Equine Veterinary Journal ISSN 0425-1644

DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00442.x

Cross-sectional survey of owner knowledge and husbandry

practices, tack and health issues affecting working
horses in Lesotho
evj_442

1..9

M. M. UPJOHN*, K. SHIPTON, D. U. PFEIFFER, T. LEROTHOLI, G. ATTWOOD and K. L. P. VERHEYEN

Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hateld, Hertfordshire, UK.
*Corresponding author email: mupjohn@rvc.ac.uk; [Paper received for publication 23.08.10; Accepted 27.05.11]
Present addresses: K. Shipton, Kuranda Veterinary Surgery, Kennedy Highway, Kuranda, Queensland 4881, Australia; T. Lerotholi, PO Box 192, Matsieng,
Lesotho, South Africa; and G. Attwood, Malealea Development Trust, Motsekuoa, Lesotho, South Africa.

Summary
Reasons for performing study: To establish baseline parameters of equine health, owner knowledge and husbandry practices and tack against which
benets to local horses arising from an equine charitys training programme in Lesotho could be measured.
Objectives: To describe and investigate associations between owner knowledge and equine husbandry practices, horse health and tack-related parameters
prior to the start of the training programme.
Methods: A cross-sectional survey was undertaken in the catchment area of students attending the rst training course. Owners from randomly selected
villages were interviewed about horse care using a standardised, structured questionnaire, administered face to face in local language. Horses were clinically
examined and tack assessed according to standardised protocols.
Results: Clinical examinations were performed on 312 horses and 287 owners were interviewed. Owners had variable knowledge of equine husbandry
and limited understanding of appropriate primary and preventive healthcare. Equine health problems identied included ecto- and endoparasite
infestation, mouth lesions, overgrown and unbalanced feet and tack-associated wounds. The majority of tack was in poor condition, dirty and ill-tting.
With the exception of below-average body condition score, no associations were found between key adverse horse-related clinical ndings and owners
reporting their horse as being unhealthy.
Conclusions: Working horses in Lesotho have a range of physical problems, many of which could be ameliorated through targeted owner education. With
limited access to veterinary advice and scarce resources, improved availability of affordable local equine trade skills is key to improving equine health.
Potential relevance: Findings could be used to inform and direct training programmes to maximise benets to equine health and to serve as a baseline
against which to monitor effects of educational and other interventions.
Keywords: horse; working equine; survey; developing country; husbandry; health; tack

Introduction
Poverty characterises everyday life for many people in rural areas in
developing countries (Perry et al. 2002; Thornton et al. 2002). Livestock
serve many purposes, including traction and transport, particularly where
motorised means of transport are either uneconomic or impractical due
to the terrain. An estimated 110 million equines live in the developing
world (FAOSTAT 2008), where they are used for transport (pulling a cart or
as pack animals), under saddle (particularly where roads are
underdeveloped and/or the terrain is rugged and mountainous) and for
ploughing (Ramaswamy 1994; Gebreab 1998; Pritchard et al. 2005).
Owing to the impoverished situation of these animals owners and their
working in harsh climatic and/or terrain environments, the health and
welfare of these equines is a cause for concern (Pritchard et al. 2005).
Poor working conditions faced by such animals can adversely affect their
health and productivity which, in turn, has negative consequences for
their owners wellbeing.
Studies reporting on working equines health are often specic to an
individual country and ndings vary according to economic, geographic
and climatic conditions. Issues such as low body condition score, endoand ectoparasite infestation, mouth problems, skin lesions, limb
deformities and gait abnormalities have been identied for countries in
Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and Central America (de Aluja 1998;
Pritchard et al. 2005; Tesfaye and Curran 2005; Morgan 2006; Burn et al.
2008, 2010; Du Toit et al. 2008; Getachew et al. 2008a,b; Broster et al.
2009; Burden et al. 2010; Sells et al. 2010). Deciencies in owner
knowledge regarding topics such as wound management, watering and
nutrition requirements, appropriate shelter arrangements and/or access
to essential resources such as hard feed, grazing land or veterinary
services have been highlighted in developing countries in Africa, the
Middle East and Central Asia (Wells and Krecek 2001; Curran et al. 2005;
Oussat 2006; Pearson and Krecek 2006; Shah et al. 2006; Shelima et al.
Equine Veterinary Journal (2012) 2011 EVJ Ltd

2006). A number of charities operate in developing countries with the aim

of improving the health and welfare of working equines. However, few
studies report objectively on the benet derived from their interventions
(Curran et al. 2005; Stringer et al. 2011), in particular where baseline
data, collected prior to intervention, are available.
Lesotho is a small, independent, landlocked and mountainous country
situated in the eastern Republic of South Africa (RSA), where over 80% of
the country is >1800 m above sea level. The climate comprises warm, wet
summers (up to 30C) and cold, dry winters (below 0C in upland areas).
With estimated gross national per capita income of approximately
US$1000 pa (WorldBank 2008), it is one of Africas poorest countries.
Much of the population are subsistence farmers, growing primarily maize
and sorghum. An estimated equine population of 65,000 representing 8.0
per 100 head of agricultural population (FAOSTAT 2008) is primarily used
for transport under saddle, for tourist trekking and for pulling carts (this
compares with 2.9 per 100 head of the agricultural population
in Ethiopia).
In 2007 a UK-based equine charity, working internationally to improve
horse health and welfare through the establishment of 5-year training
programmes on farriery, saddlery and nutrition, initiated a programme in
Lesotho in 2007. Each year, 10 students enrol on a farriery course and 10 on
a saddlery course. Each course comprises 4 residential modules of 23
weeks duration each, taught by UK qualied Master Farriers and Master
Saddlers. Between the full-time residential modules, students return to
their communities and are expected to practise the skills learned. On
completion of the course, successful students receive a set of tools to
enable them to continue applying their skills in the community.
In order to measure objectively the effectiveness of its activities, the
charity supported an impact assessment study to quantify the difference in
horse health and owner knowledge and equine husbandry practices before
and after the intervention. This paper reports on the rst stage of that
study, a baseline survey of horses and their owners, conducted before the

Owner practices, tack and health issues affecting Lesotho working horses

M. M. Upjohn et al.

start of the charitys training activities. The aim of the baseline survey was
to describe health parameters of horses, describe tack used on those
horses and horse owner knowledge and equine husbandry practices
before the rst training course. In addition, to establish which parameters
could be amenable to educational or other intervention, associations
between selected owner-reported and horse health and tack variables
were investigated.

foot was assessed for mediolateral and dorsopalmar/plantar balance, horn

length, frog and sole condition and presence/absence of a shoe.
Where available, tack used on the horse was examined using a
standardised protocol whereby for each component part, the condition,
cleanliness and t were recorded as good, adequate, poor or very poor (see
Table 3 for category descriptions).

Materials and methods

Study design
A descriptive cross-sectional survey was undertaken between April and
June 2007. The reference population was working horses and owners
residing in the area from which students attending the rst training course
were drawn. This area extended from South West Lesotho to the southern
periphery of Maseru, the capital, in North West Lesotho, and included both
periurban and subsistence agricultural lowlands. For logistical purposes,
the area was divided into 3 broad districts: the Mohales Hoek area, the
Mafeteng/Malealea area and the Matsieng/Maseru area.

Sample size determination and sampling strategy

Sample size calculations were performed in the context of the impact
assessment study investigating differences in the prevalence of health
conditions or practices before and after training. Calculations for a
cluster-randomised study (assuming a signicance level of 5%, 80% study
power and intraclass correlation coefcient of 15%) indicated that
between 100 and 150 horses/owners would need to be
sampled/questioned in each of the 3 districts (clusters) to detect a 1030%
difference, assuming a baseline prevalence of 2060%. Villages were
randomly selected using a village listing created in consultation with local
community workers. To maximise logistical efciency, as many owners as
possible were surveyed in each village visited; for owners with more than
one horse, a single animal was selected using a random number list. When
examining police horses, one carer was interviewed in each of 4 regional
stabling facilities visited and approximately half of the horses at each
location were randomly selected for examination.

Data collection
Each selected village was visited once. Each owner was interviewed using a
standardised structured questionnaire which had been pretested in
Lesotho. The questionnaire included a combination of open and closed
questions on owner demographics and horse ownership details, feeding
practices, availability and care of tack, and primary and preventive
healthcare knowledge and practices, in particular in relation to mouth and
foot care. Interviews were conducted face to face in local language by a
bilingual trained interviewer. A copy of the questionnaire is provided as
Supplementary Information to this paper.
Each horse was examined according to a standardised comprehensive
pretested protocol by one of 2 veterinary-trained members of the research
team (M.U. or K.S.). Examinations were undertaken outdoors with no
restraint other than any headcollar or bridle that the horse wore on arrival.
Body condition score (BCS) was assessed using a standard scoring scale
(Carroll and Huntington 1988) from 0 (emaciated) to 5 (obese). Horse age
was estimated according to dentition. Oral examination was conducted
manually, without a gag. In some cases, for safety reasons, it was necessary
to examine a horses mouth with the bit in place. Thoracic auscultation was
undertaken to assess cardiac rate/rhythm and audible respiratory noise.
Ocular examination consisted of visual inspection without access to shade
and without the use of eye drops, uorescein or ophthalmoscope.
Assessment of tick infestation was recorded according to a scale of none;
mild (up to a total of 3 ticks in one or more locations); moderate (410 in one
or more locations); or severe (more than 10 in one or more locations).
Wounds were recorded by location. Manual vertebral palpation was
undertaken along the length of the horses spine; pain response and
bony/soft tissue lesions and wounds were recorded. Lameness, assessed
at walk for approximately 20 steps, was scored on a scale of 0 (sound) to 5
(nonweightbearing). Each limb was palpated at rest and lesions noted. Each

Collection of clinical samples

With the owners permission, a fresh faecal sample for faecal egg count
(FEC) and 2 blood samples were collected from each horse examined. The
faecal sample was collected either per rectum or, if this was not possible,
via identication of a freshly voided sample on the grazing area/enclosure
from the animal concerned. Blood samples were collected via jugular
venipuncture into EDTA- and heparin-coated vacutainer tubes. All samples
were identied with a unique animal reference number and stored in an
electrically powered cool box for transfer to temporary laboratory facilities
set up for the purposes of the study. Samples were kept cool
(approximately 5C) prior to processing.

Processing of samples
Samples were processed by a member of the research study team within
48 h of their arrival at the temporary laboratory. Faecal samples were
processed using the FECPAK (FecPak International) worm egg counting
system (Presland et al. 2005) and results noted in a laboratory notebook.
Blood samples for haematology and biochemistry were processed using
Abaxis HM21 and Abaxis VS21 in-house laboratory machines. Blood results
were recorded as both absolute values for each variable and whether they
were within or outside the standard reference range as dened for the
equipment used. All clinical pathology results were reviewed by a
veterinary-trained member of the research team.

Ethical approval
The survey protocol, incorporating feedback of the results of the clinical
examination to each horses owner, was approved by the Royal Veterinary
Colleges Ethics and Welfare Committee.

Data recording and analysis

On return to the UK, paper-based records were double-entered into a
custom-built Access database (Microsoft Ofce 2007)2 and cross-checked
to identify and rectify data entry errors.
Analysis was undertaken using Stata v8.03. Descriptive statistics and
prevalence estimates with 95% condence intervals (CI) were calculated for
each horse-, owner- and tack-related variable for the aggregate sample.
Associations between owner opinion and horse-based health variables, as
well as associations between owner-reported practices and tack variables,
were investigated using Chi square or Fishers exact tests as appropriate,
and a crude odds ratio (OR) with 95% CI for each association was calculated.

Results
Owner questionnaire
In total, 287 horse owners (98 owners in 16 villages around Mohales Hoek,
86 owners in 25 villages around Malealea/Mafeteng and 103 owners in 34
villages around Matsieng/Maseru districts) were questioned who, between
them, owned or cared for 561 horses.
Most respondents (92%, 95% CI 8995) were male and their mean age was
46 years (s.d. 17.4, range 1489). Just under half (47%, 95% CI 4153) of
respondents had completed primary school and 51% (95% CI 4557)
described themselves as (subsistence) farmers. Median monthly income
was 300 rand (c. 24, range R505000), but this information was only
available for 107 respondents.
Owners reported that horses were used predominantly for ridden
transport (79%, 95% CI 7484); other uses included for police patrol work
(9%, 95% CI 612), tourist trekking (5%, 95% CI 28), pulling a plough (5%, 95%
CI 28) and pulling a cart (3%, 95% CI 15). The mean frequency of use was
2.7 days per week (s.d. 1.50, range 17) for an average of 2.1 h per day (s.d.
1.24, range 0.57).
Equine Veterinary Journal (2012) 2011 EVJ Ltd

M. M. Upjohn et al.

Owner practices, tack and health issues affecting Lesotho working horses

Although most owners (67%, 95% CI 6272) thought that the quantity of
feed their horses ate was appropriate for the work undertaken, the majority
(62%, 95% CI 5668) described their horses diet as unbalanced. Owner
appreciation of the frequency of mouth problems and appropriate mouth
care was limited. Owner recognition of equine ill-health and its causes was
variable, with few owners volunteering colic-related signs such as kicking
the belly and/or rolling on the ground as an indication of a horse being sick.
The majority of owners said they sought advice from the local animal health
worker when they thought their horse was unwell. Most owners (85%, 95%
CI 8189) reported having access to tack for their horse and described
applying oil to care for it, but fewer reported cleaning it. Understanding of
tack t assessment was limited and very few owners (4%, 95% CI 26)
reported checking t prior to use. Most owners (92%, 95% CI 8995)
described good footcare as shoeing although most reported their horse
as being unshod, with over half (58%) citing cost as a limiting factor.
Understanding of the need to replace shoes regularly using somebody
trained (rather than self-taught) was poor. Owners answers to questions
regarding equine husbandry and knowledge are summarised in Table 1.

some time (OR 4.30, 95% CI 1.2117.0, P = 0.01) and there was a trend
towards horses belonging to owners who volunteered that girth galls could
be caused by knot(s) in a girth being at reduced risk of having a current girth
gall (OR 0.19, 95% CI 0.011.35, P = 0.08). There was no association between
tack cleanliness and whether an owner reported cleaning their tack (OR
1.19, 95% CI 0.662.15, P = 0.57), but tack belonging to owners who reported
applying oil as a means of tack care was more likely (although not
signicantly so) to be dirty (OR 1.68, 95% CI 0.893.26, P = 0.11). No
association was found between owners reporting their horse as unhealthy
and the presence of a foot injury or with the horse being lame. Horses of
owners who were of the opinion that an owner should shoe their own horse
were more likely (although not signicantly so) to be shod (OR 1.82, 95% CI
0.793.97, P = 0.14) but there was no association (OR 0.87, 95% CI 0.471.59,
P = 0.63) between the hooves of such horses being overgrown and those
shod by other parties. Overall (irrespective of who did the shoeing),
however, there was an association between hooves that were shod and horn
being overgrown (OR 8.24, 95% CI 3.4222.65, P<0.001 for forefeet and OR
4.59, 95% CI 1.6314.70, P = 0.001 for hindfeet). For a generic indicator of
appropriate horse foot management, the presence of overgrown horn, it
was noted that owners of horses that had overgrown horn were less (rather
than more) likely to describe their horse as unhealthy (OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.28
0.88, P = 0.01). No association was found between an owner describing their
horse as unhealthy and the presence of a mouth injury.

Clinical examination
A total of 312 horses participated in the survey. Of these, 71% (95% CI
6676) were male [69% (95% CI 6375) of which were entire]. Estimated
age was normally distributed with a mean age of 10 years (s.d. 4.99,
range 225). The BCS of the sample population were normally distributed,
with a mean score of 2.5 (s.d. 0.8, range 0.54.5). Excluding police horses
(n = 28), BCS was normally distributed, with a mean score of 2.35 (s.d.
0.73, range 0.54.5).
Tack-associated injuries were noted in over half (58%, 95% CI 5363) of
horses, with the majority of nonlimb wounds found on the withers, spine
or head. Foot injuries were less prevalent (forefoot injuries were noted for
21% (95% CI 1626) of horses) and included cracks, wounds to coronary
band and heels; many forefoot heel wounds were suspected to be overreach injuries.
A range of haematological and biochemistry abnormalities were
identied, including a substantial proportion of horses (21%, 95% CI 1626)
with low red blood cell counts and nearly half (43%, 95% CI 3749) with
raised globulin levels. Most horses (88%, 95% CI 8492) were also infested
with strongyle endoparasites - detailed results of FEC examinations have
been reported elsewhere (Upjohn et al. 2010).
Prevalence data for variables assessed in the clinical examination are
presented in Table 2.

Tack examination
Approximately two-thirds of horses wore a bridle and half wore a saddle.
Bits were predominantly of a xed bar/curb design. Most bridles, bits and
saddles were in poor condition, dirty and ill-tting. Findings of tack
examination are summarised in Table 3.

Associations between selected owner-reported and

horse- and tack-related variables
Associations between owner-reported opinion of a horses health status
(whether they considered the horse to be unhealthy or not) and key horse
health variables are summarised in Table 4. Because, in the case of police
horses, only one owner response was recorded although more than one
horse was examined, police horses and their carers were excluded from
this analysis. Although there was a positive association between owners
describing their horse as unhealthy and the BCS of their horse being below
the sample average, approximately two-thirds of owners whose horses
BCS was less than average described their horse as healthy. No association
(OR 0.94, 95% CI 0.342.61, P = 1.00) was found between owners
perception of insufcient food quantity and below-average BCS.
Owners of horses with tack-associated wounds were less (rather than
more) likely to report their horse as being unhealthy. Owner-reported use of
horse-specic (rather than shared) tack was protective against the presence
of wither lesions (OR 0.44, 95% CI 0.230.86, P = 0.01) but fewer than half
(45%) of owners whose horses had a saddle sore reported this when asked
about such injuries to their horse. Owners whose horse currently had a girthassociated lesion were more likely to report having noted such an injury at
Equine Veterinary Journal (2012) 2011 EVJ Ltd

Discussion
This is the rst report on equine health, owner knowledge and husbandry
practices for working horses in Lesotho. As most were used as ridden
transport in a mountainous environment, the problems they faced were
different from those seen in equines in urban industrial situations, where
they are typically used as draught and pack animals (Pritchard et al. 2005;
Oussat 2006; Shah et al. 2006). Constraints on access to information,
mainstream products and equine services due to remote locations and
poverty-associated lack of education inevitably inuenced the knowledge
and activities of horse owners in Lesotho.
The average BCS of horses seen in Lesotho was better than that
described by Pritchard et al. (2005) for the Middle East and central Asia,
where approximately 70% of working horses had a BCS of 2 or less,
possibly due to the lower intensity of work in Lesotho. Lesotho owners
reported less reliance (29%) on communal grazing than in other studies
(Wells and Krecek 2001; Curran et al. 2005), although this may have been
inuenced by conducting the survey at a time of drought-related low
grazing availability. Most animals intake comprised mainly rough bre
(dessicated maize stalks) with little access to essential fatty acids, protein
or substantial carbohydrate. Although many owners described the diet as
unbalanced, few could describe the components of a balanced diet
other than suggesting using commercial horse feeds. Clinical pathology
ndings such as widespread hypoglycaemia support the suggestion of
nutritional imbalances, although detailed investigation would require
additional work to determine appropriate local reference ranges rather
than relying on ranges dened for horses living in Western conditions.
Few studies to determine locally appropriate reference ranges for
working equines have been published (Pritchard et al. 2009) and would
require the identication of a healthy population of horses for testing.
Although some owners identied inadequate food provision as a
potential cause of ill health, their overall understanding of preventive
equine medicine and access to trained advice and assistance were limited.
Serum protein imbalances may be linked to widespread endoparasite
infestation and again, could be worthy of further investigation.
Tooth examination ndings in Lesotho were similar to those of Pritchard
et al. (2005) in the Middle East and central Asia and Du Toit et al. (2008) in
Mexico; this probably reects nutrition issues and lack of equine dental
services. Many owners reported taking advice on mouth care from local
animal health workers; these are employed by the Department of Livestock
and trained in agriculture and/or livestock husbandry, but typically have
little formal training in equine care or preventive medicine. Although very
few owners reported current issues with their horses mouth, owner
understanding of mouth problems generally referred to wounds and a
condition described as swollen gums, with no recognition of

Owner practices, tack and health issues affecting Lesotho working horses

M. M. Upjohn et al.

TABLE 1: Prevalence and 95% condence intervals for owner questionnaire responses regarding equine husbandry knowledge and activities for
287 owners of working horses in Lesotho
Variable
Feeding
I feed my horse:
Maize stalks
Bran
Yellow maize
Sorghum seeds
Grass
Lucerne
My horses quantity of feed intake is appropriate for the work it does
My horses diet is unbalanced
Mouth health management
I take care of my horses mouth by:
Checking it regularly
Using a suitable bit
Consulting a local animal health worker
I know my horse has a mouth problem if it:
Is not eating
Will not accept the bit
Is having difculty eating
Has swollen gums
If my horse had a mouth problem I would:
Consult local animal health worker
Make gum incisions with a knife
My horses mouth is currently unhealthy
General health management
I know my horse is sick if it:
Does not eat
Is coughing
Is losing weight
Rolls on the ground
If my horse was sick I would seek advice from:
Animal health worker
Other horse owners
Nobody
A horse gets sick if it:
Eats frosty food
Has insufcient food
Experiences cold weather
Tack access, t and care
I have access to/use of:
Bridle
Saddle
My tack was:
Purchased in Republic of South Africa
Purchased in Lesotho
Inherited
Borrowed
To care for my tack, I:
Apply oil/fat
Keep safe
Clean it/wash it
Hang it up
I check t before I buy/use tack

Answered
(n)

Replied yes
(n)

Prevalence
(%)

95% Condence
interval (%)

287
287
287
287
287
287
287
287

244
154
140
96
82
67
192
178

85.1
53.5
48.7
33.1
28.6
23.3
67.0
61.9

81.189.3
47.759.3
42.954.5
27.738.5
23.434.6
18.428.2
61.672.4
56.367.7

287
287
287

182
107
5

63.3
37.2
1.7

57.768.9
31.642.8
0.03.4

287
287
287
287

190
34
30
13

66.2
11.7
10.3
4.5

60.771.7
8.015.4
6.813.8
2.16.9

287
287
287

180
66
8

62.6
22.9
2.7

57.068.2
18.027.8
0.84.6

287
287
287
287

218
97
79
9

76.0
33.7
27.6
3.2

71.180.9
28.239.2
22.432.8
1.25.2

287
287
287

200
48
12

69.6
16.6
4.2

64.374.
12.320.9
1.96.5

287
287
287

146
80
63

51.0
27.9
21.9

45.256.8
22.733.1
17.126.7

287
287

244
213

85.1
74.4

81.289.2
69.579.3

244
244
244
244

135
63
13
7

55.5
25.7
5.5
3.0

49.761.3
20.730.7
2.88.2
1.05.0

244
244
244
244
244

192
175
58
32
10

78.9
71.8
23.7
13.1
4.0

74.283.6
66.677.0
18.828.6
9.217.0
1.76.3

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M. M. Upjohn et al.

Owner practices, tack and health issues affecting Lesotho working horses

TABLE 1. Cont.
Variable
To check t I do/would:
Look at girth length
Look at saddle height vs. withers
Look at saddle length vs. loin
Look at saddle height vs. spine
I have seen a saddle sore on my horse
I have seen a girth gall on my horse
Footcare knowledge and activities
Good horse foot care comprises:
Shoeing
Frog trimming
Horn trimming
Foot care my horse receives:
Frog trimming
Shoeing
Horn trimming
Footcare is provided by:
Owner
Somebody with knowledge
Frequency of foot care currently provided:
Four times per year
When required
How often should a shod horse be reshod?
When required
Four times per year
Twice per year
Who should t horses shoes?
Somebody with knowledge
Owner
My horse is not shod because:
It is too expensive
My horse has experienced foot problems
Foot problems experienced:
Bruised sole(s)
Overgrown frog(s)
Cracked hoof
Wound(s)
My horses feet are in poor condition

tooth-associated issues. Management of swollen gums often included

making gum incisions with a knife - a practice which probably contributed to
the difculties with head-shy horses. However, horses belonging to owners
who reported use of such practices were at increased risk of being found to
suffer from other types of mouth lesion, indicating that understanding of
generalised mouth issues is lacking. The frequency of soft tissue mouth
lesions in Lesotho was lower than that reported by Pritchard et al. (2005);
this could have been due to difculties encountered in assessing horses
mouths and the need to assess many with a bit in situ, and it could also
relate to differences in work tasks and bitting. Curb bits were often too large
and/or positioned too low in the mouth, risking injury to gingivae, canine
teeth and/or incisors.
Despite the discrepancy between owners reporting access to tack and
the proportion of horses on which tack was seen, tack availability was fairly
widespread. However, the majority of owners shared tack between horses,
increasing the likelihood of the tack being ill-tting and horses suffering
tack-related lesions; this concurred with variable understanding of tack t
assessment, with most owners admitting they did not assess tack t prior
to use and the high prevalence of tack-related injuries noted on
examination. Common sites for tack-associated wounds were similar in
Lesotho (withers, spine and head) to the pattern reported by other studies
Equine Veterinary Journal (2012) 2011 EVJ Ltd

Answered
(n)

Replied yes
(n)

Prevalence
(%)

95% Condence
interval (%)

287
287
287
287
287
287

110
74
49
37
119
77

38.5
25.7
17.1
13.0
41.4
26.9

32.844.2
20.630.8
12.821.4
9.116.9
35.747.1
21.832.0

287
287
287

265
212
90

92.3
73.7
31.4

89.295.4
68.678.8
26.036.8

287
287
287

185
84
63

64.3
29.3
21.9

58.769.9
24.034.6
17.126.7

287
287

24
239

8.3
83.3

5.111.5
79.087.6

287
287

37
161

12.9
56.1

9.016.8
50.361.9

287
287
287

161
72
60

56.1
25.0
21.0

50.361.9
20.030.0
16.225.8

287
287

146
49

51.0
17.1

45.256.8
12.721.5

246
287

142
107

57.8
37.3

52.163.5
31.742.9

107
107
107
107
287

83
6
2
11
19

78.0
5.0
2.0
10.4
17.6

70.185.9
0.89.2
0.04.7
4.616.2
13.222.0

(Pritchard et al. 2005; Sells et al. 2010). However, fewer tether/hobble

lesions were seen than the study by Pritchard et al. (2005), probably
because most Lesotho owners secure their horses with a rope or chain
around the neck.
Although many owners reported using oil/fat to maintain tack, the
condition and cleanliness of tack examined suggested that this was
not undertaken regularly. Overall, ndings indicate the need for better
access to good-quality tack, particularly saddles. However, most owners,
with minimal income, are likely to be unable to afford new tack or
even professional repair of existing tack, despite the availability of
trained saddlers.
Based on a limited lameness assessment, the lower lameness
prevalence in Lesotho compared to other studies (Pritchard et al. 2005;
Broster et al. 2009) has several potential explanations. Urban-based
studies cover equines working on tarmac for longer hours and more days
per week than in Lesotho, where horses probably suffer less work-related
concussion. Horses in Lesotho are likely to be at lower risk of vehicle
collision than those in urban environments, making traumatic injury
lameness less frequent. The lower prevalence of lameness in rural
compared to urban environments concurs with the ndings of an Ethiopian
study comparing 2 populations of donkeys (Morgan 2006).

Owner practices, tack and health issues affecting Lesotho working horses

M. M. Upjohn et al.

TABLE 2: Prevalence and 95% condence intervals for clinical examination parameters for 312 working horses in Lesotho
Parameter
Cardiovascular and respiratory
parameters
Bright alert responsive
(BAR)
Mucous membrane colour
pale
Skin pinch time extended
Abnormal heart sounds
Audible respiratory noise
Nasal discharge
Ocular and aural parameters
Ocular discharge
Reduced menace reex
Corneal scarring
Aural ticks
Aural papillomas
Tick infestation
Ticks present
Mild infestation
Moderate infestation
Severe infestation
Oral parameters
Palpable sharp points
Tongue and gingivae lesions
Oral lesions tack associated
Nonoral tack-associated
injuries
Nonlimb wounds
Pain on spine palpation
Lameness
Foot parameters
Poor forefoot balance
Poor hindfoot balance
Overgrown forefeet
Overgrown hindfeet
Forefoot injuries
Hindfoot injuries
Forefeet shod (at least one)
Hindfeet shod (at least one)
Haematology parameters
Neutropenia
Neutrophilia
Low red blood cell count
High haematocrit
Biochemistry parameters
Hypoalbuminaemia
Hypoglycaemia
Raised creatine kinase
Raised aspartate
transaminase
Hyperglobulinaemia
Raised total protein
Faecal egg count species
Strongyles
Parascaris equorum
Oxyuris equi

Examined (n)

Affected (n)

Prevalence (%)

95% Condence interval (%)

312

263

84.3

80.388.3

306

19

6.5

3.89.2

312
311
312
312

12
12
36
151

3.9
3.9
11.5
48.4

1.86.0
1.86.0
8.015.0
42.953.9

312
309
309
305
305

151
9
18
85
9

48.4
2.9
5.8
27.9
2.9

42.953.9
1.04.8
3.28.4
22.932.9
1.04.8

312
184
184
184

184
117
49
18

59.1
63.6
26.6
9.8

53.664.6
58.368.9
21.731.5
5.711.9

287
287
17

265
17
10

92.3
5.7
59.1

89.395.3
3.18.3
53.664.6

312
312
312

182
165
41

58.4
52.9
13.1

52.963.9
47.458.4
9.416.8

312
312
312
312
312
312
312
312

161
116
139
124
66
31
44
21

51.6
37.2
44.6
39.8
21.3
9.8
14.1
6.9

46.157.1
31.842.6
39.150.1
34.445.2
16.825.8
6.513.1
10.218.0
4.19.7

285
285
285
285

15
2
61
50

5.1
0.7
21.0
17.3

2.67.6
0.01.9
16.325.7
13.021.6

285
285
285
285

44
133
52
49

15.2
49.3
17.5
17.2

11.019.4
43.555.1
13.221.8
12.921.5

285
285

125
59

43.9
20.7

38.149.7
16.025.4

305
305
305

269
66
19

88.2
21.6
6.2

84.691.8
17.026.2
3.58.9

Equine Veterinary Journal (2012) 2011 EVJ Ltd

Owner practices, tack and health issues affecting Lesotho working horses

M. M. Upjohn et al.

TABLE 3: Prevalence (%) and 95% condence intervals (CI) for ndings of tack examination for 312 working horses in Lesotho

Criteria

Description

Condition
Good

Strong, exible, well maintained, no repairs

Adequate

Functional but slightly stiff; if repairs present, well repaired

Poor

Stiff with obvious/less than adequate repair

Very poor

Broken and/or inappropriately repaired

Cleanliness
Good

Free of dirt

Adequate

Small amounts of palpable dirt, not impairing function

Poor

Dirt visible and impaired function

Very poor

Dirt substantial and impaired function

Fit
Good

Size appropriate, suitable gaps between skin and tack, no rubbing

Adequate

Size not ideal, gaps not optimal but unlikely to cause injury

Poor

Size and gaps inappropriate, likely to or actually resulting in lesions

Very poor

Inappropriate size and gaps causing severe lesions

The prevalence of overlong hooves in Lesotho was similar to that seen by

Pritchard et al. (2005). In Lesotho, although few owners recognised this as
a problem, it combined with many owners being unclear about appropriate
reshoeing frequency (owner denition of when necessary generally
meant when the shoe wears out or falls off) and, despite their belief that
shoeing represented good footcare, expressing limitations on the
affordability of shoeing. Although approximately a quarter of owners
reported that their horse was shod, ndings of clinical examination
indicated a lower shoeing prevalence. Although some owners reported
their horse having suffered from bruised soles, on further questioning this
seemed to be related to situations where, after a period when the horse
had been shod, shoeing was discontinued. Even if trained farriers can
provide superior shoeing quality than untrained practitioners, the

Bridle
n = 202
(95% CI)

Bit
n = 194
(95% CI)

Saddle
n = 149
(95% CI)

Girth
n = 149
(95% CI)

10.9
(7.4, 14.4)
42.3
(36.8, 47.8)
40.8
(35.3, 46.3)
6.0
(2.7, 9.3)

9.3
(6.1, 12.5)
40.4
(35.9, 45.9)
45.8
(40.3, 51.3)
4.5
(2.2, 6.8)

4.7
(2.4, 7.0)
10.8
(7.4, 14.2)
60.5
(55.1, 65.9)
24.7
(19.9, 29.5)

8.2
(5.2, 11.2)
48.0
(42.5, 53.5)
34.4
(29.1, 39.7)
9.4
(6.2, 12.6)

6.9
(4.1, 9.7)
28.1
(23.1, 33.1)
63.6
(58.3, 68.9)
1.0
(0.1, 2.7)

9.3
(6.1, 12.5)
36.6
(31.3, 41.9)
53.1
(47.6, 58.6)
1.0
(0.0, 2.1)

7.1
(4.3, 9.9)
15.7
(11.7, 19.7)
71.5
(66.5, 76.5)
5.7
(3.1, 8.3)

3.3
(1.3, 5.3)
31.8
(26.6, 37.0)
60.8
(55.4, 63.2)
4.1
(1.9, 6.3)

8.9
(5.7, 12.1)
21.6
(17.0, 26.2)
66.1
(60.8, 71.4)
3.4
(1.4, 5.4)

4.1
(1.9, 6.3)
50.5
(45.0, 56.0)
42.8
(37.3, 48.3)
2.6
(0.8, 4.4)

2.3
(0.6, 4.0)
21.2
(16.7, 25.7)
63.8
(58.5, 69.1)
12.7
(9.0, 16.4)

8.8
(5.7, 11.9)
65.5
(60.2, 70.8)
20.9
(16.4, 25.4)
4.8
(2.4, 7.2)

affordability limitation (as evidenced by the majority of owners citing cost

as a limiting factor in their ability to have their horse shod) may hinder their
ability to persuade owners to have shod horses regularly reshod.
For all but one key variable, the lack of association between ownerreported horse health status and key clinical horse health ndings
suggests that there is the potential to improve owner awareness and
understanding of horse health management issues. Although this may
indicate that owners did make a connection between body condition
score and health status, and did refer to the quality of food as a key factor,
the substantial proportion of owners who did not make the connection
between food quantity and body condition score would still suggest that
scope for improving nutrition-related knowledge exists. Additional work
with Lesotho horse owners (M. Upjohn, unpublished data) has indicated

TABLE 4: Univariable associations between key horse health variables and owner description of horses overall health status for 283 owners of
working horses in Lesotho
Owner describes horse as unhealthy
Horse health variable

Category

Yes

No

Odds ratio
(95% CI)

Body condition score

<2.35
2.35+
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No

62
19
42
39
20
61
13
68
5
75

117
82
125
73
44
153
25
174
12
183

2.29
(1.234.36)
0.62
(0.361.10)
1.14
(0.592.16)
1.33
(0.542.88)
1.02
(0.273.24)

Tack-associated wounds
Foot injury
Horse lame
Mouth injury

Equine Veterinary Journal (2012) 2011 EVJ Ltd

P value
0.005
0.081
0.67
0.44
1.00

Owner practices, tack and health issues affecting Lesotho working horses

M. M. Upjohn et al.

that they recognise the vital contribution of mouth health to the horses
overall health. However, the practice of making gum incisions, which
clearly compromises horse welfare, is based on teachings whose origins
can be traced back to the turn of the last century (Axe 1905). Although
the physiological basis of the belief (that removal of excess blood will
result in reduction of congestion associated with the eruption of
permanent teeth) is erroneous, changing community attitudes on this
topic may represent a considerable challenge. Topics such as the need to
assess (and potentially adapt) tack t prior to use and the benet of
regular cleaning and maintenance of equipment to avoid tack-associated
wounds require recognition that tack-associated wounds should not be
considered normal; this, again, may take time to gain acceptance. If the
link can be made to tack needing to be adjusted to adapt to changes in
BCS as the availability of adequate nutrition varies, this may be helpful.
Although horse owners state that having their horses shod represents
good footcare, their appreciation of the importance of basic footcare and
the biomechanics aspect of foot maintenance could be enhanced.
Explaining the need for regular rather than intermittent ongoing footcare
other than shoeing, and the value of using somebody skilled to undertake
such activities, is a vital part of any such discussion.
The horse and owner sample was designed to include both individually
owned and police-owned horses, because both owner categories were
covered within the students potential catchment area. In recognition of
the possible bias that this disparate horse sample may introduce, where
appropriate, analyses were undertaken both with and without the police
horse subgroup. In the investigation of associations between owner
opinion and a horses clinical variables, police horses were excluded
because it was impossible to attribute the carers opinion to an individual
sampled horse.
Although every effort was made to obtain an unbiased picture of
baseline equine health and owner knowledge, respondents were aware of
the charitys imminent intervention in the country, and therefore it is
possible that questionnaire responses may have been biased towards
what they thought the interviewer wanted to hear, or according to what
they perceived might have resulted in personal benets such as food or
medication for their horse. To address this, wherever possible, answers
were triangulated between the questionnaire and the clinical or tack
examination to maximise reliability. Also, the number of owners surveyed
was slightly lower than anticipated; this was due to logistical and practical
difculties in accessing remote areas and loss of data collection days as a
result of inclement weather conditions. However, the response rate of
those invited to take part in the survey was excellent, with only a few
owners unwilling to participate. Although no veterinary intervention was
offered, a free health check of their horse with feedback and advice on
ndings is likely to have acted as an incentive for participation. Although
some measurements were subject to interobserver variation, observers
discussed measurements regularly during the course of the survey.

changes in owner knowledge and practices in relation to horse health and

management.

Conclusions
Working horses in Lesotho have a range of physical problems that
adversely affect their welfare, many of which could be ameliorated
through targeted owner education programmes. Subsequent to the study
reported here, participatory methods-based research with horse owners
identied their priority issues for educational intervention and initial
workshops on nutrition and equine mouth care have taken place.
Although poverty and accessibility issues will undoubtedly continue to
play a key role in the prevalence of equine-related problems, improved
knowledge and skills in relation to basic husbandry topics appear to have
the potential to enable owners to improve their horses health and
welfare. With limited access to veterinary advice and scarce resources,
improved availability of local equine trade skills is also key to improving
equine health. The ndings of this baseline survey, together with results
from participatory research with horse owners, could be used to inform
and direct training programmes to maximise benets to equine health
and welfare. With baseline data available, further research should focus
on assessment of the impact of interventions, through monitoring of
horse-related indicators of health and welfare and also by measuring

Authors declaration of interests

No conicts of interest have been declared.

Source of funding
This study was funded by World Horse Welfare.

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the support and assistance of the Lesotho
government Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Food
Security; Nkhabane Mokala; Tello Moeketse; Mick Jones; Professor Cheryl
McCrindle of the University of Pretoria.

Manufacturers addresses
1

Abaxis North America, Union City, USA.

Microsoft Corporation, Redmond Virginia, USA.
3
Statacorp LP, Texas A&M, College Station, Texas, USA.
2

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Author contributions Conception and design acquisition and/or analysis and

interpretation of data: M.M.U., K.S., D.U.P., T.L., G.A., K.L.P.V.; drafting or critical
revision of manuscript: M.M.U., K.S., D.U.P., T.L., G.A., K.L.P.V.; nal approval of
manuscript: M.M.U., K.S., D.U.P., T.L., G.A., K.L.P.V.

Supporting information
Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of
this article:
Appendix S1: Standardised structured questionnaire administered face to
face in local language to 287 owners participating in survey of Lesotho
working horses and owners.
Please note: Wiley-Blackwell are not responsible for the content or
functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any
queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the
corresponding author for the article.