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Documente Cultură
Interdependence
simply
Seekfirstto
Synergize
6
Understand
thentobe
understood PUBLIC
5
VICTORY
Think
Win/Win
4
Independence
3
PutFirst
ThingsFirst
PRIVATE
VICTORY
1
2
Be
Begin
Proactive
withtheEnd
inMind
Dependence
the
mission
established the original business. The firm then runs the risk of becoming
unfocused, of trying to be too many things to too many people.
Many employees are more motivated to work diligently for organizations
that fulfill socially desirable purposes than for firms whose managers define
their principal objective as profit taking or engaging in practices that
question ethical norms.
Organizational behavior is usually not random. The law of effect is the
behavioral tendency where people tend to behave in ways that enable them
to attain the goals for which they are rewarded.
Organizational Subsystems
Inputs
People,
materials
,
supplies,
capital
Imports
Procuremen
t&
Production
Order
Fulfillment
Exports
Money
Managemen
t
Informatio
n
Money
Feedbac
k
Outputs
Sales of
goods
and
services,
waste,
jobs
responsible for selecting and training people who have or can develop
the skills needed to achieve organizational goals.
Organization Organization as used here refers to a structural
network and the processes that define and link key subsystems within
the enterprise. Organization structure is simplistically symbolized by
a chart, drawing, or map that depicts the decision authority and
communication relationships among people and the ways in which
tasks are grouped into departments or subunits. In a realistic sense,
managers view structure in a broader way to include all those
elements that help govern peoples behavior at work. These include
goals, plans, policies, and rules, as well as the authority and
communication networks.
Organizational Culture All the foregoing elements combine to
form a network of social systems, and from these evolve an
organizational culture. By culture we mean the beliefs, values, and
assumptions people have about their particular organization and the
expected behavior within it.
Management The Integrating Responsibility In the center of this
transformation network, we show managers and leaders.
Summary
Organizations are open dynamic systems for transforming resource inputs
into outputs of useful products and services that satisfy the needs of
customers and provide value to stakeholders. But the interests of various
stakeholders are not always aligned. This places conflicting pressures and
demands on managers.
At the highest organizational level, managers seek to navigate competitive
environmental forces by developing a mission to define the firms unique
business purpose and crafting superordinate goals to challenge and guide
employees. At all levels, managers diagnose and influence systems by
working with people and allocating resources to carry out tasks and achieve
goals within an environment of change. In performing their jobs, managers
behave in different roles, frequently shifting emphasis among interpersonal,
information, and decision-making roles.
To maintain organizational viability, managers work to achieve goals in the
areas of productivity, satisfaction, and revitalization. One of the realities of
life in organizations is that todays effective practices are not likely to
suffice tomorrow. Whether pulled by the success of growth or jolted by
crisis and downturn, managers must periodically transform the system to
6.
Controlling
&
Improving
5.Impleme
nting &
executing
2. Setting
objectives
3. Crafting
strategy
4.
Organizing
and
financing
Articulate the vision that defines the business, what it is, what it is
not, and what it should be in the future.
Communicate to internal members and external constituencies a clear
sense of meaning and direction that is motivating and energizing
Convey which customer wants and needs it will seek to satisfy, and
the target markets it will serve
Identify the value-adding functions it will perform, realizing its
specific enabling actions will change over time while the purpose
endures.
Be of bumper-sticker length brief enough to be incorporated into
corporate communications and easily remembered
Worldcoms Mission
To be the preeminent global communications company for the digital
generation, generation d.
Enrons Mission
Not found.
IBMs Mission
At IBM, we strive to lead in the creation, development and manufacture of
the industrys most advanced information technologies, including computer
systems, software, networking systems, storage devices and
microelectronics.
Microsofts Mission
To enable people and businesses throughout the world to realize their full
potential
Apples Mission
Apple is committed to bringing the best personal computing experience to
students, educators, creative professionals and consumers around the world
through its innovative hardware, software and Internet offerings.
Respect for people that includes our concern for the interests of all
people worldwide who touch or are touched by our company:
customers, employees, shareholders, partners and communities;
Integrity that embraces the very highest standards of honesty, ethical
behavior and exemplary moral character;
Excellence that is reflected in our continuous search for new ways to
improve the performance of our business to become the best at what we
do.
TOPIC: Discuss Tylenol experience, J&J used mission as guide.
Financial
Customer
Business Process
Learning & Growth (Employee)
TOPIC: Strategy fairly recent in business. Sun Tsu, The Art of War.
3. Craft Strategy to Fulfill the Mission and Vision
A strategy is a plan of actions to achieve a favorable position within the
competitive marketplace by strengthening the relationship between an
organizations capabilities and its changing environment. Strategies
pertain to those destiny-shaping decisions concerning:
The
The
The
The
The
How much of the product the firm should make, and how much it
should buy from other firms
Whether to be technology or labor intensive
Whether to distribute through independent dealers, wholesale trade
channels, a business-owned dealer network, or the Internet
Whether to aim for high-volume economies of scale, or flexibility with
short product life-cycles and greater customized production
Whether to price products to gain market share or to improve gross
margin
Differentiation
Overall Low-Cost
Broad
Differentiation
Strategy
Best-Cost
Provider
Strategy
Market Target
Focused
Focused LowDifferentiation
Buyer Cost Strategy
Segment
A Narrow
Strategy
Leadership
CrossBuyers
A Broad
Strategy
Section of
Stakeholders
Employees
Stockholders
Community
Customers
Strength of Need
Degree of
Satisfaction
Evaluate the relationships (if any) between the items in the circle,
looking for cause-effect linkages. Connecting arrows are drawn to
show cause-effect relationships.
Once the network of cause-effect arrows has been completed, the
group counts the number of incoming and outgoing arrows for
each theme and tabulates scores beside the label (C=number of
causal elements and E=number of effects).
The group then labels the two or three thematic elements that have
the largest number of outgoing arrows as PC for primary cause.
The same is done for the PE, or primary effect, themes.
For planning purposes, the PC elements are the ones that focus
attention. If primary cause elements are acted upon and
strengthened, the primary effects will likely occur. From this cause-
Theme
A
Theme
B
Theme
C
P
C
P
C
P
E
Theme
D
P
E
Theme
E
P
C
P
E
Theme
F
Starting with a hub and circle, with a spoke for each thematic
group.
People
Vendors
Tasks
Technology
Customers
Organizatio
n Culture
Organizati
on &
Systems
Competito
rs
These approaches rely on Paretos law, known as the 80/20 rule, that
states that 80 percent of an observed result is caused by 20 percent of the
activities, or efforts, or people involved.
These approaches are not without risk. 50 to 70 percent of reengineering
efforts fail to achieve their objectives.
Before launching a top-down redesign using one or more of the three Rs
(restructuring, reengineering, and rightsizing), executives might do well to
rethink their pending actions by pulling the three Cs noted above to the
forefront: character, constituencies, and capabilities.
Traditional
management
practices
Task forces
Consultative
participation
Cross-functional
teams
Deciding on work
procedures
Job design
Quality circles
Self-managed
teams
Management
decides
Joint decisions
Performers
decide
Functional Content
Functional /
Charismatic
Functional / Traditional
Elitist / Charismatic
Elitist / Traditional
Charismatic Origin
Tradition Origin
Elitist Content
When organizational values are strong, one of these four systems typically
emerges as the dominant pattern. Since charismatic types are inherently
more unstable, the arrows show possible movements toward greater
organizational effectiveness (with solid arrows stronger than dashed).
Values embedded in tradition with a functional focus are thus more effective
in bringing about behaviors necessary for long-term success.
Functional-Traditional Values - Most likely to contribute to the
development of environmentally viable values and, consequently, to
organizational effectiveness.
Elitist-Charismatic Values At the opposite end of long-term
effectiveness. Values usually comes from the flamboyant, eccentric
personality of a founder who creates a product or service that meets early
market success.
Functional-Charismatic Values This system has the potential for longerterm effectiveness and probably represents a transitional phase along the
path toward functional-traditional values. Dedication to functional values
puts the focus on doing what is right rather than on elitist pride.
Elitist-Traditional Values Finally some organizations use tradition as a
way of intentionally sustaining long-term elitism. Usually these are smaller,
niche marketers who appeal to clients attracted by snob appeal or the long
tradition of being perceived as superior or exclusive.
Core Ideology
Companies that others sought to emulate built their organizations on a
foundation core ideology. An organizations core ideology combines
essential and enduring core values as a set of guiding principles with a
purpose that uniquely defines the fundamental reasons for the
organizations existence (beyond making money). Ideology provides for
stability over generations of management; it is a set of precepts around
which the organization functions irrespective of its leaders, its strategies,
its lines of business, and its practices as they change over time.
Rites
Ceremonies
Myths
Legends
Symbols
Folktales
Language
Gestures
Physical Settings
Artifacts
Dress What people wear says a lot about the organization. Such
clues offer insights into the degree of formality expected of people.
1. The behaviors they deliberately use to role model, teach, and coach.
2. What they pay attention to in the organization or its environment
what they measure and control.
3. How they react to critical events and organizational crises, or their
demonstrated methods of coping.
Second, another early source of culture is active experimentation (trail and
error), where group members learn what really works and what fails.
Degree of
Fit
Demands
What the job
requires
Rewards
What the job offers
First, ask What is the task? What are we trying to accomplish? What
do it at all? In any industry, the most profound route for improving
performance and the person-job match is often to eliminate tasks
altogether-to stop doing that which really does not need to be done.
Second, take a hard look at the ways in which jobs add value. Where
does real value occur? Many activities only add costs rather than
value. Cost generators should be candidates for elimination.
Third, define performance in terms of what works. Quality only comes
by analyzing the steps in the process that produce value-added
performance. Managers then need to wipe out unnecessary steps and
build in those that are necessary but lacking.
Fourth, managers need to develop a partnership with people who hold
potentially productive jobs and get them to improve the process.
Finally, to sustain continuous learning, people at all levels need to
teach.
Psychological Contract
The psychological contract is the workers implicit expectations about
what they are expected to contribute to an organization and what they will
receive in return. Individuals contribute such qualities as their skills, effort,
time, loyalty, and commitment to an organization. In return the organization
offers such things as pay, benefits, security, and opportunities to satisfy such
motives as the need for achievement, power, status, and affiliation. Both the
individual and the organization feel satisfied if they perceive the
psychological contract as fair. The psychological contract is dynamic
because the expectations and contributions of both the individual and
organization change over time. Terms of the psychological contract are
affected by economic cycles and business trends.
TOPIC: What do you expect to contribute to BSU? Get at the end?
A social contract is a term used to describe collective psychological
contracts within a national culture. The general social contract in the US
included two common elements: employees would give regular attendance
and effort along with loyalty to the organization; In return, employers would
provide fair pay and benefits, advancement based on seniority and merit,
and job security within reasonable limits.
TOPIC: American social contract. Has this changed in any way?
Recent times suggest that a revised social contract is needed including the
following elements: Employees will be expected to provide a high level of
performance, a commitment to the companys objectives, and a willingness
to innovate or make suggestions and train to improve behavior; Employers
in turn, will provide interesting and challenging work, learning, flexibility,
performance-based compensation, and opportunities for participation and
involvement. This means that many workers will have to change from their
psychological dependence on their employers to a commitment to their craft
or profession.
Ability is the capacity to perform physical and intellectual tasks. Aptitude
is the capacity to learn an ability. People differ in both their abilities and
aptitudes. Managers should know what abilities are required to perform
various jobs and should try to match the jobs with people who have
appropriate abilities, or at least the aptitude to learn.
Stimuli
Attention &
Selection
Perceiver
Perceived
Setting
Organization
Classification
Figure-ground
Closure
Interpretation
Beliefs
Values
Attitudes
Personal
Meaning &
Intentions
Behavi
or
Organization
Classification We classify people in a variety of categories such as age,
gender, race, nationality, physical categories, education, occupation, and
status. We also attach the assumptions, beliefs, and attitudes we hold
about those groupings. Classifying sensory inputs helps us to sort and
recall sensory data faster.
TOPIC: Perception Exercise, p 2.521 (leave on last slide)
Figure-ground A key element in perceptual accuracy is the ability to
distinguish figure (dominant features) from ground (surrounding,
competing, stimuli). You respond selectively to the most relevant stimuli.
People pay more attention to some stimuli than others and run the
danger of overlooking relevant clues. A major purpose for studying
organizational behavior is to alert you to possible important stimuli.
TOPIC: Perceptual K Exercise, p 2.515
Closure Perceptual closure is the minds tendency to fill in missing data
when it receives incomplete information, especially if the situation or
topic is familiar. Given sketchy information, people often make
assumptions about the missing data. However, if the stimulus is
insufficient to effect closure and thus cope with an ambiguous situation,
then frustration, anxiety, and stress may result.
TOPIC: Hidden Triangles Exercise, p 2.507
Interpretation
The perceptual process happens instantly. Our past learning and experience
as well as our current beliefs, assumptions, attitudes, and values all
influence the meaning we add to what we take in. Combined, they form our
individual frame of reference, which is the mental filter through which
perceptions are interpreted and evaluated.
Perceptual Distortions
TOPIC: Remodeling a Window Exercise, p 2.517
Selective perception is the tendency to focus on those attributes of people
and situations that fit our frame of reference. The potential danger of
selective perception is that we miss important data, and the omission
causes a distorted view of a person or situation.
A stereotype is a rigid, biased perception of a person, group, object, or
situation. We tend to categorize people by their obvious, and sometimes less
obvious, differences. Stereotypes can be positive or negative. Unwarranted
negative stereotypes can lead to bias, which in turn leads to destructive
attitudes such as sexism, racism, and nationalism.
A halo effect is the tendency to overrate a person based on a single trait.
Halo effects can lead to incomplete and inaccurate judgments and, like
stereotypes, may prompt someone to miss individual differences.
Attribution
Attribution is an assumed explanation of why people behave as they do,
based on our observations and inferences. We also make attributions about
our own behavior. Theory suggests that when people observe anothers
behavior, they use certain criteria to determine whether it fits that persons
general personality or is affected by other factors (often subconscious).
Individual
Behavior
Examples:
productivity,
promptness,
attendance
Situational
Factors
Examples:
workload,
resources,
support, time
Internal Causes
Examples: ability,
effort, attitude
Criteria
Distinctiveness
Consistency
Consensus
Behavior
Response
External Causes
Examples: work
demands,
conditions, time
pressures
Criteria
After assessing observations using the above criteria, the cause of behavior
is likely to be attributed to internal and/or external factors.
Attributional error is the tendency to overestimate internal factors and
underestimate external factors when making attributions about others.
Self-serving bias is the tendency of individuals to attribute their own
positive performance to internal factors and their to negative performance
to external factors.
Experienc
e
Accommodat
ion
Divergence
Convergenc
e
Assimilation
Abstract
Conceptu
al-ization
Reflective
Observati
on
Personalities
Personality is the set of traits and behaviors that characterizes an
individual. Managers and others use personality to understand and predict
an individuals behavior and to define the essence of an individual.
Personality emerges over time from the interaction of genetic and
environmental factors. Peoples personalities become clearer and more
stable as they grow older. Personality can change and may do so slowly over
the years.
Thinkin
g
Gathering
Information
Sensation
Thinkers
(ST)
Evaluating
Sensation
Feelers
(SF)
Information
Intuitive
Thinkers
(IT)
Feeling
Intuitive
Feelers
(IF)
Intuitio
n
Thinking: Use analysis and rational logic as the basis for problem
solving. They tend to be unemotional in applying data to models or
problem-solving techniques. The forte of these managers is the use of
the scientific method (systematic evaluation of empirical data), devoid
of personal considerations.
E -- Extraverted: turned toward the outer world, of people and things. An extravert, or
extraverted type, is one whose dominant function is focused in an external
direction. Extraverts are inclined to express themselves, using their primary
function, directly.
I -- Introverted: turned toward the inner world of symbols, ideals and forms. An introvert,
or introverted type, is one whose dominant function is inwardly focused.
Introverts are inclined to express themselves, using their primary function,
indirectly, through inference and nuance.
What about P and J?
P stands for Perceiving, J for Judging. What they really represent is, again,
complex. For the E (extraverted) types, it's simple enough - P means that
the dominant function is a Perceiving function (iNtuition or Sensing); J
means the dominant function is a deciding or Judging function.
For Introverts, it's just the opposite. P actually means that the extraverted
function is a Perceiving (data-collecting, or irrational) function, but since
the dominant function is introverted (by definition for Introverts), the I _ _ P
types' first functions are Judging (deciding or rational) functions.
Tends to back away from his personal ideas when they appear to
conflict with views held by esteemed others. Is very popular among
co-workers, but because they wish to retain this popularity, is at times
hesitant to act. Sometimes the opportunity of the moment is lost as a
result of indecision.
TOPIC: Personality Types Exercise, p 2.511. Discuss proper uses of
personality tests, and limitations.
Chapter 6 Motivation
People have different needs that direct their behavior. Some of these needs
depend on personal circumstances and outside events. Needs can cause
people to seek out experiences that enrich their lives. Alternatively, needs
can trigger behavior to avoid threatening conditions and feelings of
deprivation. Other needs are learned from rewarding experiences. These
learned needs become relatively persistent motives that influence a person
to seek out experiences that satisfy a particular motive, such as the need for
achievement or power.
Beyond human needs and the acquired taste for specific motives, a different
explanation of motivation focuses on expectancies, or peoples expectations
about whether they can affect performance outcomes and how closely
desired rewards are linked to performance. People also consider the equity
of how they are treated, and those evaluations help determine whether they
will appear motivated or not.
Because motivation is derived from the job itself, one way managers can
improve motivation is to enrich jobs. Job enrichment is a means to
encourage motivation by building greater scope (variety) and depth
(responsibility for planning and control of the work) into a job.
Theory Y
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is twice as important as either technical skills or IQ
as a driver of outstanding performance. The five key components of
emotional intelligence are self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation,
empathy, and social skill.
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory is a theory of motivation based on a persons beliefs
about effort-performance-outcome relationships.
The three variables of expectancy theory:
Expectancy
Instrumentality
Valence
Motivation is enhanced when a person answers yes to all three expectancyrelated questions: (1) when effort is believed to be performance related, (2)
when performance is linked to personal consequences, and (3) when the
consequences or payoffs available are highly valued. Conversely, when one
or more answers is negative, motivation potential diminishes.
There are two basic sources of rewards or payoffs: Extrinsic rewards are
rewards externally bestowed, as by a supervisor, teacher, or organization.
Intrinsic rewards postulate that motivation is moderated by perceived
fairness or discrepancies between contributions and rewards. Although
most people look for some mix of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, people
clearly differ as to which is the more compelling motivational force.
Expectancy theory is most applicable to those jobs in which an individual
has discretion as to how and when work is performed. To get the best from
their people, managers should emphasize anticipated rewards, whether
extrinsic or intrinsic. The managers job is to strengthen effort-performancereward expectations.
The important factor is for both people to have a shared expectation for
what needs to be done during the next planning cycle. Then it is necessary
Analyze existing
behavioral contingencies
Develop contingency
intervention strategy
Apply contingency
intervention strategy
Chart frequency of
resulting behavior
Evaluate performance
improvement over time
Probl
em
Solve
d?
Yes
Reinforce to maintain
desirable behavior
Merit Pay (Base Plus Merit) Rather than tie pay only to output, an
alternative is to provide a base salary or hourly wage and then an
incentive or bonus based on output. The performance-based portion
depends on some measurable level of output over which the employee
has control (quantity, quality, cost savings).
o Bonus and Profit-Sharing Plans Compensation plans that are
based on the overall performance of the enterprise rather than the
individuals contribution. A pool of money is divided among eligible
employees based on some performance evaluation or rating
system. The objective of merit plans such as profit sharing,
bonuses, and stock options is to link everyones fate to overall
performance, reinforcing corporate cultures that emphasize group
results over individual performance.
little variety
in their
dailyvertical
tasks. Theresponsibility,
are enriched toindividual
give the individual
Task depth addresses
how
much
technician may have a university
responsibility for doing whatever is
accountability, and
autonomous
decision authority
is expected
indone.
a job,
education
or need professional
necessary
to get the job
Theoften
thought of as vertical
job
loading
when formally
designed.
training to
learn
how to perform
the
work
presents challenges and novelty,
Low
Hig
h
Autonomy the degree of control a person has over his or her own
job actions, such as responsibility for self-governing behaviors to
perform the job and the absence of a programmed sequence of
activities (essentially, task depth).
Task variety the degree to which normal job activities require
performing multiple tasks (breadth of task scope).
Task identity the extent to which a person has a whole task to
complete, with visible starting and ending points.
Feedback the frequency and completeness with which the task
provides information about work progress and results of personal
efforts.
Friendship opportunities the extent to which the work setting
provides opportunities for close interpersonal contacts (less impact).
mental overload and stress, but creates more boredom and physical
demands.
Job Core
Characteristics
Psychological States
(Effects)
Combine tasks
Vertical job
loading
Open feedback
channels
Establish client
relationships
Form natural
work units
Autonomy
Skill variety
Task identity
Work feedback
Friendship
opportunities
Task significance
Initiated task
interdependence
Experienced
meaningfulness
Experienced
responsibility for:
Ones own
work
outcomes
Others work
outcomes
Experienced
knowledge of
results of work
Internal work
motivation
Satisfaction with
work and internal
growth
Quality work
performance
Low absenteeism
and turnover
By Others
Perceptions
Accepting
Modeling
Mentoring
By Self
By Managers
Predisposition
Competence
Expectations
Job designs
Goal reward
Leadership
Self-concept
Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Outcomes
Behaviors
Self-initiated
Persistent
Adaptive
What is Communication?
Communication is the process of one person sending a message to another
with the intent of evoking a response. Effective communication occurs when
the receiver interprets the message exactly as the sender intended. Efficient
communication uses less time and fewer resources. The most efficient
communication is not necessarily the most effective. What a manager wants
to achieve is effective communication in the most efficient way.
Communication in organizations serves three major purposes: it allows
members to coordinate actions, share information, and satisfy social needs.
Sender
Origination idea or
feeling
Encoding translating
information into a message
appropriate for
transmission
Transmission The act of
conveying a communication
No Reply end
communication
Perception process
includes attention/selection,
organization, and
interpretation
Decoding the receiver
function of perceiving
communication stimuli and
interpreting their meaning
Response no response in
one-way communication
Message
Channel the medium
through which a message is
transmitted
Verbal channel words
spoken and transmitted
through sound waves
Nonverbal channel all
ways of communicating
without words, such as tone
of voice, facial expression,
Receiver
Perception process
includes attention/selection,
organization, and
interpretation
Decoding the receiver
function of perceiving
communication stimuli and
interpreting their meaning
Response no response in
one-way communication
No Reply oneway
Feedback a message that tells the original sender how clearly the message was understood and
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Provides managers with info
about:
DOWNWARD
COMMUNICATION
Used by managers to:
Current problems
Assign goals
Progress toward goals
Policies/procedures/practic
improvement
es
Provide performance
feedback
Employee grievances
COMMUNICATION
Socialize
employees
Communication that takes place among peers that can
cut across
departments &
work groups, resulting in:
Employee surveys
Suggestion boxes
Face-to-face encounters
Open-door policies
Required reports
Problem
Solving
Coordinati
on
Speeches
Memos
Newsletters
Bulletin boards
Policy & procedure
manuals
Social Gatherings
Semantics the meaning and use of words that can differ between
people & especially cultures. Many professional and social groups adopt
a specialized technical language called jargon that provides them with a
sense of belonging and simplifies communication within the in-group.
Filtering when the sender conveys only certain parts of the relevant
information to the receiver. Filtering often occurs in upward
communication when subordinates suppress negative information.
Filtering is very common when people are being evaluated for
promotions, salary increases, or performance appraisals. Additionally,
when managers are deluged with more information than they can
process effectively, one response is to screen out and never decode a
large number of messages.
Claim your own message senders should use personal pronouns such
as I and mine. This indicates to the receiver that the sender takes
responsibility for the ideas and feelings expressed in the message. Its
better too to be up front rather than put the receiver on the defensive.
Develop Credibility
The credibility of a sender is probably the single most important element in
effective interpersonal communications. Credibility is the senders degree
of trustworthiness, as perceived by the receiver.
Communicate Ethically
Interpersonal communications are ethical when they facilitate a persons
freedom of choice by presenting accurate, relevant information.
Deception is the conscious alteration of information to significantly
influence anothers perceptions.
An overt lie is a false statement made with the deliberate intent to deceive.
Covert lying occurs when one omits something relevant, leading others to
draw incorrect inferences.
Ethical behavior has very important consequences for a senders credibility.
Obtain Feedback
To ensure that each party understands what the other is trying to
communicate, interpretations of received messages can be fed back for
confirmation.
Criteria for Giving Feedback
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
judgmental
Be specific, not general (use clear
and recent examples)
Give feedback when the recipient
is open to accepting it
Check to ensure the validity of
your statements
Include only things the receiver
can do something about
Dont overwhelm; make sure your
comments arent more than the
person can handle
assumptions
7. Be sensitive to senders nonverbal
messages
8. Ask questions to clarify
Active listeners put themselves in the other persons shoes. They practice
sensing (recognize silent messages through nonverbal cues), attending
(full attention to the verbal message), and responding (summarize and
give feedback on the content and feelings of the message).
Read nonverbal communication cues if a person says one thing but the
non-verbal communication is not consistent, it results in mixed messages.
The visual component of nonverbal communication is body language or
kinesics. The face is the best communicator of nonverbal messages. Most
gestures are culturally bound and susceptible to misinterpretation. Other
nonverbal channels are tactile, vocal, time, and physical spaces.
The A-B Model a model that illustrates the chain of rapid events that
occur between to interacting people. The interaction is affected by the
needs, values, assumptions and feelings of each person, leading to
perceptions, evaluations and intentions. All of these factors lead to
consequences of the interaction, which may repeat the loop.
Interaction setting
o Job requirements determine how psychologically close or
distant two people need to be to perform their work. The depth of
interpersonal relationships required by a job depends on how
complex the task is, whether the people involved possess different
kinds of expertise, the frequency of the interaction in the job, and
the degree of certainty with which job outcomes can be predicted.
o Organizational culture influences the general nature of
employee relationships. The more culture fosters competitiveness,
aggressiveness, and hostility, the greater the likelihood that people
will be cautious and on guard with each other. Different interaction
patterns can be distinguished by four primary factors:
Diferences in Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure is the process of revealing how you perceive and feel about
the present. Without self-disclosure, you cannot form a meaningful
relationship with another person.
Known to
others
Feedback
Not known to self
Not
known to
others
Disclosure
Known to self
Amiable Style
Expressive Style
Analytical Style
Driver Style
High Assertiveness
Low Assertiveness
High Responsiveness
Low Responsiveness
Male/Female Diferences
An early emphasis on relatedness and connection causes women to develop,
more highly than men, the qualities of vulnerability, empathy, and an ability
to empower and enable others. Men are socialized to deny feeling
vulnerable and are encouraged to strive for self-reliance, strength, and
independence, while women are expected to attend to their own and others
feelings and connect emotionally with others.
Women are better able to nonjudgmentally address weaknesses in
themselves and others.
Women learn to listen with empathy and to be responsive and sensitive to
others emotions. Men, on the other hand, are encouraged to be rational
and strong and to deny feelings in order to maintain rationality and control.
Finally, women grow up expecting a two-directional pattern of relational
growth, where contributing to the development of others will increase their
feelings of effectiveness and competence and where others will be
motivated to reciprocate. This is opposed to mens early training, which
emphasizes independence and competiveness. Consequently, women are
more naturally adaptable to helping others at work in coaching or
mentoring relationships.
Males and females differ in their reactions to authority figures and how they
prefer to deal with conflict. In terms of supervisor preference, females tend
to have more positive attitudes toward female managers than do males.
They also perceive female managers are more competent than males
perceive them.
With respect to conflict, more female managers than male managers have
been socialized to avoid confrontation altogether or to seek help in
resolving them. More women than men settle for noninfluential roles rather
Formal Groups
A formal group is a group intentionally established by a manager to
accomplish specific organizational objectives.
A standing task group is a permanent group formally specified in the
organizational structure consisting of a supervisor and direct subordinates.
A task group is a temporary formal group created to solve specific
problems.
Contributions to Organizations
Contributions to Individuals
Informal Groups
An informal group is a group that emerges through the efforts of
individuals to satisfy personal needs not met by the formal organization.
Membership in informal groups is based on common interests and mutual
Contributions to Organizations
Personal roles are those that only meet individual needs and are usually
detrimental to the group. Personal roles need to be replaced with
maintenance and task roles before a group can become an effective team.
Task Roles
Maintenance Roles
Personal Roles
Initiating
Giving information
Seeking information
Summarizing
Elaborating
Consensus testing
Encouraging
Harmonizing
Setting group
standards
Gate keeping
Compromising
Providing feedback
Blocking
Recognition seeking
Dominating
Avoiding
Seeking help
Low
High
High productivity
Low productivity
Low
Medium productivity
Cohesiveness
Competing goals
Time consuming
Social pressure to conform
Domination by a few
Ambiguous responsibility
o
o
o
o
o
Interdependence
Different goals
Sources of Conflict
Goal Incompatibility
Mutually exclusive
goals win-lose goal
conflict
Lack of resources winlose conflict over
resources
Different time
orientations (urgency)
Structural Design
Interdependence the
degree to which
interactions between
parties must be
coordinated in order for
them to perform
adequately (pooled,
reciprocal, & sequential)
Lack of substitutability
the dependent party
often perceives a lack of
alternatives as a conflict.
Power differentials
Different Role
Expectations
Role A set of tasks and
behaviors that an individual
or group is expected to
perform.
Role ambiguity unclear
expectations
Role conflict different
expectations
Uncertainty reduction
power differences from
groups making rules to
Consequences
Functional Conflict
Conflict between groups that
stimulates innovations and
production.
A conflict-positive
organization is where
participants perceive conflict
as an opportunity for
personal and organizational
growth.
Problem awareness
Increased group
cohesiveness (band
together against a common
enemy)
Increased loyalty
Motivation to improve
Creative change
Dysfunctional Conflict
Conflict between groups in
the same organization that
hinders the achievement of
group and organizational
goals.
Sub optimization
Negative feelings
Distorted perceptions
emphasize negatives of
others and inflate positives
of their own group
Negative stereotypes
Decreased communication
reduce uncertainty
Degenerative Climate
Climate that encourages
dysfunctional conflict.
Win-lose attitudes
People with different
values & expectations
Merged cultural
differences
Personal Differences
Different values
Different preferred way of
behaving
Different views of the
world
C
o
s
t
Problem Awareness
1. Establish trust people need to feel secure enough to acknowledge
that a problem exists.
2. Clarify objectives an objective is a desired outcome that we want
to achieve. This provides a documented statement of what you intend
to accomplish; establishes a basis for measuring performance;
provides positive motivation through knowing what is expected; and
helps to provide a road map.
3. Assess the current situation focus on the what and the how of
the organization and that of the people involved.
4. Identify problems to identify a problem accurately, it must be
understood from all points of view. Many times a flowchart (process
flow diagram) is used to identify process problems.
Problem Definition
1. Analyze problems the goal is to determine the root cause of the
problem. A cause-and-effect diagram (fishbone chart) are
sometimes used to represent the relationship between some effect
and all possible causes influencing it.
2. Agree on problems to be solved you must set priorities regarding
which problem will be worked on first and which follow (and when or
if at all). A Pareto chart is a vertical bar graph that indicates which
problems, or causes of problems, should be solved first.
Decision Making
1. Establish decision-making criteria criteria are statements of
objectives that need to be met for a problem to be solved. Effective
criteria should possess the following characteristics:
Benefits
Probabilit
y of
success
Costs
Risks
Associate
d
conseque
nces
Timing
Alternative
1
Alternative
2
Follow Through
1. Establish criteria for success these criteria serve as the benchmarks
for measuring and comparing results.
2. Determine how to measure performance
3. Monitor the results each implementation step may alter the problem
situation.
4. Take corrective action as needed
Economic Analysis
1. What are the best
economic alternatives?
Cost/benefit analysis
Ethical Analysis
4. Does the decision result in
greater benefits than
damages for society as a
whole, not just for our
organization?
5. Is the decision selfserving, or would we be
willing to have everyone
else take the same action
when faced with the
same circumstances?
6. We understand the need
for social cooperation;
will our decision
increase or decrease the
willingness of others to
contribute?
7. We recognize the
importance of personal
freedom; will our
decision increase or
decrease the liberty of
others to act?
8. Does the action result in
benefit for the least
advantaged person?
9. Would the benefits and
burdens resulting from
the action be distributed
fairly?
10.
Does the action
infringe on the moral
rights or dignity of
others?
11.
Does the action help
to build one of the moral
virtues in that person?
Virtue theory argues the aim of the moral life is to develop those
general dispositions we call the moral virtues (courage,
temperance, justice, prudence, faith, hope and charity), and to
exercise and exhibit them in the many situations that human life
sets before us (Velasquez, 2002).
12.
How would I feel if
this action becomes
public knowledge?
Five Dominant
Decision Styles
Information Use
Solution Focus
The number of
alternatives that a
person develops for
dealing with a
problem.
Satisficer
Uses just enough
information to arrive
at a feasible solution
(advantage when
time is an important
factor
Unifocus
People committed to
one dominant
criterion and
consequently favor a
single solution to a
problem (advantage
when efficiency is
important, when it is
possible to adopt
only one solution, or
when rules and
regulations narrowly
Decisive
People that use just
enough information
to reach one
workable solution.
Fast-thinking, actionoriented people who
place high
importance on
efficiency,
promptness, and
reliability. They
usually stick to one
Maximizer
Continues to gather
information until
nothing new can be
learned about the
problem (important
when problems are
complicated and
there is little time
pressure)
Hierarchic
Analyze a large
amount of
information
thoroughly to
develop a single,
best solution to a
problem. Place great
emphasis on logic
and quality. Tend to
be slow to make
decisions the first
time they encounter
Systemic
This two-stage
decision style
combines both
integrative and
hierarchic patterns.
Initially approaches
a problem in the
integrative way,
viewing it from many
points of view and
exploring multiple
solutions. After
Multifocus
People that apply
several criteria an
generate several
solutions to a
problem (advantage
when there is a need
to find new ways of
doing things or it is
important to cover
all the bases)
Flexible
Use a minimal
amount of
information, but they
are multi-focused
and so produce
several solutions for
a problem. Actionoriented, but they
place greater
importance on
adaptability than on
efficiency. Like to
keep options open.
examining many
options, the person
becomes more
hierarchic,
subjecting various
alternatives to a
rigorous analysis
that ends with a
clearly prioritized
set of solutions. The
systemic usually
develops a very
broad understanding
of a problem.
Systemics examine
multiple problems
simultaneously to
understand the
broader implications
of situations. Tend to
be slow at decision.
Political tactics
The immoral manager is not only devoid of ethical principles, but also
actively opposed to what is ethical. Selfishness is paramount for the
immoral manager.
The amoral manager the one who lacks any moral sensibility whatsoever;
one who doesnt think about the moral implications of actions, or who
chooses to keep ethics out of decisions.
Chapter 14 Leadership
What Distinguishes Managers from Leaders?
Managers are persons granted authority to be in charge of an
organizational unit and thus responsible for diagnosing and influencing
systems and people to achieve appropriate goals.
Authority is the right to make decisions and commit organizational
resources based on position within the organization.
Accountability is holding a person with authority answerable for setting
appropriate goals, using resources efficiently, and accomplishing task
responsibilities.
Leadership is the act of providing direction, energizing others, and
obtaining their voluntary commitment to the leaders vision.
A leader is a person who creates a vision and goals, then energizes others
to voluntarily commit to that vision. Leaders can be found at all levels.
Leadership is observable even in the absence of formal managerial
authority.
Managers (coping
with complexity)
Setting a direction
(inductively creating a
vision and strategies to
provide focus for
planning)
Creating networks
and relationships
vision (emphasizing
communication,
credibility, and
empowerment)
Ensuring people do
the job
Motivating people
(creating involvement,
emphasizing values,
building informal
networks or
relationships)
Controlling and
problem solving
(comparing behavior
with plan; taking action
to correct deviations)
Leader Traits
Low Initiating
Structure
High Initiating
Structure
High Showing
Consideration
Human relations
Democratic
Low Showing
Consideration
Laissez-faire
Autocratic
Low
High
High
Country Club
Management
Medium
Low
Medium
Team
Management
Middle-of-the-Road
Management
Impoverished
Management
Authority
Compliance
Leader Style
Motives/Concerns
Knowledge/Beliefs
Personality
Perceptions
Restricts choices
about
Leader Behavior
Task Structuring
Showing Consideration
Decision Making
Using Power
Situational Variables
Tasks/Strategies
Technology/Time
Organization/Policies
People (Followers)
Influence
Influence
Followers Behavior
Acceptance/Rejection
Productive/Unproductive
Development/Decline
Satisfaction/Dissatisfacti
on
Key Principles
I. Personal
Self
Trustworthiness
II. Interpersonal
People
Trust
III. Managerial
Style
Empowerment
Skills
Structure
Systems
Strategy
IV. Organizational
Alignment
Chapter 15 Change
Change is the process of moving from one condition to another. Changes in
organizations are stimulated by multiple external and internal forces, often
interacting to reinforce one another.
Individuals resist change due to: selective perception, lack of information,
fear of the unknown, habit, and resentment toward the initiator.
Organizations resist change for many of the same reasons individuals do.
Additional sources of resistance are: power maintenance, structural
stability, functional sub-optimization, organizational culture, and group
norms.
Commonly Used
Advantages
Drawbacks
Education
and
communica
tion
Where there is a
lack of information
or inaccurate
information and
analysis.
Once persuaded,
people will often
help with the
implementation of
the change.
Participatio
n and
involvemen
t
Where the
initiators do not
have all the
information they
need to design the
change, and where
others have
considerable
power to resist.
People who
participate will be
committed to
implementing
change, and any
relevant
information they
have will be
integrated into the
change plan.
Facilitation
and
support
No other approach
works as well with
adjustment
problems.
Can be time
consuming,
expensive and still
fail.
Sometimes it is a
relatively easy way
to avoid major
resistance.
Can be too
expensive in many
cases if it alerts
others to negotiate
has considerable
power to resist.
for compliance.
Manipulati
on and
cooptation
Where other
tactics will not
work or are too
expensive.
It can be a
relatively quick
and inexpensive
solution to
resistance
problems.
Explicit
and
implicit
coercion
Where speed is
essential, and the
change initiators
possess
considerable
power.
It is speedy, and
can overcome any
kind of resistance.
Can be risky if it
leaves people mad
at the initiators.
Issues
Interventions
Human
Process
Human
Resourc
e
Strategic
Technolo
gy and
Structur
e
How
How
How
How
to
to
to
to
communicate
solve problems
interact
lead
Sensitivity training
Process consultation
Third-party intervention
Role negotiation
Team building
Survey feedback
Intergroup relations
Goal setting
Reward systems
Career planning and
development
Stress management
Strategic change
Culture change
Trans-organizational
development
Reengineering
Work design
Structural redesign
Collateral structures
Quality of work life