirable. (An example is mixing corn seed with weed seed).
-

Contamination in this area is most likely caused by

other genetically engineered seeds cross pollinating,
with unchanged seeds. The new seeds, that are
produced will have significantly altered DNA than the
parent seed. This mutation could potentially then be
passed down to generation. It is possible that the
alterations could affect plant growth and development.

Preventing seed contamination in genetic engineering

is fairly difficult, almost impossible. It is simply a
matter of separating pure seeds from contaminated
ones. This will keep a supply of unaltered seeds for
future use, if they are allowed to cross pollinate.

Government agencies, especially within the United

States

are

setting

up

programes

to

stop

seed

contamination from generate Engineering.

4.

Irrigation
Irrigation can lead to a number of problems.

Depletion of underground aquifers through over

drafting.

54

Poor management of wastes water, chemicals may lead to

water pollution.

Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising

water tables, which in some instances, will lead to problems
of irrigation salinity requiring water table control by some
form of subsurface land drainage.

Irrigation without adequate drainage leads to salinistion.

Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil

structure owing to formation of alkaline soil.

Runoff causing surface water and ground water aquifer

hydrologic cycle water pollution.

5.

Pollutants (Environmental impact of pesticides

Land

and

water

are

contaminated

through

chemical

fertilizers (chemical pollution). Chemical fertilizer is the source of

Nitrous Oxide.
-

Sprayed insecticides, herbicides, reach of a destination

other than their target species, because they are
sprayed or spread across, entire agricultural fields.

Runoff

can

be

carry

pesticides,

into

aquatic

environment, while wind can carry them to other

fields, grazing areas, human settlement.

55
6.

Soil retrogression and degradation

They are two regressive evolution processes associated
with the loss of equilibrium of stable soil.
-

Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and it is

the main factor for soil retrogression. To certain extent
it is a natural evolution.

But Degradation is an evolution different from Natural

evolution. It is related to Human activities.
Such as (i) road which increase impermeable surface,
lead to streaming and ground loss.

Agriculture increases the risk of soil erosion, through

its disturbance of vegetation, by way of

Overgrazing of animals

Crop removal
Monoculture planting

Land

use

conversion

Row cropping

Excessive tilling or
ploughing of the soil (leading to

7.

Waste : Plastic culture, the use of plastic materials, in agriculture,

raises problems around how to carry out the recycling of
agricultural plastics.

56
-

The term plastic culture refers to the practice of

using plastic materials in agricultural applications.

The use of plastic culture is growing rapidly

One significant component of plastic culture is the

disposal of used plastics. Few Technologies exist for
recycling the plastics. But more environmental friendly
plastic culture and recycling are to be developed.

VI (a) Sustainable agriculture

Sustainable Agriculture can be understood, as an eco
system approach to agriculture.
-

The exponential population increase in recent decades

has

increased

the

practice

of

agriculture

land

conversion to meet demand for food, which in turn,

has increased the effects on the Environment.

Sustainable Agriculture : integrates three main goals.

(1) Environmental Health

(2) Economic Profitability
(3) (3) Social and Economic Equality

57
Sustainable agriculture is the act of farming using the
principles of Ecology, the study of relationship between
organisms and their environment.
-

The phrase sustainable agriculture, was coined by an

Austrial Agricultural Scientist Gordon McClymont

Definition of Sustainable Agriculture

It is defined an integrated system of plant and animal
production practices having a sitespecific application, that
will last over, the long term.
For example :
Enhance
natural

environmental
resource

base

quality
up

on

and

the

which

this

agricultural economy depends.

Satisfy human food and fibre needs
Make the most efficient on of non-renewable
resources

and

on-farming

resources

and

integrate, where, appropriate, natural biological

cycles and controls.
Sustain

the

economic

viability

of

farm

operations.
Enhance, the quality of life for farmers and
society as a whole.

58

VII.

Eco friendly Farming

-

Modern Intensive Agriculture has created ecological

impacts. Over the few decades, of modern Agricultural
activities,

it

was

realized

that

sustainability

of

production and consequent environment damage was

rampant. As such, there needs, an alternative practice
where more ecological rationale will be adopted into
sustaining

agricultural

production.

Eco-friendly

farming is one of the alternative measures proposed

for sustainable agriculture.
VII (a) Few problems of Eco-friendly farming
(1)

Use of Renewable Energy in Eco-friendly faming

Twelve percent of global green house gas emissions come
from agriculture. It is one of the drawbacks of modern
Agriculture.
-

Six to nine percentage of farm expenses are energy

related. These comes the question renewal sources for
farming.

Using renewable energy in agriculture has benefits for

both the economy and the Environment and many
farms, around the world are using the abundance of
on-site renewable resources to produce energy.

59
-

With expenses of land and a need to source power to

remote locations, solar energy is well suited for life on
the farm.

Photo synthesis to photovoltaics is one of the

principles of Eco-friendly farming.

(2)

Use of wind power for farms

-

Wind energy is another alternative for energy in Ecofriendly farming. Hence it is also an important
resources in farms.

The majority of this energy comes from large scale

wind farms. Wind turbines can be installed along
crops or even on the same land where animals gaze
on.

The turbines can generate, enough energy to power the

farm or even produce extra energy to sell back to the
grid.

VII (b) Better utilization of Waste

Waste not, want not : Producing Energy from Waste
-

The energy from agricultural waste can be converted to

Biogas. Biogas is comprised mostly of methane, the
same compound that gives natural gas its power and
can be used in Turbines designed for natural gas.

60

Anaerobic digesters can be used to convert, animal

waste to Biogas. In addition, to generating electricity,
these microbes also treat the waste and produce
fertilizer.

From solar power to microbial digestion is also

one principles of Eco-friendly farming.

VII (c) Use Organic farming methods

-

Organic farming is a form of eco-friendly farming. The

organic farming methods combines scientific knowledge of
ecology and modern technology with traditional farming
practices based n naturally occurring biological processes.

VII (d) The principal method of Organic farming includes

(1) Crop rotation

((4) Biological Pest control and

(2) Green manuers

(5) Mechanical cultivation

(3) Compost
-

Organic

farming

is

management

system

that

an

ecological
promotes

production

and

enhance

biodiversity, bio cycles and soil biological activity.

-

It is based on minimal use of-farm inputs and on

management practices, that restore, maintain and enhance
the ecological harmony.

61
-

Organising farming strictly limits or excludes, the use

of various methods such as
(i)

Chemical Fertilisers

(ii)

Pesticides

(iii)

Plant growth regulations such as use of hormones,

antibiotics

in

live

stock,

genetically

organized

organisms to reasons including sustainability health

and safety
-

Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated

and legally enforced.

VIII. Climate change

-

Climate change is the average weather pattern in a

place over many years.

Climate in our place on the globe controls the weather

we live.

Weather is the mix of events that happen everyday in

out atmosphere including temperature, rainfall and
humidity.

The term weather refers to the short term properties

of the atmosphere (such as temperature pressure,
humidity, rainfall, sunshine, cloud cover and wind, etc)
at a given place and time.

62

The average weather of an area including general

pattern of atmospheric conditions, seasonal variations
and weather extremes averaged over a long period of
time is called climate.

Thus, weather refers to the hourly, daily, a weekly

changes, in the above properties, climate reflects
long periods such as season or years.

The most general definition of climate change is a

change in the statistical properties of the climate
system which considered over long periods of time,
regard less ofcause.

The climate is largely determined by the temperature

and rainfall of an area.

Climate change is caused by factors such as Biotic

process, variation in solar radiations, received by the
Earth, plate tectonics and volcano rivers.
-

Certain Human activities have also been identified as

significant causes of recent climate change often
referred to as Global warming

So in the context of environmental policy, the term

climate

change

has

became

synonymous

with

63
anthropogenic
journals,

global

global

warming. Within scientific

warming

refers

to

surface

temperature increase, while climate change includes

global warming and everything else that increase
green house gas levels, will affect.
VIII (a)

Forcing Mechanisms for climate change

-

Factors that can shape climate are called forcing

mechanisms of climate forcing.

Forcing

mechanisms

can

be

either

internal

or

external.
VIII (b) Internal forcing Mechanisms
They are natural processes within the climate system.
The examples include :
(1)

Type and distribution of species.

(2)

The changes in ocean currents.

VIII (c) External Forcing Mechanisms

(1)
-

Orbital variations

Slight variations in Earth orbit lead to changes in the

seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earths
surface.

Three types of orbital variations are :

64
(1)

Variations in the Earths eccentricity

(2)

Changes in the tilt angles, earths axis of rotation

(3)

Precession of the Earth axis

-

Combined together these variations produce

MilanKovitch Cycles : which have a large impact on climate and

are notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods.
VIII (d) Evidence for climate change
Evidence for climate changes is taken from a variety of sources
than can be used to reconstruct the past climates.
(1)

Historical and archaeological evidence

-

Corresponding changes in the agricultural pattern,

human settlement

Climate change have been linked to the collapse of

various civilizations.

(2)

Glaciers
-

Glaciers are considered among the most sensitive

indicators of climate change.

Their size is determined by Mass balance between

snow and melt output.

As temperature warm, glaciers retreat unless snow

precipitation increases to make up for the additional
melt.

65
(4)

Arctic sea ice loss

The decline in Arctic sea ice, both in extent and thickness
over the last several decades is further evidence for rapid
climate changes.

(4)

Vegetation : A change in the type, distribution and the

coverage of vegetation may occur due to a change in the
climate.
-

Some changes in climate may result in increased

precipitation and warmth resulting in improved plant
growth and the subsequent sequestration of air born
Co2. A gradual increase in warmth in a region will lead
to earlier flowering and fruiting items, driving a change
in the timing of life cycles of dependent organisms.

(5)

Pollen Analysis
-

Different groups of plants have pollen, with distinct

shapes and surface structures and since the outer
surface of pollen is composed of a very resilent
material, they resist decline.

The changes in the types of pollen found in different

types of sediment in takes, or river deltas indicate
change in plant communities.

(6)
to

Dendro climatology

:is the analysis of tree ring growth pattern

66
determine, past climate variations. Wide and
thick rings indicate a fertile well watered growing
period. Whilst thin, narrow rings, indicate a time
of lower, rainfall and less-than-ideal growing
conditions.
(7)

Seal level change : Using (1) Allimeter measurements (2) From

Satellite

orbit

(3)

Coral

reefs

(4)

Coastal

sediments (5) Marine terraces, etc

VIII (e) Inter governmental panel on climate change (IPCC)
-

It is a scientific inter governmental body under the

auspices of the United Nations, setup at the request of
member of Governments.

Established in 1988. It is open to all members of the

UN and WMO (World Meteorological Organisation)

The IPCC does not carryout research nor does it

monitor climate related data or relevant parameters.
It bases its assessment mainly on peer reviewed and
published scientific / technical report.

The IPCC Secretariat is hosted by WMO. Head

Quarters at Geneeva.

67
-

IPCC in now chaired by Mr. Rajendra K.Pachauri

elected in May 2002. The former Chairman was
Robert Watson.

The ultimate purpose of IPCC is to stabilize green

house gas concentrations in the atmosphere, at a
level, that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
(human induced) interference with the climate
system.

Thousands of Scientists and other experts contribute

(on a voluntary basis, without payment form IPCC) to
writing and reviewing reports, which are then reviewed
by

Government.

The

IPCC

reports

contain

summary of policy makers which is subject to line

by line approval delegates from all participating
Governments. Typically this involves the Governments
of more than 120 Countries.
VIII (f) Aims of IPCC
To asses scientific information relevant to
(1)

Human induced climate change

(2)

Options for adaptation and migration.

VIII (g) Tackling climate change

(1)

The emissions of green house gas has to be reduced

(2)

Forest conservation

68

(3)

Transport : More fuel efficient vehicles. Transport to rail

and

public

transport

systems.

Promote

non-motorised

transport (cycling, walking)

(4)

Buildings

Efficient

lighting,

more

efficient

electrical

appliances, passive & active solar design for heating and

cooling.
(5)

Industry : (1) More efficient electrical equipment (2) material

recycling

(6)

(3) control of gas emissions.

Forest Afforestation: use of forestry products for bio energy

to replace fossil fuel use.

(7)

Agriculture Improved crop and gazing land management

to increase, soil carbon storage, reduce NO2 emissions,
dedicated energy crops to replace fossil fuel use.

(8)

Waste : Waste incineration with energy recovery composing of

organic waste, controlled waste water treatment, recycling
and waste minimization.

IX. Carbon credit

(a)

Introduction
-

A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable

certificate or permit, representing the right to emit one
tonne of Carbon dioxide or the mass of another Green
House Gases (GHGS).

69

On carbon credit in equal to one metric tone of Carbon

Dioxide or in some market, Carbon dioxide equivalent
gases.

(b)

Definition
-

The Collins English Dictionary defined a Carbon

Credit as a Certificate showing that a Government or
company has paid to have certain amount of Carbon
Dioxide removed from the Environment.

(c)

Background
-

The burning of fossil fuel is a major source of Green

House Gas Emissions especially for power, cement
and other industries which rely on fossil fuels (coal,
electricity derived from coal, natural gas and oil)

The major green house gases emitted by these

industries

are

Carbondioxide,

Methane,

Nitrous

Oxide, Hydro flouro Carbons (HFCS) etc. all of which

increase, the atmospheric ability to trap infrared
energy and thus affect the climate.
-

The concept of Carbon credit came to existence, as a

result

of

increasing

awareness

of

the

need

for

controlling emissions. The IPCC has observed that

Policies that provide a real or implicit price of
Carbon could create, incentives for producers and

70
consumers to significantly invest in low GHG
Products,
policies

technologies
could

includes

and

processes.

economic

Such

instruments,

Government findings and regulations.

-

The mechanism was formalized in the Kyoto Protocol

and international agreement between more than 170
countries.

(d) Kyotos Flexible Mechanism

The Kyoto protocol provides three mechanisms that enable
counties or operations in developed countries to acquire green house
gas credits.
Under joint implementation (JI) a developed country with relatively
high cost of domestic green house reduction would set up a project
in another developed country.
Under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), a developed
country, can sponsor a green house reduction project in a
developing country, where the cost of Green House reduction
project activities is usually much lower, but the atmospheric effect
is globally equivalent. The developed country would be given,
credits for meeting its emission, reduction targets while the
developing country would receive the capital investment and clean
technology or beneficial change in land use.

71
Under the International Emission Trading (IET) Countries can
trade in the International Carbon Credit market to cover, their
short fall, in Assigned amount Units. Countries with Units can sell
them to countries that are exceeding their emission.
(e) How can you make money from Carbon Credit ?
Carbon dioxide, the most important gas produced by the
combustion of fuels, has become a cause for global panic (global
warming) as its concentration in the Earths Atmosphere has been
rising alarmingly. This devil, however is now turning into a profit
that helps people, countries, consultant, traders, Corporations and
even farmers, earn Billions of rupees. This was an unimaginable
trading not more than a decade ago.
Carbon credit is a part of International Emission trading
norms. They incentivise companies or countries that emit less,
Carbon. The total annual emissions, are capped and the market
allocates a monetary value to any short fall, through trading
business can exchange, buy or sell carbon credits in international
markets at the prevailing market price.

India and China are likely to emerge as the biggest, sellers and
Europe is going to the biggest buyers of Carbon Credits.
Last year global Carbon Crediting was estimated as 5 Billion U.S
Dollars with India Contribution at around one Billion. India is one
of the countries that have credits for, emitting less Carbon. India

72
and China have surplus, credits to offer to countries that have a
deficit.