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http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2014.972707
Method
Sample
The sample was made up of 1,457 participants with an average age of 27.5
(SD = 6.92) and an age range between 18 and 40. Of the total participants, 627
were males and 831 were females. All the participants were students at Spains
Universidad Nacional de Educacin a Distancia (National Distance Education
University, UNED). The people who were part of the sample had Body Mass
Indexes (BMIs) of between 18 and 25 (which the scientific community considers
normal weight). The participants with BMIs higher than 25 (overweight) or under
18 (underweight, eating behaviour problems) were eliminated from the sample.
All the subjects voluntarily agreed to participate in the study.
Instrument
The Antifat Attitude Scale (AFA, Crandall, 1994) has been adapted to Spanish
using the translation/back-translation methodology as stipulated by many authors
(Beaton, Bombardier, Guillemin, & Ferraz, 2000) and the norms of the
International Test Commission (Hambleton & Bollwark, 1991). By using this
methodology, we can check the semantic and structural equivalency of the items
in the Spanish translation with those in the original questionnaire.
The first Spanish translation of the original scales was performed by one of the
authors. This Spanish translation was independently reviewed by an additional
evaluator, who worked with the main translator to reach an agreed-upon translation of the items, especially those which posed the most difficulty from the
semantic and/or grammatical standpoint. Subsequently, a bilingual English translator back-translated the agreed-upon Spanish-to-English translation with no
knowledge of the original scales in English in order to preserve the reliability of
the back-translation. The scale translated into English and the original scale
reached 100% grammatical agreement.
The AFA scale contains 13 items and is divided into three major groups of
questions (see Appendix). The first includes questions related to the feelings
aroused by overweight people in the participants (Example: I really dont like
fat people much). The second kind of question is related to the feelings
generated in the participants when they gain weight (Example: One of the
worst things that could happen to me would be if I gained 25 pounds).
Finally, the last section asks participants whether they perceive obesity as
controllable or not (Example: Fat people tend to be fat pretty much through
their own fault). The participants filled in a Likert scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
Procedure
Information on the study was posted on the virtual courses taught by the
researchers in this study in order to request participation by anyone interested.
All volunteers who chose to participate in the study received class credit. The
students in the final sample had to download the questionnaire (the Escala de
Actitud Antiobesos) from the website and then send the completed questionnaire
by regular post to the main researcher of the study (along with other questionnaires which are irrelevant to this study). The participants had one month to
complete the questionnaire, after which it was no longer available. Because of the
circumstances of the university where the study was performed (UNED), data
were obtained from all the provinces in Spain.
Results
As mentioned at the end of the introduction, the prime objective of this study was
to analyse the factorial structure of the questionnaire. To verify the internal
structure of the AFA, an exploratory factorial analysis was performed (main
components, Varimax rotation) and then another confirmatory factorial analysis
was performed (maximum probability).
Due to the fact that we chose to perform these two kinds of analyses, we
decided to divide the sample into two, as recommended by the experts
(Petrowski, Paul, Albani, & Brhler, 2012). To do so, we used the SPSS
procedure to generate random samples which enabled the original sample to
be divided into two halves. After dividing the sample, we applied the exploratory factorial analysis to one half and the confirmatory factorial analysis to the
other. The purpose of this step is to check whether or not there is convergence
between the exploratory and confirmatory analyses. What is more, it is important to mention that the exploratory factorial analysis is a useful tool when it is
impossible to group the data yet there are plausible hypotheses regarding the
structure of a model, in which case the experts recommend the use of confirmatory factorial analysis as well (Bollen, 1989). For this reason, we chose to
work with both kinds of analyses.
To perform the exploratory factorial analysis, we used the SPSS programme.
For the confirmatory factorial analysis we used the AMOS programme (Arbuckle,
2011). To study the models fit, we did not use the Chi-squared test because it is
very sensitive to the sample size and is not advisable when there are more than
400 cases, as it is always significant. Instead, given the large amount of goodnessof-fit indexes available, we chose some that are well known and recommended,
such as the RMSEA (Residual Mean Squared Error Approximation Index), the
NFI (Normed Fit Index) and the CFI (Comparative Fit Index). Values lower than
.05 on the RMSEA and higher than .95 on the NFI and CFI indicate good fit
(Kline, 2011). The sample size was enough given that the relationship between the
number of subjects and the number of items was greater than 45:1 (Bentler &
Chou, 1987).
The second objective of the study was to analyse the psychometric properties
of the AFA scale. In this case, we decided to calculate the Cronbachs alphas (a
coefficient used to measure the reliability of a measurement scale) of both the
scale as a whole and the subscales (Cronbach & Shavelson, 2004).
afa1
afa2
afa3
afa4
afa5
afa6
afa7
afa8
afa9
afa10
afa11
afa12
afa13
Factor 1
Factor 2
Factor 3
.60
.44
.77
.71
.74
.79
.60
.02
.25
.02
.08
.04
.34
.11
.07
.01
.07
.03
.12
.21
.88
.79
.87
.17
.16
.11
.25
.20
.04
.03
.01
.11
.27
.17
.10
.20
.80
.82
.62
yielded in the final solution. These three factors were extracted with own values
higher than 1, as recommended by the experts (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).
These three components explain 59.56% of the total variation, with saturations
as shown in Table 1.
The first component (dislike) explains 32.25% of the variation; it includes
items 17. The second component (fear of fat) explains 17.17% of the variation; it
includes items 810. The third component (willpower) explains 10.12% of the
variation; it includes items 1113. The structure found in the exploratory analysis
replicates the structure originally found by Crandall (1994).
It is important to mention that some authors (Van Groen, Klooster, Taal, Van
de Laar, & Glas, 2010) recommend that factors with fewer than four items (such
as fear of fat and willpower) not be identified as such. However, given that the
author of the original instrument (Crandall, 1994) designed the scale in this way,
we chose to respect this structure despite this methodological glitch.
Once the factors had been established via the exploratory analysis, we chose to
calculate the reliability of the three subscales. The Cronbachs alpha of subscale
A, dislike, was .86, for fear of fat it was .78 and for willpower it was .68.
Finally, we calculated the Pearson correlations among the different subscales
(Table 2). As shown in Table 2, positive, significant correlations were yielded in
the three factors found in the exploratory analysis.
Table 2. Correlations among AFA subscales.
Dislike
Fear
Willpower
Dislike
Fear
.33**
.38**
.36**
Willpower
E1
AFA1
E2
AFA2
E3
AFA3
.57
.28
E4
.68
Dislike
.62
AFA4
.63
E5
AFA5
E6
AFA6
E7
AFA7
E8
AFA8
E9
AFA9
.79
.63
.24
.85
.32
Fear of fat
.68
.45
.87
E10
AFA10
E11
AFA11
.68
E12
E13
AFA12
AFA13
.80
Willpower
.57
Taken as a whole, these results show that the Antifat Attitudes Scale has three
clearly defined subscales, and that there is a positive relationship between the
different factors of the instrument, as shown by the results of both the exploratory
and the confirmatory factorial analyses.
Gender differences
Finally, we performed three analyses of variance (ANOVA) with the total sample
(1,457 participants) to check whether there were any gender differences in the
AFAs subscales, as Crandall (1994) originally found. As can be seen in Table 3,
males scored higher on the dislike subscale (F(1, 1455) = 35.67, p < .01), while
females scored higher on the fear of fat (F(1, 1455) = 75.34, p < .01) and
willpower (F(1, 1455) = 60.54, p < .01) subscales.
10
Males
Females
Dislike
Fear
Willpower
Dislike
Fear
Willpower
Mean
Standard deviation
Sample size
1.96
2.73
3.35
1.73
3.39
3.83
0.74
0.96
0.79
0.75
1.72
1.39
627
831
Discussion
This article reveals that the Antifat Attitudes Scale (AFA,) is a questionnaire that
can be used in the Spanish-speaking community to measure prejudice towards
people with weight problems. Judging from the results, this scale has a factorial
structure of three subscales (dislike, fear of fat and willpower), as shown by both
the exploratory and the confirmatory factorial analyses. Likewise, the reliability of
both the total scale and the subscales is appropriate given the Cronbachs alphas
found (Cronbach & Shavelson, 2004). What is more, we found that the different
subscales are positively related to each other, as shown by the analyses performed.
Therefore, given these results, both of the goals of this study, namely to
replicate the factorial structure of Crandalls questionnaire (1994) and to analyse
the psychometric properties of the scale, were fulfilled. We believe that based on
the information presented in the preceding sections, the AFA questionnaire can be
safely used to measure antifat attitudes.
As mentioned in the introduction, it is important to stress that the AFA scale
(Crandall, 1994) is not the only scale used to measure antifat attitudes. For
example, there are open-ended questionnaires that measure attitudes towards
obese people (Allison et al., 1991; Bacon et al., 2001; Lewis et al., 1997;
Morrison & OConnor, 1999) as well as implicit measurements (Teachman &
Brownell, 2001). Both kinds of tools have been proven to be effective in measuring negative attitudes towards obese people. However, we believe that the scale
presented in this study is a valuable instrument for measuring prejudice towards
obese people, as revealed throughout this article, although we also believe that it
is important for professionals to be aware of other instruments and for them to
choose the tool they deem the most useful.
Additionally, based on our results we can state that males score higher on the
dislike subscale, while women score higher on the fear of fat and willpower
subscales. In Crandalls original study (1994), males scored higher on willpower,
and this finding has been replicated in other more recent studies (Magallares &
Morales, 2013). This is an unexpected result given that the perception of weight
control is related to the prejudice shown towards the obese, as our correlations
show and as suggested recently by other authors (OBrien, Latner, Ebneter, &
Hunter, 2013). Therefore, we can say that even though females score higher on
willpower (that is, they perceive obesity as controllable), this does not translate
11
into greater prejudice towards obese people. This may be related to the fact that
women internalize the societal norm of thinness, that is, that they apply this
standard of the controllability of weight to themselves more than they externalize
it by expressing negative attitudes towards people with weight problems
(Magallares & Morales, 2013).
On the other hand, future studies can address the validity of the construct and
analyse what other variables are related to the expression of prejudice towards the
obese. A survey of the literature suggests that there are other variables (such as
sexism and authoritarianism, just to cite two of them) which are related to
negative attitudes towards overweight people (Ebneter, Latner, & OBrien, 2011).
This study has two limitations. First, the sample is made up of university
students. We believe that it would have been worthwhile to use participants form
other social strata or with lower educational levels in order to make the sample as
heterogeneous as possible. Secondly, as mentioned above, people with BMIs
under 18 or higher than 25 were eliminated from the final sample. On future
occasions, it might be interesting to analyse the scores of participants with higher
body weights because, as the research has shown, obese people themselves show
prejudices towards members of their own group (Crandall, 1994).
Despite these limitations, this study clearly shows that the Antifat Attitudes
Scale is a valid, appropriate tool for measuring prejudice towards obese people
which will be useful for all researchers in the Spanish-speaking world who are
interested in studying prejudice towards people with weight problems.
12
13
14
15
por algunos autores (Beaton, Bombardier, Guillemin, y Ferraz, 2000) y las normas
de la International Test Comission (Hambleton y Bollwark, 1991). Mediante esta
metodologa se puede comprobar la equivalencia semntica y estructural entre los
tems de la traduccin al castellano y los originales.
La primera traduccin al castellano de las escalas originales fue realizada por
uno de los autores. Esta traduccin al castellano fue revisada independientemente por otro evaluador adicional, que junto con el traductor principal, acordaron una traduccin consensuada de los tems, en especial de aquellos que ms
dificultad planteaban desde un punto de vista semntico y/o gramatical.
Posteriormente, una traductora inglesa bilinge llev a cabo la retrotraduccin
de la traduccin consensuada del castellano al ingls, desconociendo sta las
escalas originales en ingls para preservar la fiabilidad de la retrotraduccin. La
escala traducida al ingls y la original obtuvieron una coincidencia gramatical
del 100%.
La escala AFA contiene 13 tems y se divide en tres grandes bloques de
preguntas (ver Apndice). En el primero de ellos se incluyen cuestiones relativas
a los sentimientos que suscitan las personas con sobrepeso en los participantes
(Ejemplo: No me gusta mucho la gente gorda). Un segundo tipo de preguntas
versa, en este caso, sobre las sensaciones que genera en los participantes el hecho
de ganar peso (Ejemplo: Una de las peores cosas que me podran pasar es que
ganara unos kilos de peso). Por ltimo, existe una seccin donde se pregunta a
los participantes si perciben que la obesidad es algo controlable o no (Ejemplo:
La gente gorda tiene ese peso principalmente por su propia culpa). Los participantes rellenaban una escala tipo Likert que iba de 1 (nada de acuerdo) a 7
(completamente de acuerdo).
Procedimiento
Se coloc informacin relativa a la realizacin de un estudio en los cursos
virtuales de la asignatura de la que forman parte los investigadores del presente
estudio para pedir colaboradores que quisieran participar. Todos aquellos voluntarios que optaron por formar parte del estudio recibieron crditos en la asignatura. Los alumnos que formaron parte de la muestra final deban descargarse el
cuestionario (la Escala de Actitud Antiobesos) de la citada pgina web y posteriormente mandar por correo ordinario al investigador principal del estudio el
cuestionario rellenado (junto con otros cuestionarios no relevantes para el presente
estudio). Los participantes disponan de un mes para la realizacin de la tarea,
fecha a partir de la cual dejaba de estar disponible el cuestionario. Por la
idiosincrasia de la Universidad donde se ha realizado el presente estudio
(UNED) se obtuvieron datos de todas las provincias de la geografa espaola.
Resultados
Como se coment en la parte de final de la introduccin, el primer objetivo del
estudio era analizar la estructura factorial del cuestionario. Para verificar la
16
17
18
Tabla 1.
afa1
afa2
afa3
afa4
afa5
afa6
afa7
afa8
afa9
afa10
afa11
afa12
afa13
Factor 2
Factor 3
.60
.44
.77
.71
.74
.79
.60
.02
.25
.02
.08
.04
.34
.11
.07
.01
.07
.03
.12
.21
.88
.79
.87
.17
.16
.11
.25
.20
.04
.03
.01
.11
.27
.17
.10
.20
.80
.82
.62
(Crandall, 1994) dise de esta manera la escala, optamos por respetar esa
estructura, a pesar de la citada inconveniencia metodolgica.
Una vez establecidos los factores mediante el anlisis exploratorio se opt por
calcular la fiabilidad de los tres sub-escalas halladas. El Alfa de Cronbach de la
sub-escala Antipata fue .86, la de Miedo a la Gordura de .78 y la de Voluntad
de .68.
Por ltimo, se calcularon las correlaciones de Pearson entre las diferentes subescalas (Tabla 2). Como se puede observar, se hallaron correlaciones positivas y
significativas entre los tres factores hallados en el anlisis exploratorio.
Tabla 2.
Antipata
Miedo
Voluntad
Miedo
.33**
.38**
.36**
Voluntad
19
20
E1
AFA1
E2
AFA2
E3
AFA3
.57
.28
E4
.68
Antipata
.62
AFA4
.63
E5
AFA5
E6
AFA6
E7
AFA7
E8
AFA8
E9
AFA9
.79
.63
.24
Miedo a la
Gordura
.85
.68
.32
.45
.87
E10
AFA10
E11
AFA11
.68
E12
E13
AFA12
AFA13
.80
Voluntad
.57
Figura 1. Modelo de tres factores relacionados con los coeficientes estandarizados ().
muestran los resultados tanto del anlisis factorial exploratorio como del anlisis
factorial confirmatorio.
Diferencias de gnero
Por ltimo, con el total de la muestra (1.457 participantes) se realizaron tres
anlisis de varianza (ANOVA) para comprobar si existan diferencias en funcin
del gnero en las sub-escalas del AFA tal y como hall originalmente Crandall
(1994). Como puede observarse en la Tabla 3, los hombres puntan ms alto en la
sub-escala de Antipata (F(1, 1455) = 35.67, p < .01) mientras que las mujeres lo
hacen en la de Miedo a la Gordura (F(1, 1455) = 75.34, p < .01) y Voluntad (F(1,
1455) = 60.54, p < .01).
Tabla 3.
Hombres
Mujeres
21
Antipata
Miedo
Voluntad
Antipata
Miedo
Voluntad
Media
Desviacin tpica
Tamao muestral
1.96
2.73
3.35
1.73
3.39
3.83
0.74
0.96
0.79
0.75
1.72
1.39
627
831
Discusin
El presente artculo pone de manifiesto que la Escala de Actitud Antiobesos
(AFA, Crandall, 1994) es un cuestionario que puede ser usado en la comunidad hispanohablante para medir el prejuicio hacia las personas con problemas de peso. A tenor de los resultados obtenidos, esta escala tiene una
estructura factorial de tres sub-escalas (Antipata, Miedo a la Gordura y
Voluntad), tal y como han puesto de manifiesto tanto el anlisis factorial
exploratorio como el confirmatorio, y al mismo tiempo que la fiabilidad de la
escala total como la de las sub-escalas es la adecuada, atendiendo a los
alphas de Cronbach encontrados (Cronbach y Shavelson, 2004). Adems,
se ha hallado que las diferentes sub-escalas se encuentran positivamente
relacionadas las unas con las otras tal y como han mostrado los anlisis
realizados.
Por lo tanto, los dos objetivos que se perseguan, replicar la estructura factorial
del cuestionario de Crandall (1994) y analizar las propiedades psicomtricas de la
escala, han sido cumplidos a tenor de los resultados obtenidos. Creemos que en
funcin de lo expuesto en las secciones precedentes, el cuestionario AFA puede
ser utilizado con garanta para medir actitudes antiobesos.
Es importante recalcar que la escala AFA (Crandall, 1994), tal y como se
ha comentado en la seccin introductoria, no es la nica que existe para medir
actitudes antiobesos. Por ejemplo, existen cuestionarios abiertos para medir
actitudes hacia las personas obesas (Allison et al., 1991; Bacon et al., 2001;
Lewis et al., 1997; Morrison y OConnor, 1999) y tambin medidas implcitas
(Teachman y Brownell, 2001). Ambos tipos de herramientas han demostrado
ser eficaces para medir actitudes negativas hacia las personas obesas. En
cualquier caso, creemos que la escala presentada en este trabajo es un instrumento muy valioso para medir el prejuicio hacia las personas obesas, tal y
como hemos dejado de manifiesto a lo largo del manuscrito, aunque creemos
que es importante que se conozcan tambin otros instrumentos y que los
profesionales que quieran medir actitudes antiobesos elijan aquella herramienta
que consideren ms til.
Adicionalmente, podemos decir, en funcin de nuestros resultados, que
los hombres puntan ms alto en la sub-escala de Antipata mientras que las
22
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Appendix
Dislike
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Fear of fat
(8) I feel disgusted with myself when I gain weight.
(9) One of the worst things that could happen to me would be if I gained 25 pounds.
(10) I worry about becoming fat.
Willpower
(11) People who weigh too much could lose at least some part of their weight through
a little exercise.
(12) Some people are fat because they have no willpower.
(13) Fat people tend to be fat pretty much through their own fault.
Apndice
Antipata
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
26
Miedo a la Gordura
(8) Me siento asqueado/a conmigo mismo/a cuando gano algo de peso.
(9) Una de las peores cosas que me podran pasar es que ganara unos kilos de peso.
(10) Me preocupa ponerme gordo/a.
Voluntad
(11) La gente que pesa mucho podra perder algo de su peso con un poco de ejercicio.
(12) Alguna gente est gorda porque no tiene fuerza de voluntad.
(13) La gente gorda tiene ese peso principalmente por su propia culpa.