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ITALIAN
RNAISSANC
ART
PAINTING
SCULPTURE
ARCHITECTURE
FREDERICK HARTT
ABHAMS
sculpture,
He
centuries.
the for-
The
it.
We
words of
openin;i
Italian art
book
his
are:
"The matrix of
Italy itself."
is
follow earlier
new
others, content to
style;
art,
wars,
pestilence, politica'
well as the
affected
artists' lives as
a high
p'~>int
1420s,
when
book
Oi this
comple-
their
is
its
and confidence
in his
knowledge of man
life
;t
determines the
artists'
The humanist
many
seem
move
to
in Alberti's
and
Titian's
vi-
vitality.
learning,
and
art
gave to
artists
whether
it
took form
in Botticelli's allegories,
Raphael's
iiuolo's frescoes
finally
we
see the
To convey
its
major
plex
this
artists,
broad
and
monuments,
artistic
the text
illustrations in color
development, to present
its
com-
this
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HISTORY OF
Italian
Renaissance
Art
PAINTING
SCULPTURE
ARCHITECTURE
FREDERICK HARTT
PROFESSOR OF ART, UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA
H ISTORY OF
Italian
Ren
AissANCE Art
PAINTING
SCULPTURE
BRIGHTON 1
PRENTICE -HALL,
and
ARCHITECTURE
INC., Snglewood
Cliffs,
TVJ.
To
the
Memory
of
^i
vi-<il
Milton
S.
Fox, Editor-in-Chief
in
Japan
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PART ONE
Art
/.
Italy
2.
Dugento Art
5.
in
Florence
5/
4.
in
Siena
y4
5.
Tuscany
94
Italian
in
ii
Tuscany and
in
Rome
24
PART
TWO
QUATTROCENTO
6.
ill
7.
in
Tuscan Sculpture
I2j
8.
in
Florentine Painting
148
9.
10.
the
in
169
and Sculpture
186
Architecture
//.
12.
Crisis
13.
Science, Poetry,
14.
The Renaissance
15.
and Cross-Currents
249
and Prose
in
212
2yo
Central Italy
309
in
334
PART THREE
CINQUECENTO
16.
in
Florence
s^7
I J.
in
Rome
435
18.
482
/p.
528
20.
in
5^4
GLOSSARY
^gj
CHRONOLOGICAL CHART
6O4
608
INDEX
614
LIST OF
PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS
6^6
FOREWORD
A
book
in English dealing
Renaissance
painting,
and architecture
sculpture,
would be
willing to relinquish
me
the
Second,
its
to
all
my
knowl-
three were
same
of
in all
borrow for
which seem more
own
exploitation in their
arts effects
difficult choices.
series
comprehensive treatment of
work from
all
and
in the text
quality.
my own
no
fact,
unillustrated.
to leave
some
for
undergraduate course
who appear
teachers may wish to
masters
in
my
in
that
it
if it
has seemed to
me more
could be proved to
else.
important to write at
movements
how
if I
do both.
Throughout the book
appetite to
work of art
in its
context of
(one
who
texts)
that
is
not
their
fault.
An
iconologist
reading
the
work of art?"
texts,
If the iconologist
basic notions
on Ghiberti and
Alberti, as well as
on many
owe
Aesthetically, of course, a
why
way he
did
and
which cause
styles to
number of instances
owed
the student in
my
felt
that
my
book.
my
many
persons, and
mentors
Procacci, Leonetto
at the Ufiizi,
off"ered
many
have helped
high ideals of
Despite
its
in the field
its
Tatti,
which has
failingly to
fulfilled
me
so well the
study space.
Uffizi
Fratelli Alinari
first
Ugo
In quite a
to Richard Krautheimer.
from
their unparalleled
photographic
archives.
Month
Italian painting,
Certain
Charlottesville, Virginia
PART ONE
THE LATE
MIDDLE
AGES
.1
Italy
I.
The matrix of
Italian art
is
and
whose
The
morial.
Art
Italian
The
ning, patience,
and
gentle than
match the
its
skill.
Italian
severity of those in
the
climate
United States or
infinity
with snow
in
midsummer,
fantastic
Dolomitic crags,
of profound
poplar-bordered
fertility,
rivers,
and
Yet
Sicily,
is
in three
hot,
winter
is
autumn
days
brilliant
in
southern
moun-
to be
tions
Italy
Summer
less
is
gentle hills
these
all
to
fit.
explorations.
all
command
are not
with
made
hills that
of sur-
crowned
or
and most of those
have been turned into stepped gardens, man-
that are
terraces
villas
and the
wheat,
vine.
of man.
On
the
Lombard
farms of
their population.
hill
like
woodland
perfect sentinels
hills.
the
Three-
human
plan-
survives.
close a
nymph and
The
in its entirety
Italian
predates the
rise
of the
No
ITALY
II
village.
A map
of Italy
in the
late
like
modern
Italian village.
was left
us say of the kingdoms and
Roman
of the
Empire, or
dukedoms founded
let
all
that
in
communal
the destruction of
cessful of
liberties.
these super-polities
all
Some
states.
Roman
in
in the disorders
During the
society.
later
states
set
up
own
Kingdom of
the
its
fairly
Two
its
Sicilies,
or
Kingdom of
order to maintain
Florence,
its
commercial
ties
in
its
banking firms
must be
that there
five
III
all
over
declared
in
Genoa all
many much
despotism
signoria
Each
state,
marquisate,
(duchy,
lordship) tended
to
and
whether republic or
county, or merely
absorb
its
smaller neigh-
end of the
civil
it
was easy
eruptions, family
undermine
re-
was divided
into a much smaller number of polities, each now dominating a considerable subject territory. Yet none was
able to unite against the menace of the increasingly
centralized monarchies of the rest of Europe which, in
the sixteenth century, were to submerge Italy almost
fifteenth century the peninsula
entirely.
The most
striking
Italian city-states
uniform height
is
these
regulated
by law
crowding
up the
still
surrounded by
when
the
means of
defense.
art.
I.
original
outer
12
Roman
line,
ITALY
is
town
is
life. It is.
above
is
con-
it is
striking
how
2.
,^'^,y
the south
>\/'
immediately the circumstances of
on one
the
it, all
architectural
drama of
the piazza.
it
London and
counted a century
earlier, at a
time
when
side,
is
built. In the
were
straight,
appearance.
Siena
(fig.
3) is
some
teenth century.
in the
To
ITALY
I3
3.
4.
the west
the southeast
5.
Northwest corner,
Orsanmichele, Florence.
Rebuilt 1337 (statues
here visible, 141 1-29)
conceive, Siena
vanquished.
shape of a
It
still
is
is
"Y"
hill
hills,
in the
intersections
In
architecture
building to which
we
an era threatened
constantly by famine the combined grain exchange
and shrine known as Orsanmichele (fig. 5). This was an
in
their
The result was an architecture whose freedom, openness and brilhant color come as a release after the
4).
fortress-like character
of so
many
other Italian
cities.
cloth;
and notaries;
Cambio, or bankers' and money-changers'
own
e Pellicciai,
or furriers.
The
painters,
perhaps
their
as
own
is
generally believed
13 14,
same patron
saint, St.
artist
and physician. And in 1378 the painters found theman independent branch of the Medici e Speziali,
one of the seven major guilds of the Republic.
There was a constantly shifting number of medium
and minor guilds. Among the former, and never admitted to the rank of the major guilds, was the Arte
selves as
ITALY
I5
all
wool
carders,
on whose
in
were permitted
called,
to
leave
their
employment,
activities
The
a particular
from
his
Up
life.
It
is
to this early
Mass. Decoration
narrative
this
open for
new
the
left
and these
the thirteenth and
in
whom
as
logical possibility
statue for
he were a good
execution.
An
artist
to later traditions.
known
in
and came into use only in the seventeenth centhe artists joined and were dominated by
academies. In the later Middle Ages and throughout
much of the Renaissance, the artist worked in a bottega
(shop). Sometimes it was really entered, like a shop,
from the street. Minor artists might even exhibit finished
work to the public in the shop. Artists as important as
Masaccio, Ghiberti, Castagno, and Pollaiuolo did not refuse commissions for jewelry, for painted wooden plates
customarily given new mothers and painted shields
for tournaments or ceremonials, for processional banners and designs for embroidered vestments or other
garments. And even the greatest artists were frequently
employed in the design of triumphal arches, floats, and
costumes for the splendid festivals which celebrated
Italian,
tury
when
up
in
private
homes
made
to
be
composed
Sometimes two of these were joined
of
wooden
panels.
construction in
many
temporary
Romanesque,
Gothic,
or
Renaissance
civic, religious,
new
autocracies,
who keep
shops."
16
ITALY
for painting.
began to provide
The iconography of
fields
the altarpieces
was
himself designed
it is
in
some extraordinary
is
modern
lead pencil.
n the thirteenth,
behind
saints
all
figures
leaf,
applied
in sheets
made
many
still
be
its
When
the
painter
could
background was
proceed
with
the
fairly solid
underpainting,
usually in terra verde (green earth) for the flesh, but even
the drapery
in this color.
6.
layers
Tempera panel
show
When
the
would build
five principal
sometimes reinforced
with linen c. underdrawing d. gold leaf
e. underpainting
/. final layers of tempera
a.
poplar panel
to be supposed,
had the
the proportions of
started
dissected to
artist
all
gesso,
b.
total
its
and studying
altarpieces are
century,
be painted
in the
fifteenth
intricate procedures
of
(fig. 6),
in gesso;
then
fabric
ITALY
I7
8.
Saints. I430s(?).
54x81
14
"
9.
Saints.
Removal of
gesso-
(lateral panels)
I
made of miniver
(gray
displayed as
yet nothing
if it
if
is
down
to paint a panel,
were a miniature.
represented on
and worked
little
triptych
is
shop although as
it.
major surgical operation performed upon an altardamage in World War 11 affords us an unexpected opportunity to reconstruct the procedure of the
artist. A Madonna and Saints by Fra Angelico (fig. 8),
heavily damaged by mold, had to be transferred to a
new panel; this is a difficult but not unusual procedure.
After the mold and dirt are removed, the surface must be
covered with sheets of cheesecloth dipped in plastic
adhesive, which hardens suflRciently to retain the paint
in perfect condition. The panels can then be detached
from the frame, turned over, and the diseased wood
either picked off or scraped away. In this case it was
piece after
discovered that the gesso was also corroded, necessitating the removal of the gesso and the linen with surgical
18
ITALY
and adhesive
(fig. 9).
10.
Baptist,
At
wrong
seen
it
side, as
The soft green earth used for underpaintwas intact and also the broad areas of solid
(fig. lo).
it
was executed
at
considerable speed.
two days
all
Italian
manage an approximately
Most
life-
the rest.
Counting
that
an additional day
continued to model
in lighter
tones
produces a
were
at first tooled to
make
still
all
The
and flashing gold of the altarpieces were, of course, shghtly toned down by the
application of varnish; this practice was universal.
Varnish has even been found on thirteenth-century
fresh bright colors
repaint.
darken, and
It
its
ground
figures
possible,
by three
we
as
shall
presently see,
In a fresco
century
(fig.
painter
11),
to
paint
little
pale
first
Over the
first
all
candle smoke.
We
original brilliance.
museum
or a church
have, of course,
some
all:
Italian
is
probably a
Nardo
di
it
should be
all
'
(/
/
If the
work with
,s
^
r
to express himself
that of fresco.
much more
freely in
another medium,
many
Italian
of
all
/\
L
all,
3/
'/
in
delightful technique
fast,
masonry wall
upper
e.
tier
d.
work indicated
b. arriccio
c.
/.
ITALY
in
heavy
lines
painted intonaco of
for color
underdrawing
in sinopia
I9
3^
JiP?.
t:-.'^''
12.
f-
Cenacolo of
Sta.
Florence (see
ApoUonia,
fig.
268)
modern
more exact
to
covering them,
which might well have been that of the artist also. Often
the sinopia varies considerably from the fresco, either
because the painter had changed his mind about the
position of a limb or a piece of drapery, or in certain
cases because the patron complained that a saint was
wrongly dressed or placed. We even possess a letter in
which Benozzo Gozzoli informed Piero de' Medici
that he had just painted a cloud over an angel to which
the patron had objected
presumably in the sinopia.
As the painter went on with the work, he (or his
assistant) had to cover a section of sinopia each morning
with a new piece of fresh, smooth plaster, or intonaco,
and thus had nothing but his memory to guide him
when he began to paint that area. Every day, therefore,
on.
Greek
city
name
of the
was thought
to have come.
made an
The
excellent
many
many
20
ITALY
made
finished frescoes
the intonaco
to paint on.
The
colors
in
their
gamating w
ith the
water
and undergoing
colors were water-
in the plaster
all
soluble,
that
is,
The
work
down, not
just to keep
fifteenth century
light
when
first
essential
Many
plaster.
but
in the
reclining
at a
in this manner,
which permitted the sculptor to approach every section
easily without climbing, and also gave every hammer
blow the benefit of gravity. For the sculptor the block
or slab of marble took the place of the painter's surface
of gesso or intonaco. He, too, began by drawing. The
outlines of the figure or figures were roughly sketched in
charcoal on the surface of the block, from which the
work of
carving away,
chisel.
The
first
art
by
parallel
marks
left
by the
latter
were
re-
out experiments,
of them ruinous, to discover a compromise between the demands of the new style and the limitations
first
when
faced with
many
century advanced
underpainting.
painters
carried
In
the fifteenth
many
any form of painting, throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, craftsmanship and long experience were both required at every
stage. Only at the point of the sinopia, and again during
the painting of faces, background details, and so on,
was inspiration of much importance.
The death
in
work of
to the finished
The
sculptor
was
his
own
bronze-founder,
mold was
plaster
in sections.
model
art.
so constructed that
it
could be removed
ITALY
21
The
shells
make
new
statue of
wax
Architecture, in the
some modern
is
it
to
Andrea
Mid-i4th century
(c.
students,
>4
these
and groups of structures that the most obvious reference was made to classical antiquity, in terms
It is in
structures
Roman
orders, arches,
festivities
it is
of Renaissance
remarkable
Roman
Imperial
and
still
Romans
how
High
little
had
to roof permanently,
Lombardy
centuries,
itself,
in
Italian architecture
by
an architecture of walls.
all
Italy
what
was murare
Italy a builder
is still
had always
word used
Italian revulsion
(literally,
a muratore.
Roman
22
ITALY
To
least,
some of
modern conserva-
of
is equaled by the
from the complexity of the French
it
In fact, the
been
the
of
all
none
at all),
it
in
the
High Renaissance.
The concept of
of Italy to an extent
inconceivable elsewhere.
is
It
behind
it.
Actually this
is
tries to
prepare the
makes up
no more,
building as acceptable to
startling to foreigners.
The
flat,
from the
Italian eyes as
It
is
is
14.
Andrea
huge shrines
still
untreated
sides of the
often
is
it
not considered
rather a splendid
than just
in general,
it,
rather
sometimes
it
is
Too
one but
Italians, the
The wall
The all-important
tine
later
rusticated masonry.
the
procedure;
in
The
architect
a smaller
is
scale,
visibly directing
masons are
stones around
the
minimum
of
is
architecture,
ITALY
23
-h
2.
The
first
manifestations of an independent
in painting
in
Dugento Art
and
in sculpture
new
in
style
elliptical
Italy,
new
political
developments. In
owy
above:
Emperor
148.
Apse mosaic.
nth
century. Mosaic.
24
DUGENTO ART
IN
of
Tuscany and
Rome
Somewhat
later in the
century Siena
from the
domination of its bishop and of neighboring feudal
lords. These Tuscan city-states were the theater of the
constant struggle for power between the merchant class
and the old nobility, a struggle in which a high premium
established
an independent republic,
free
designate
Trecento
is
the
thirteenth
century (the
1200s),
as
Colorplate
i.
School of
Pisa. Cross
No.
9"x7'
8".
Pinacoteca, Pisa
Colorplate
2.
Coppo
di
Marcovaldo
(attributed). Last
art
is
century
(fig.
15)
new school of Italo-Byzantine art, and it is not impossible that, others came to Florence. But for all their
initial reliance on Greek models, on the Greek methods
of dividing the anatomy into clearly demarcated but
delicately shaded portions, and on the Greek way of
rendering light on drapery by means of parallel striaa
Italo-Byzantine painting
at
(fig.
16). It is
not hard
17.
School of
Pisa. Cross
Panel, 9'
3"xj'
No.
15.
from Chartres.
PAINTING IN
PISA.
in the twelfth
So
of Tuscan painting
impossible to determine
worshiper the significance of the Mass. In the backgrounds the dominance of the architectural shapes
little is left
century that
it is
Dugento, possibly as a
result of the
conquest of
with their
many
recall at
many
other
marble arcades.
It
was the necessity of viewing the art work from a cerwhich led the artist, doubtless, to consider
south of Naples.
tain distance
is
(fig.
17).
This
appears
in
one
in the
with considera-
The wide-open
though
eyes,
DUGENTO ART
in
IN
it
were carved
their
in
low
relief.
curious squared
lids,
27
imagine the
stiff httle
figures to stand
from
incidents
period
All
if
in
in Italy
Against
they were
all.
the style
Romanesque
the
recalls
a codified ritual.
this
sialic
Pisa tcolorplate
at
in
upon
un-
now
if He
is
the Cross as
reality
lightly
in the
forth an
sets
).
is
known
that
destined
Christ),
all
replace
to
rapidly
the
Byzantine
The pose of
art.
common
is
in
Byzantine
Byzantine
models.
anatomy and the drapery the painter betrays his knowledge of Greek style. But even more important than the
Byzantine elements
in the painting,
is
it is
make
possible to
other Tuscan
in
a guess at a date
around
the year 1230 for this work. Very probably the great
change
in
content and
crosses
is
St.
Francis of Assisi
in style
(d.
1226).
culminated
in
in the Saint's
1224
wounds of Christ.
The new emotional content
stigmatization with
the
evident throughout
is
and
in the
in
which architectural
the Lamentation
(fig.
8),
rapidity
through
move downthe
angels'
wings to the profoundly moving image of Mary embracing her dead Son. Here
we have one of
the earliest of
28
DUGENTO ART
IN
which are to form so important a subject for the imagination of Itahan artists of the later Middle Ages and
Renaissance.
PAINTING IN LUCCA.
Similar stages
may
be discerned
19)
(fig.
by one of the
who founded
Dugento. In
earliest
known
born
Milan,
in
his signed
Cross
in the
Pinacoteca at Lucca
The
eyes.
many
with
above:
in the striated
19.
Berlinghiero Berlinghieri.
Byzantine
Pinacoteca, Lucca
figures of
The cross-arms,
art.
minate
as in
many
in
century. Panel.
below: 20.
in the
was
Bonaventura Berlinghieri.
a painter of
60 X 45 % ".
Francesco, Pescia
c.
20) in the
ingly early
of the Saint.
times
If
it
the earliest
in later
St.
known image
we might be
S.
in the
to portrait likeness.
At
is
no
evi-
least,
come
content
as a surprise
if
we know only
life in
the gentler
the Trecento
and Quattrocento.
The shape of
the
life
between
Its
of the Saint,
this
is
its
lateral scenes
from
crosses.
altarpieces
representing the
enthroned
Madonna
DUGENTO ART
IN
29
right: 21.
School of Florence
Florence
Uffizi Gallery,
from 0-055
(see
fig.
21)
PAINTING IN FLORENCE.
human emotional
reactions.
The Preaching
to
the
in the
and
flat
artistically
in the choice
dusty.
The
make no
little
effort to
figure.
Almost
t
30
DUGENTO ART
IN
left: 23.
Coppo
Marcovaldo.
Di
Second half
Crucifix.
9'7%"x8'
below
Haul
left: 24.
detail of
below right:
l'/4".
Gimignano
Pinacoteca, San
25.
from Crucifix
oj Christ,
23
fig.
Lamentation,
(see
23)
fig.
and
(fig. 22).
\s
in
Romanesque
in the small
effect
Byzantine
lost.
Roman
he
may have
No. 20
in Pisa,
also the
first
Whoever
was a strong
we
An
he
artistic personality;
is
are to
line.
stylistic
vein
was Coppo
70s), generally
Crucifix
(fig.
di
Marcovaldo
(active 1260s-
Gimignano,
DUGENTO ART
IN
3I
striated
different
again
in
Italian art.
We
are
remmded of Griinewald's
terror in
the
fifty
and
harshness
Isenheim
years later
Altarpiece,
when
we
are treated as
mouth quivers
of the features
two
fierce,
(fig. 24).
is
made
to play
its
Coppo
is
known
in the Battle at
26.
Coppo
Panel, 7'
Di
Montaperti
in
1260,
when
9^"x4'
5'/s". S.
Martino
the Arbia
Child,
ai Servi,
c.
1265.
Orvieto
it
Cross No. 20 (fig. 18), Coppo's scene has the immediacy of a television shot of street \ioIcncc (fig. 25).
tion in
Parenthetically,
verticals.
it
Coppo's contours.
works by Coppo di
Marco\aldo is a Madonna and Child in the Church of
the Ser\i in Or\ieto (fig. 26). The subject itself forbade
such expressionistic outbursts as we saw in the San
Gimignano Crucifix, but Coppo's characteristic intensit\ of feeling is now merely transferred to the sphere of
form and design. The Virgin is shown as she appears
frequently in Byzantine representations, on a lyrebacked throne, crow ned as Queen o^ Heaven, and holding her di\ ine Son upon her knee. The Child raises His
right hand in blessing. Two angels, of a smaller scale
than the Virgin and Child, are show n behind the throne.
A glance at the head of the Virgin, w ith its slightly rethe effect of the long curves of
Among
the
other
surviving
lips,
and
an emotional content not explained either by the ordinary relationship of mother and child or by the
way
ritual
Madonna and
or another, a reference to
As
in
the Crucifix.
Coppo has
and
severe
is
like
elements
Here. too.
of the
clear-cut
ision
of architecture.
by wedge-shaped depressions
in the halo,
the San
glitter
Gimignano
Crucifix,
creating a constant
is
already
left
hand.
style is
especially
up
in folds
striations.
little
to
ofcloih.
forms
lead.
early 1270s.
The e\tensi\e
cycle
mosaics
ol"
filling
the interior of
the octagonal
Florence
is
On
the
in
p\ramid
Tuscan metropolis.
is
represented
the
Coppo
di
Coppo
it
gi\es
of his
unprecedented
scale.
The
central
more than
figure,
floor.
may
be seen the
He
How
left
is
to cast
surrounding angelic
stored,
4".
the
re-
the
content
is
As always
transformed
Coppo's
Church
of
Domenico
San
now
Madonna
(fig.
27),
Pubblico.
The
face of the
Guido painted
a
huge
Madonna and
for
Enthroned
of the Palazzo
of characteristic
most awe-inspiring
more
strongly by the style of Bonaventura Berlinghieri. The
Palazzo Pubblico Madonna has been the subject of a
gelo.
Although
his
name was
is
the
forgotten by tradition,
inspire, directly
Guido appears
to
still
c.
1260),
the
leading painter of
the
DUGENTO art
IN
33
master, and
it
each
side. In the
it
artist.
Any attempt
to figure out
best
3).
is
the antithesis of
c.
classical
depth
fifty
been demonstrated
recently
lettered in a
that
manner common
in style.
it
the
inscription
in the early
is
Trecento,
The Child
has
It
in
or both.
in this case is seated
on the Virgin's
is
He
left,
looks directly
a ceremonial subject
Coppo
di
Cenni
In
di Pepi, better
lines,
shapes,
like the
whelm
272-1 302);
this
is
just
c.
of a development but
him
at its end.
beginning
at the
Cimabue's
as
if
The
who got no
was relegated to
the villages, and soon ceased altogether. Cimabue sums
up and refines an Italo-Byzantine tradition which had
been going on for nearly a century in Tuscany, and,
elaborate and splendid though his creations were, he
jobs
in
The
Florence
itself;
great Enthroned
(colorplate
3),
their activity
in the Uffizi
34
DUGENTO ART
IN
is
it
attri-
not
now
with the
relief
Cimabue's drawing
broad
lines.
The eye
structure
is
level, the upper lid shaped like a circumand the sidelong glance contrasting with the
lower hd almost
flex,
downward
1
in the
tilt
monastic church
at Mistra,
Cimabue
studied with
Greek painters
show everything he
knows
to exist,
making both
ears
appear even
human
us,
Cimabue
head on a
flat
Cimabue's
analyze
surface.
penetrating
and
For
ail this
descriptive naivete,
intelligence
differentiate
enables
psychological
him
types
to
with
example the distinction between the fresh, even a bit foppish, young angels and
the weary, disillusioned prophets. His eye and hand
considerable
delight
in
Even when he
effect, as for
29.
classical
background he
haloes
which
originally
Florence.
the
sources.
Cimabue was
also a
is
enriched
lines.
monumental
artist
very prob-
Coppo and
can
only
be
dimly suggested
by
photographic
is
his cycle
re-
of
sions whatsoever,
is
one
built
his
tomb.
S.
Francesco, Assisi
DUGENTO ART
IN
35
head bent
this
the fresco.
as
pain
in
perhaps already
impossible to determine
is
in
in
death.
aUhough
if
in
the
one
their
side.
Angels hover
in
Roman
centurion
in
the foreground
who
PAINTING
IN
ROME.
it
is
bisected
rich
c.
(fig.
it
light,
still
30),
as
the
now appears
Rome
all,
on
faces.
Form
independently of
by virtue of
The shapes of the faces can
line.
line.
if
we
it
would prob-
to
Rome.
Byzantine system of schematic illumination and compartmentalization, that culminated in the gold striation
many
of so
striations
icon
36
of Greece,
DUGENTO ART
IN
the
Balkans, and
Russia.
SCULPTURE.
While
was reaching
its
the
Italo-Byzantine
Better
movement
known
to
first
of the
us today as
Nicola Pisano
in
southern Italy
lU
and
Italian,
slill
is
Nicola's
antiquity
for
taste
ihc
Word
may
Mary
and
conceived the
a legend in
he arrived
rigid
known work,
Romanesque
formulae of the
ruled
rtrst
was completed
in
which the
in
artist
why
baptistery
should
do with
not
is
It
entirely
clear
miraculous malernit\.
It
was
human body
when
prcciscl>
of Christ.
One
of the reasons
months previously,
25. nine
in
that
the
the
is
Nativity
the
In
reclines
used
in
same cave
bottom of
Byzantine representations of
still
shown
the relief
Mary
the cave
this e\ent,
At
to \isitors in Bethleliem.
city-states
building, thus
tance,
is
in
any
had a
bath.
At the lower
red
marble.
one
is
Dugento Cross or
Nicola clearly drew them
contemporary Italo-ByzanAlthough
Nicola's study of original
tine art (see p. 27).
Roman Corinthian capitals in southern Italy and in
Pisa has gi\en to his a classical firmness and precision,
naturalistic
in
ornament
foliate
in
French
the
Gothic
affinities:
much
still
enormous
as narrative scenes
all
his projecting
as a silent
flank a
noticed
sits
we have
Joseph
hexagonal pulpit
elements
left
first
spectator.
an
impor-
Child's
in
plane no matter
trees
No
how much
relief
is
all
dis-
the figures
may
overlap.
in
when
ith
French
of
architecture
cathedrals.
The
hexagonal
with
reliefs
The whole
culminates
in the
compact,
important events
in
Mary
figures
Roman
lips,
full
come
and
directly
classical
from
classical art.
But for
all
unclassical.
these detailed
specific
is
strangely
Byzantine forms
in
Coppo
di
Marco-
Virgin
is
Magi
(fig.
32),
the seated
on a
Roman
sarcophagus,
legend of Hippolytus.
DUGENTO ART
still in
IN
37
Nicola Pisano.
and Annunciation
Shepherds, panel on the Marble
left: 31.
Anniincialion, Nativity,
to the
colorplate
below
5).
1260. 33'/2
left: 32.
>
44'/2"
Nicoi a Pisano.
Marble
colorplate
5).
33
'/2
AAVi"
below right:
Fortitude,
Baptistery, Pisa
(see colorplate 5). Height 22"
Roman
bearded
figures,
available to Nicola.
male
figure,
Roman
Most strikmg of
all
is
sculpture
the fine
(fig.
33),
nude save for the lion's skin over his shoulder. He, in
turn, was imitated from a figure on a Roman Hercules
sarcophagus, appropriate enough since Hercules is
an ancient exemplar of fortitude. In spite of the Christian horror of nudity, naked figures do turn up in medie-
38
DUGENTO ART
IN
Judgment; all
in fact, nude
Nicola
is still
a medieval
artist,
Three years
after the
known and
well
were necessary
and much
Gothic and
than
34), octagonal
more richly decorated. In this masterpiece
classical elements,
(tig.
blend effortlessly
in a style
of
From
The abrupt
style
immense under-
become
worked on
this
later to
above
left: 34.
Marble
Nicola Pisano.
Pulpit. 1265-68.
Cathedral, Siena
left: 35.
Nicola Pisano.
Cathedral, Siena.
Each
panel, 3314
"
x 38
14
above right:
39
In
nine columns
all.
of
all
sit
eight.
The
the statues
was
are not now
pulpit
their
all
at
in
the figures
many
artists
much
Baptistery
as in the Pisa
pulpit.
ly
human
surface of the
figure,
to be seen
from belou.
movements of
the
their
would
was
well
aware
when planning
statues intended for a lofty position. He therefore
brought the neck outward so that the face would not
be hidden by the breast and knees of the figure, when
seen from the piazza below. He also and this is comnot take the visual angle into account
mon
in
Italian
its
fine detail
on the eye.
The self-laudatory inscription placed by Nicola on
the Pisa Baptistery pulpit
is
exceeded
in
pretension by
pit
in
Pistoia
38),
tlety
style.
arches are
more
strongly projecting.
portant in Nicola's
art,
The
rising
Reims Cathedral,
elements
in the beautiful
way
some of
to
(fig.
related.
It
is
it
his
art influenced
full
tide of emotionalism.
much
deeper.
little in
in
Giovanni's style
37)
Arno
its finest
sculpture, be-
The
free,
common
zigzag
movement of
reliefs
continuous motion.
command
who were
slain at the
relief (figs.
becomes an orgy of sadism
39, 40I On the upper right Herod is giving the order;
the stage is filled w ith wailing mothers, screaming children, and soldiers holding up children and stabbing
them with swords, while mothers below cradle their
dead children and weep over them. Even the lesser
figures
the prophets in the spandrels and the sibyls
between the capitals and the parapet share in the general agitation. The sibyls. Greek and Roman prophetesses who were believed to have foretold the coming of
it
is
man
sculpture.
saints
The powerful
and
and turn
statues of prophets
twist
an extraordinary degree, as if to declare total independence from the confining rules of architecture, even
though it was Gioxanni himself who laid out the arches,
to
gables,
structure.
are
to be explained,
The most
violent
however, by a sensitivity to
40
DUGENTO ART
IN
resented
in
restrained
way by
in
culminating
Giovanni's
in
Lower
half of facade by
Giovanni Pi
Pisano, 1284-99
DUGENTO ART
,N
41
left: 38.
1
298- 30 1.
1
S.
Pulpit.
Andrea, Pistoia
on the Marble
Siena (see
above
Giovanni Pisano.
on the Marble Pulpit,
right: 41.
Sibyl,
S.
Andrea,
Pistoia.
Height 243/8"
42
Andrea, Pistoia
fig.
34). 33
Pulpit, Cathedral,
1/2
x 38
"
Va
Colorplate
3.
c.
fx-j'
Florence
Colorplate
4.
c.
Rome
Colorplate
5.
by an angel
41), inspired
Her excitement
head, the zigzag
and
stant flow
figure of
all,
caryatid
who
who
has
to speak
is
flicker
Germanic
strongly
in its
appearance,
is
the
come
especially proto-Michelangelesque.
is
eff"ect
on the
figure
(fig.
42), forcing
43.
Giovanni Pisano.
Madonna and
on the observer.
moment
in Italian art,
The
last
ever,
really
allies.
how-
ume
all
human
moment,
same
is
life,
stress will
and
reappear
Dominican
own
Gothic
right, as leaders
of an
their ties
is
new
accommodate their
unprecedented congregations. The two finest Florentine
churches of the period, Santa Maria Novella and Santa
Croce, owe their existence to the preaching orders which
still occupy them today. Santa Maria Novella (figs. 44,
45), founded by the Dominicans before 1246 but constructed from 1279 into the early Trecento, is perhaps
scale to
and
zation,
buildings on an entirely
ARCHITECTURE.
country.
detail
The plan
is
was
Italy,
leaving
room
for a clerestory
said of
context;
many of
its
and
reliefs.
Dugento
end
little
is
membrane
sur-
that encloses
Romanesque buildings in
moreover, no formal separation be-
buildings.
flat east
Dugento architecture
religious
movements.
Child,
on the altar.
Arena Chapel, Padua.
c. 1305-6. Marble
France. There
is,
DUGENTO art
IN
47
membrane, from whose dynamism emerges an unexpected and very beautiful feeling of calm and repose.
This
is
in
striking contrast
However
period.
the
to
pictorial art
highly energetic
may
be from the
forms of
later, classically
harmony of
glass,
the
unknown
possibly
monastic
builders of Santa
sentially Italian
all
probabihty
this
master
right: 44.
Sta.
Sta.
jrf'fe
r:-^
^-K^
"li^'A
:jt^:::::::^::^
:.;^::;.v.v;M|j::::J
i::::;:P!^:::::::::5i:::..
jkmm
48
ii^wL
/
DUGENTO ART
IN
was Arnolfo di Cambio, also very important as a sculptor, a pupil and co-worker of Nicola Pisano. and as the
first architect of the often-redesigned new Cathedral of
Florence (fig. 125). The construction of Santa Croce,
founded in 1294, was continued well into the Trecento.
The plan combines a timber roofed nave of seven bays
(immensely long for
Italy),
in
Rome
like those
of the Early
Nave and
left: 46.
choir,
Begun 1294
Croce
:TTrTftam
.:...
-.:..:
:::=*:r:
l.-:":
.:*
Mb JL
preaching churches,
is
contrib-
it
ly the
principal governing
how
the
is
Duomo
of Florence {duomo
the
is
and
in
called)
dominates a whole
popular imagination
dome of
its
tower
the Cathedral as a
is
been followed.
all
body was
for cathedral)
In
government competed
its
bulk and
artistic
Uberti family,
who had
DUGENTO ART
IN
fled
49
Roman
And
rusticated, as in
culminating
in
machicolations.
off-
their
trefoil
models.
Its
arches,
simplicity
of the nobility of
military architecture.
in
and
imitation
force,
man and
its
of French
the
virtue
Gothic
triumphant assertion
were
harmony over
chamber sup-
The
brutal
Florence. 1299-13 10
also serve
last
left
is
accentuated
untrimmed, or
its
leading master.
3-
Giotto di Bondone
GIOTTO.
little
(c.
town of Vespignano
the
in
valley
called
the
of most of
in fact
Italy.
The first
artists
is
who
unquestionably one of
ever lived.
Giotto
so
The Chronicles of
Giovanni
He was
among
caccio records
how
work;
the Divine Comedy,
Oderisi da Gubbio,
larity,
comparing
it
who
bewails his
own
fall
from popu-
Cimabue beheved
can
styles in architecture
style?
pupil of
when
Greek
in his
it
had
the
peninsula.
manner" of the
Greeks, and since he continued to "derive from Nature,
he deserves to be called the pupil of Nature and no other."
No one, not even in Cennini's time, was in a position to
reaUze what Italian painting had gained from Byzantine
examples and, perhaps, from actual Greek masters. To
all commentators naturalness was equated with Latinity,
Giotto, he said, abandoned the "rude
In painting,
sense
Roman
see,
France.
The
virtue of
human,
artificial
"beautiful
after the
most painters
which spread
rapidly to other centers in Tuscany, including Siena, and
then up and down the Adriatic coast, capturing one
provincial school after another. Within a generation it
met resistance only in Venice, strongly tied to the Greek
East, and in Piedmont and Lombardy, deeply influenced by Northern Gothic. The basic conceptions of
Giotto's art remained dominant, despite the personal
it
in
new
style,
Renaissance
artists
Greek
East. It
is
interesting,
the
all
is
work
artists
how
little
remains today of
Naples, including
no other moment
has
its
by a French
5I
and they form not only his greatest preserved achievement but one of the most wonderful fresco cycles anywhere (fig. 49). They are astonishing in their completeness
and state of preservation, despite their recent damage
from industrial fumes. The Chapel is small, intended for a
congregation of the Scrovegni family and their retainers,
and the frescoes themselves are smaller than they seem
dynasty.
The
great master
to be in reproductions
The windows
lifesize.
much
of the young
artist's style as
we now know
it.
The domi-
like
motion-picture
strips.
The
state,
its
emphasis on
clarity,
at
close
quarters.
Roman
chapel.
in
arena in Padua as a
He began
site
and
it
is
stars,
The wall
on the upper
lives
of Joachim
and so
clear
is
is
dramatic incident.
all
is
at
The Byzantine
is
and
clear light,
ground, carefully
modulated ornament, simply defined masses, and beautiful glowing color, the colors of spring flowers. One is
reminded of Ruskin's phrase, "The April freshness of
Giotto."
basilica of
Sant'Antonio
at
52
and balance
49-
Consecrated 1305
who "saw
we move through
and saw it whole." Italian documents and sources contain no word for our "scene":
scenes are invariably called storie (stories), and that is
what they are throughout Itahan art. Each storia is an
incident from a continuous drama, and based on a simple,
human relationship of figures. We can follow the plot,
generally accompanied in the Shakespearian sense by
life
steadily
but
the series. In
wilderness. This
ships
among
is
the
the
shepherds
and on the
entire
in
the
relation-
composition
is
53
ation.
reluctance;
which show
Dugento
in
are so deployed as to
models
is
in scope.
landscape,
it is
profile, one-quarter,
faces,
portance
no source
is
But and
shown
unity of
all
and
this,
all
this
is
of prime imIt is
a uniform
Chapel. Giotto's
light,
for
form an
eff"ective
behind
and in
same
moment
is
of
limited,
real sky.
It
this
in the Wilderness.
right: 51.
54
eff'ects
is
by a
space; some trees are shown cut off" by the rocks, so that
we read them as growing on the other side of the hill. And
there
is
celestial origin.
Within
some reason
Joachim, detail of
fig.
50
\;^..v
is
(fig.
52),
back
in
is
visited
by an angel who
flies
in
who
is
The
setting
to be able to
do them. Cennini
tells
52.
scale to architecture
and
figures
all
were content
Quattrocento
in
all its
53.
Arena Chapel
Anna
his face
One
subplot,
who accompanies
Joachim and carries his belongings, and is partly cut off"
by the frame to indicate conventionally that he has come
from a distance.
Turning to the events directly connected with the Life
another appears in the shepherd
two
(figs. 54,
55) divided
IN
FLORENCE
55
54, 55.
was the position designated for the Annunciaby a tradition going back to Byzantine art, because
the prophet Ezekiel was shown a vision of the sanctuary
of the Temple, whose gate was shut,
arch. This
haloes are
tion
and no man
Lord, the
therefore
It is
God
it
shall enter in
by
art.
This
no sources of natural
is
light
it is
anywhere
is
Israel,
because the
hath entered
in
by
it,
sit
in
it
by
go out by
in Giotto's
identified mysti-
fife;
of
painted with
shall be shut.
there are
still
human
moment
form, in a new
angel.
when
is
in
He
moment
human
which Mary
accepts her immense responsibility: "Be it done to me
heart.
in
It is
important
and per-
of
light.
This
is
56
light
in the
On
to
in a tide of
artists
(now
less familiar to
Bethlehem authentic
or otherwise the Gospel account gives no precise setting. Giotto, perhaps after his visit to France, adopted
still
exists in
(fig. 56).
He
also
The ox and
ass,
58.
detail
of Raising of Lazarus
Arena Chapel
56.
what
it is
impossi-
(fig.
who
is
trailing cloud.
and
this patient
donkey
is
57
Mary and
in suppli-
corpse in
its
The
who
cover
of his larger humanity such details never seem disturbing. Despite the considerable
number of elements,
the
is
clearly
when he took
and
is
freedom
is
An
especially
a result,
tells us,
much
of
it
has peeled
in
one of the
added a secco. As
showing the brush
the
is
is
He
does
in the Uffizi
drama
it
hooded attendant
off,
so, as if
full
wickedness of Judas'
in the Betrayal
The nucleus of
that of a
concealed
to be
(fig.
Cross (see
fig. 22).
5'
and
and the
of Judas' cloak.
It will
plaster
tive.
Some
fresco,
is
shown
in perspec-
and early
thir-
He is
He hangs there one is made
arms.
No
manner open
result of her
now
58
Above
counterparts in
fig.
29),
Cimabue's
Some hold
hands and
chalices to
side, others
two angels
fly
straight
of deepest tragedy
this scene
is
pre-
The
justly
famous Lamentation
(fig.
like
61),
the
by Coppo
(see
fig. 25).
is
stretched
mourn-
down
if
to elicit
which separates
life
60.
Mary and
Christ, she
the
who
Life.
61.
Garden of
sacrifice
of
utilized the
same time
on those.
Hell
is
It
to
a place of disorder.
59
Giotto.
Last Judgment, Arena Chapel
above
left: 62.
the
The
seat
is
fig.
62
fig.
Arena Chapel,
62
detail of fig.
Model of
62
enthroned as
dimly seen
in the blaze
risen Lord.
at the
lower
less tiny,
above.
To
left
and
right, the
many
Dugento
float
the wings of
60
MUPt
66, 67, 68.
Giotto.
Justice, Injustice,
in
wheel,
who
is
Inconstancy
tries
which to Giotto
(fig.
on her precarious
68)
monk
(fig.
65),
One
model
is
who
accept
be,
their flesh.
common
whom
the essential
human
commerce,
activities
sections of the
in
(fig.
French Gothic
66)
agriculture,
is
and
a regal
travel,
of Italian corporate
Madonna
(fig.
69), painted
precisely,
by Giotto
Church of Ognissanti
(All Saints)
and now
done about
3 1 0,
in the Uffizi, is
Trinita
fig.
20).
step.
Narrow
panels are
ornament painted
filled
(fig.
who, from
life,
OGNissANTi MADONNA.
surrounded by
fluid
and
bril-
liant in color.
IN
FLORENCE
6l
1v^
J
and the glowing white of
make
of
all
Giotto's figures.
these
shadows of
When compared
beautiful
Dugento
Cimabue's Enthroned Madonna, Giotto's Ognissanti
Madonna seems the quintessence of stability, harmony,
and warm humanity.
as
v;
-^^
X-
Castruccio Castracane.
^,;?'
not be recaptured.
v^
69.
8"x6'
His
left,
abandoned anatomical
no needless complexities
robust Child
whose
is
is
lightly
truly sculptural in
its
The
Her
right
hand
which
lindrical
in depth,
is
tunic.
The
On each
grouped
in
Mary
who
brilliant
of Gio-
liUes
and
roses,
vanni Pisano's
62
70. Detail
of
fig.
69
in the
Colorplate
7.
Colorplate
8.
Duccio.
Museo deirOpera
Siena
del
Duomo,
71.
Giotto.
St. Francis
Florence
72.
Giotto. Funeral of
St. Francis.
After 1317.
again in
made
visible
At least one other fresco cycle and a considerable number of panel paintings, some of them very
fine, betray the same collaboration between the overpopular master and the army of helpers necessary for the
by
his pupils.
execution of
all
later years.
life
apparently
Chapel
it
is
left
only a ghost of
was painted
in haste,
and
its
former
self;
largely a secco.
In the Bardi
all
divided symmetrically as
the Sultan
is
if
appears to be go-
and human
style
IN
has
the center
FLORENCE
arm
65
On
left.
left,
The two
Negro
slaves beside
art,
and are
of colored
resentations
sensitively
known
persons
earliest rep-
Western
in
in their rich
work
at
der at
speed (colorplate
7).
The
artist did
of the brush
in
is
indicated.
The
result
is
brushwork reminding
us of ancient
Roman
Among
structure.
was mutilated to
include a tomb, long since removed. Old photographs
show the missing sections of the fresco replaced by some
in
What now
ceiling
The Funeral of
Francis
St.
remains,
if
(fig.
72)
fragmentary,
is
at least entirely
upon
crowd weeping around him,
The
Saint
by
lies
new
kissing his
St.
Saint's
the
re-
composition
anced,
in
common
that the
is
static,
in the
shows
goes on, under the composed and
drama still
The beautiful
quiet forms.
a closer view
73.
Giotto. Ascension of
St. John.
After 1317.
66
IN
FLORENCE
lost to us.
(fig.
73)
is
particularly striking.
The
columns upholding
is broken
soar upward through the
its
two
to permit St.
John to
floor, to
saints.
be received into
The power of
the
composition
left
copied
in
On
the right
compositions, however,
is
St.
John on Patmos
(fig.
74),
as the Apocalypse.
vided for centuries an inexhaustible source for illustration in manuscripts, wall painting, stained glass,
sculpture,
known
or,
to
and
classic frugality of
temperament
chose from
his
this treas-
crouches
St.
that of Joseph
in
on
it
right,
John, asleep
in a position
the Nativity in
Padua
which
(fig. 56).
is
and
recalls
On the
woman
tioned
in
the text.
On
is
by no means
clear.
in
Despite the
and
in the fifteenth
almost
all
in the sixteenth
century,
now
made by him
is
in
we know
Sant'Antonio
in
Padua,
is
it
St.
still
alive
Francis cycle.
many erroneous
traditions
in this
case
is
over-
whelming.
Assisi.
vexing questions
in
left
because
it is
no general agreement. The crucial problem revolves around frescoes in the nave of the Upper Church
of San Francesco at Assisi in particular, the series below
the windows, on the projecting wall surface that was
is
still
by Giotto,
the problem
might very
Francis
in
twenty-eight
scenes.
In
of
life
general,
St.
Italian
still
all
as
remains.
series.
long-
in the
likely
St.
Francis
by
74.
IN
FLORENCE
67
shown
whatever the angle of the head in threedistant eye remains flat, though
wrapped around the curved cheek, while Giotto's distant
full-face,
quarter
the
faces,
eyes
of a single
artist.
St.
in quality be-
may have
if
on a lower
in
Beggar
(fig.
76)
is
its
delicate
a far cry from Giotto's rudimentary architectural forms. The upward flow of the
hillside
its cliffs, scattered trees, town, and chapel
is
unconvincing compared with the hard, simple masses
of Giotto's rocks. Such complexities are completely
we know
it,
but
by Cennino Cennini, as
deriving from Giotto. The landscape masses converge
on St. Francis' head in a kind of X-shape, uncomfortable in itself and not especially dramatic. A careful,
to the specific directions given
Master of the
75-
Francis Cycle.
St.
St.
Francis
Upper Church of
is
Francesco, Assisi
S.
dated
Gardner Museum
in that year.
in
It
St.
Francis cycle
series
by a Central
But the
in all respects,
Rimini,
work of Giotto
as
we know
it
elsewhere.
who
The
in
fresco of St.
shows the
the market place
(fig.
75)
divided
in
uplifted
hands of
Francis.
St.
Each group
is
backed by
to
Rome and
Florence.
its
expressions are
Facial
uncom-
is
felt.
in the St.
Profiles, so characteristic
left.
When
somehow
68
76.
Master of the
St.
Francis Cycle.
St.
Francis
Upper Church of
S.
Francesco, Assisi
/('//.
77-
Maso
di
Banco.
c.
1340.
Bernardo Daddi.
Madonna and Child. 340s.
below: 78.
Panel,
32%
21 Y^".
Collection, Villa
Berenson
I
Tatti,
Florence (Reproduced by
Italian
master, even
influenced by
Thc authority of
may
first
ants
impeded the
order. None-
well have
is
in
own
right.
Banco
(active
their
Maso
di
Sylvester, the
blood of many children slaughtered for the purand instead managed to baptize him as a Christian.
One miracle of St. Sylvester was the closing of the throat
of a dragon whose breath had killed two wise men in
the Roman Forum, and their resuscitation (fig. 77).
Among Roman ruins, one sees the wise men lying on
in the
pose,
in
is
thankfultypical of
and
unified space
but
Maso
of the background.
with their
flat
in
Nonetheless,
wall-planes and
the
Roman
ruins,
sive.
Maso's
style
facial types,
from Giotto,
of course,
reflect
Giotto's late
Maso may
well
is
typical
intimate,
IN
FLORENCE
69
positions,
and show a
runs from
Coppo
di
and
which
in the tradition
Marcovaldo
to Giotto.
down
Daddi's
at her Child,
Who
lyric
art,
is
difficult to justify;
79^^
<r
Bernardo Daddi.
Predella panel,
o.
16%
Annunciation. I330s(?).
x27'/8"-
Taddeo Gaddi.
The Louvre,
Paris
(c.
The
8i.
to the Shepherds.
1332-38. Fresco.
Baroncelli Chapel, Sta. Croce, Florence
Tree of Life
his
movements. The
(fig.
St.
upon
fruits
many
churches.
Taddeo Gaddi
Agnolo Gaddi,
could not compete with
still
Daddi's tasteful
that
Madonnas
features
IN
FLORENCE
7I
no
and Giovanni Pisano, but acquired his name through the fact
that he came from Pontedera, an Arno Valley town then
Pisano
in
(c.
290-1 348)
Pisan territory.
reliefs
is
We
relation to Nicola
little
Campanile
Florence (see
fig.
127).
Giotto
some of
these reliefs
(fig. 82).
provided
Certainly
and
John the
Baptist which decorate the set of bronze doors completed
by Andrea in 1330 for the Baptistery of Florence seem
many of
compositions (fig.
83).
life
of
St.
of Giotto's pictorial
and their well-spaced, beautifully organized movement have nothing to do with the heavily
charged style of the great Dugento sculptors, but are
directly related to Giotto's new vision of form and space,
and especially to his economy of statement. Salome
Before Herodias (fig. 84) is one of these delicate and
limited depth,
perfectly organized
little
South Doors
East Doors
painting
38),
is
(left),
(right),
in
so
The Annunciation
to the
much
in the
of
it
Shepherds
Chapel, though
with his
(fig.
81)
of night
light,
own hand.
is
its
the
most
dramatic
Quattrocento,
Monaco
and Gentile da Fabriano (see fig. 180), and Correggio's Cinquecento Holy Night (see fig. 620), with all its
SCULPTURE.
72
IN
FLORENCE
84.
85.
Master of
World War
2>1>V2
II
something
Up
to this
moment we have
style in Florence,
The
who
personahty,
is
his followers.
and
delightful
different,
and so
is
an agreeable
if
is
entirely
Master live
the bottom of the
St. Cecilia
shrunken existence
at
understood the
tecture
risks
and for
figures,
He
also suffered
life
of
St.
Francis, in which
him
latter's career.
and
it
is
as a collaborator of
tiny heads,
His amusing
and
his freely
illuminated,
some
official style.
altarpiece that
Life.
73
4-
Among
Duccio.
the
Trecento
in
by common
Buoninsegna
Italy,
(active
Giotto.
The
full
to be told,
city
which seemed
and
seems
still
to
most portions of
still
used by Cimabue
his
much
is
difficult to
in
reconstruct
its
logical
First, in
the
stood
behavior
Duccio's
tional,
out
as
fines,
we can
deter-
tion,
Coppo
in
assistants,
34).
And
lossal
Florence
in
itself
Enthroned Madonna
fig.
3)
the Rucellai
is
Madonna
in
Santa
in the
(fig.
86), so called
Maria Novella
in
because
it
Company
Florence.
It
is
of the Virgin
Madonna
74
to
IN SIENA
Our
is
Salva-
tion.
and gray-lavenders.
Coppo
di
are derived
Marcovaldo
drastically stated, in
less
(see
ulti-
fig.
26)
keeping with
spoonlike
usual
unites the
upper
lip
line
configuration
at
their
intersection,
The
who
turns in
outstretched hand.
Refinement of surface
is
silk, its
wash
silk,
is
derived, like
made
their appearance.
in
It
generally
it
was
felt
work
its
Italian
central panel
(fig.
its
title
was
super-altarpiece.
Its
known
in altarpieces as
a predella.
Above
86.
Uflfizi
Gallery, Florence
Four
saints kneel
panel. Six
the gabled frame
is
bust
tricately inlaid
angels
final
its effect
of
For Siena the Virgin Mary was not just the Mother
God and the Queen of Heaven, she was the patron
was
hills.
In
131
the colossal
accompanied by the members of the government, the clergy, and the people, carrying lighted
candles and torches, to the sound of all the bells
of the city, and the music of trumpets and
.
more
who
conjectural.
the front
saints stand
marble throne
row of the
central
in-
standing
row.
rest their
bagpipes.
in
still
attenuated,
bodies.
The
Virgin's
face
has
suffered
IN SIENA
75
87.
13'.
Museo delTOpera
mournful gaze of
St.
del
Duomo,
Siena
Catherine's eyes
is
typical of
most
garments
is
particularly refined.
gold-embroidered
its
liquid
One of
Washington
(fig. 89).
It
is
in
shows
the
Isaiah
it
the
Duccio's
tine
compromise often
artistic position,
and Gothic
felt
to be
symptomatic of
traditions.
Mary, enveloped
in
her
adored by ox and
ass.
At the
left sits
in
the manger,
upward
to
Head of St.
Catherine, detail of
fig.
87
are set
Duccio's sensitivity
head of
extreme
St.
left
is
Catherine of Alexandria
(fig.
88), to the
off"
by
powdery blue
of Ezekiel's cloak.
spoon formation
swept away
76
in
eyebrows,
is
The
IN SIENA
iBft
left: 89.
center, 17 14
171/2"; laterals,
left: 90.
Duccio.
New York
Collection,
Museo deirOpera
showing one of the temptations of Christ Who, according to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, was led by
Satan up to a high mountain and promised all the
kingdoms of the world. It is characteristic of a Tuscan
artist that Duccio has represented the kingdoms as
Italian city-states, some on plains, others on hilltops.
He has been brave enough to include seven of these
cities
no earlier Italian artist had attempted so much
using a different scale from that of the large figures of
Christ and the Devil. Each city is a complete community, with walls, gates, streets, and public and
still
penetrates only to a
a feeling
The complex,
world has
is
irrational,
little
in
elusive
common
cities.
nature of Duccio's
The
com-
del
Duomo,
resents the
Entry
hilltop setting
is
into
Jerusalem (colorplate
8).
itself,
The
which
in a
77
Siena
Cimabue's fresco
(see fig. 29), all three crosses are shown; Duccio has
even represented the legs of the thieves, broken to put
an end to their agony, while Christ's legs were left intact in fulfillment of the prophecy recorded in the Gospel
of St. John, "a bone of him shall not be broken." The
into
we watch
We
some climbing
move
their
In the Crucifixion
92.
78
and rooftops.
91) Duccio has depicted a scene
(fig.
who
away but
is
represented in a
about Christ as
Him
like a flock
but
of birds.
Women,
Roman
As
Israelites.
mystic,
in
sinking powerless
toward the
with
all its
more
shown than
effectively
flashing eyes
Like Giotto
siMONE MARTINI.
in this scene,
Siena,
in
of gifted painters
in
seems
his doctrine as
remarkable succession
One of
known pupils was Simone
who worked on Duccio's
Martini (active
later
1315-44),
itself,
far
Simone was
obviously indebted to Duccio, but the two kneeling
angels are shown in profile, in the manner of Giotto.
ment of kneeling
Duccio's thrones,
Gothic
93.
Gothic
throne
windows
with
in
lofty
grouped
throng
of saints
wings
whose
Panel,
all
of the loosely
which
78%
X5414". Museo
di
17.
Capodimonte, Naples
between the
flict
which
the same
still
shelters the
The
tive
when
Simone's canopy
is
carried by saints,
demanded
not, by
any means, an
vertical, frontal
centralization,
Eucharist today
easy problem.
in
solemnize.
Italian
St.
details,
completely
depth
Simone Martini.
resultant dilemma Simone converted into a posiadvantage by the subtle relation of interweaving
much more
the huge
off
Gothic ones
in
crisp and
smart,
wavy
hair.
Simone was
Louis of Toulouse
(fig.
93),
in
St.
1317
maturing
style
in
Simone's
if
the
of Montemassi
IN SIENA
79
94-
won
SiMONE Martini. Guidoriccio da FogUano. 1328. Fresco. Council Chamber, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena
was made
to face Simone's
Maesta, and runs across the upper half of the entire opposite wall of the Council
rides
of the
Roman
known
inherited by
Simone painted
life
of
St.
Saint in the
In
addition to a
related to
indi-
perched on
tion
still
its hill;
at the right,
its
and of Guidoriccio
who
sleeps
under a
silk coverlet
of
The
his faces
is
show
the salty
the best
humanity
of his observation
in the
Saint
The
is filled
camp
On
the hill-
the picture.
off"
lies
extremely convincing
relish
Simone
the ring of
St.
many
and
now,
image so ceremonial, the portrait of Guidoriccio is unflattering. His puffy cheeks and corpulent figure do not
ness, but
80
fit-
as
least attrac-
IN SIENA
to the chagrin of
made of convex
Colorplate
9.
Gallery, Florence
10'
x 8'
9".
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the incipient
in
of the Incarnation
example
in
which
in fact, this is
this
the earliest
known
of an entire altarpiece. At first sight the complex structure appears to be a polyptych, with its five arches and
two
lateral panels
nettes.
are unexpectedly
The
resultant
suspense is increased by the blankness of the gold background at the center of the painting, traversed only by
the words of the angel, "'A ve gratia plena dominus tecum"'
(Hail thou that art full of grace, the Lord is with thee),
embossed in the gold, as they come from the mouth of
in
is
Why
the cloak
is
checked
still
like a
floating in
Scotch plaid
has never been explained, but neither has anyone objected; it is a delightful design, reminiscent of St.
Martin's checked coverlet
The Virgin
95.
her, at
what
Fresco.
lilies
which symbol-
Simone's
St.
same sharp,
Mary and
Mary, but
it
angels with crossed swallow-wings, beautifully harmonized with the cusps of the central Gothic arch.
The
As
lips,
Mary
brilliant narrator, as
Sant'Agostino
in Siena,
96.
monk
(fig.
Fresco.
83
'4
"x 6'
6".
Agostino, Siena
above: 98.
right: 99.
84
to Calvary, c. 1340-44.
The Louvre,
Paris
patron doubtless requested, resembling that of Bonaventura Berlinghieri's St. Francis (see
Dugento images of
this
Simone transformed
holding a
us
fig.
among
book doubtless
his breviary
walks toward
The stubble on
the
in
chin, beauti-
Agostino Novello.
in
posthumous
to grab a
monk
precipitously intervenes
it
The child who trusted this treachshown on his perilous way down, then
Simonc's
LORENZETTi.
piFTRo
competitors
chicf
Ambrogio
in
Lorenzetti,
1290-1348?;
c.
w ork
is
now
1320. which
in
and dated
100) signed
(fig.
stands again
in its
known
proper place on
in
Arezzo;
Florence,
new
style. Pietro
in
it
com-
must have
for the
humanity of his
erous support
is
art,
and his
The decorative linearism of Sienese painting
has become one of the cliches of criticism, but it is hard
to find in this work, whose principal emphasis is on warm
movement of pictorial
Trecento.
101
and
relatives.
Wood-grained balco-
Simone's
seat of the
last
who
its
artists.
it
was
Mecca
for Italian
left
followers.
a gaze
ing,
).
whose happiness
is
upward
(fig.
at
so
in the
opening decades
Annunciation,
fully
perhaps
also to
left
of the
works of
many
art,
represented himself
in this
bearded artist-Evangelist, as
tradition,
white
silk
made of
same
the
whose dark
tails
is
work
there
is little
to
own
Simone had
still
to complete his
in the
frescoes
left
IN SIENA
85
right: lOO.
PlETRO LORENZETTI.
with
Saints, Annunciation,
and Assumption.
Panel, 9' 9Y2"
Church of
"'
1320.
10' i'/2".
the Pieve,
Arezzo
below: loi.
Madonna and
detail of
fig.
Child,
100
is
effects
and angles,
is
in its
harsh lines
St.
line.
figures,
suggest
little
bearable tension.
86
IN SIENA
Many
In the rich
cient
part.
In spite of repainting
Trecento
102.
art.
it is
in a
in
Roman
While Judas
sop
PlETRO LORENZETTI.
century (1320S-1330S).
Fresco.
S.
Lower Church of
Francesco, Assisi
103.
PlETRO LORENZETTI
(executed by a pupil).
Lower Church of
Francesco, Assisi
IN SIENA
87
the
symbol
John presses
later
in
Eucharist
leading to one's
bosom. The
is
servants conversing
in
the
is
doorway,
more
striking
light.
The kitchen
is
illuminated by the
place,
outside; but
stars are
and
lire in
shown
Even
spiritual
the
fire-
in a real
sky
of the loggia
At
panels
ed
in
in
is
his
most
lyrical
(fig.
Florentine
territory
tacit
admission
of Pietro's
104), paintin Pistoia,
that
after
com-
figures
abound
in references to
105.
Virgin.
Museo deirOpera
88
del
Duomo,
Siena
IN SIENA
make
it
in
the shapes of
human
Bernardo Daddi's
when
al-
now
standing saints,
lost,
is
the
her fingers.
in
profiles,
And
German
blues,
its
is
form of an embroidered
the
Two
Marian
altarpieces
it is
new
by
his brother
if it
Ambrogio
(see
108),
fig.
treated as
the carved
kind,
frame with
its
colonnettes, pointed
arches,
panels have
struction of
all
way toward
pattern.
(fig.
in the side
clear,
of gold striation
will
than any-
and sweetness of
come
in definition
to
if
the repre-
to the extent
In
(fig. 106).
Him close
Mary Magdalen lifts
vault
fully
beyond
it.
It is
an astonishing
of illusion, care-
bit
Virgin
is
its
room where
St.
Anne
gifts.
antechamber on the left St. Joachim receives the good news, and
behind him we look into a space which might belong
to some ecclesiastical building
a towering Gothic structure with at least three stories visible, the upper one cut
off by the vault of the antechamber. The tall structure
bears no relation to the habitation of Joachim and Anne,
luxurious as that is, and it must be a symbolic reference
to the Temple in which Mary was to be presented eight
years later. Ancient Roman painting, in the examples
that remain in Rome, Pompeii, and Herculaneum, had
often devised such illusionistic effects; these were revived
in the enframements of the St. Francis series at Assisi, to
8, still
creates countless
in St. Dorothy's soft, abundant tresAmbrogio's female forms are fuller than those of
Pietro, his faces and throats softer, and his coloring even
warmer. Rich rose tones play throughout the flesh. It is
ribbon interwound
ses.
same
the
figural relationships
two
lateral panels
It is
interesting to speculate
how
in
An
linear pattern
in,
89
summed up
Ave Maria
incised in
in the inscriptions
PAUPER.
.ISP.
.",
referring to the
first
the
scroll held so
:
"BEATI
Beatitude,
the
kingdom
clearly
in the
now
in the
108),
(fig.
manner unprecedented
complex Gothic frame
of heaven."
Ambrogio
342,
since
is
Roman
antiquity.
The
its
the
same
blue, gold-starred,
we look
through reverse catenary arches into the dimness of the
sanctuaryXvith black marble columns and gilded capitals.
ribbed v^aults of the nave. Behind the altar
For the
first
time
in
any
is
a strange
we sense the
The architecture
Italian painting,
architecture
io6.
4' 10"
7' sYj".
with Saints.
Pinacoteca, Siena
we
so often
scriptions of the
central-plan
Dome
mosque
of the Rock
on the
built
in
Jerusalem, the
site
of Solomon's
Gothic windows
in spite
of the
but
dome
is
behind;
it
provided with
Romanesque shapes of
For
all his
Ambrogio has
Gospel
text (Luke 2: 22-38). We see the gift of two turtle doves
upon the altar, according to the Law. The aged Simeon,
whom the Holy Spirit had told he was not to die until he
today,
now
lettest
his
in
Which thou
people;
thy people
At the
107. St. Dorothy, ddail of
90
fig.
106
IN SIENA
left
Israel.
holds a scroll with the last verse of the passage from St.
Luke:
And
she
coming
in
them
With
a wholly
depict
new
redemption
and
to all
Jerusalem.
sensitivity
all
in
feelings,
able to
from the
life.
picture
is
certainly
rupted only here and there by other hues, such as the blue
of the Virgin's mantle.
is
doubt-
(1338-39) which, with no interruptions save the narrow borders framing each entire wall,
less the fresco series
in the
earlier, Simone
proud Guidoriccio da Fogliano. Ambrogio's task was unprecedented. He was called upon to
depict allegorically Good and Bad Government
subject of intense significance to medieval Italian communes and then to represent in detail the effects of these
opposed regimes in town and country. Not unnaturally,
he chose the most strongly illuminated walls for Good
Government and its effects, leaving Bad Government to
languish in the shadows on a wall which, alas, has also
suffered considerable subsequent damage. Faced with
had painted
his
Ambrogio composed
108.
Ambrogio Lorenzetti.
5'
bYs".
Florence
quite freely
without
set
in a relaxed
geometric relationships,
itself.
much
man-
like the
today
not
On
either side of
in the air
Commune
sit
about
his
head
other Virtues,
or lounge on a splendid
Commutative
who
money
Justice,
to the merchant,
if
prototype,
medieval
so
the
is
style
of Ambrogio's
drapery.
The complete
(fig.
in the
still
the effects of
is
found
Good Government
(colorplate 10;
point,
surprise
fig.
10)
showing
in the fresco
in
can contain
it
all
(see
fig. 3).
We
delight,
through the
streets, alleys,
panoramas
is,
after all,
Ambrogio
from one
IN SIENA
9I
MM
109,
above:
10-
Commune of Siena,
colorplate lo).
92
Mlfl
His world
is
hills,
trees,
from the
spare, still schematic landscape painted by Simone on
the other side of the same masonry wall.
visual encyclopedia of the Sienese Republic
Since there
is
no
be told. Ambrogio
real story to
double
is
would be
in relation to
people, but if Ambrogio had made the people and animals as small as they should be they could hardly have
been made out in so vast a worldscape. He has boldly
up
is all
there,
climbs
towers, crenellations,
its
it
Romanesque
foreground disclose the interiors of an elegant shop displaying shoes and hosiery, of a school where the master
teaches his attentive pupils from a raised desk,
and a
in the
workmen, standing on
process of
the scaff"olding
III. Detail of
they had probably put in place only the day before, are
fig.
no
laying
of city
life
young lady
come through
probably the
activities
ritas,
is
who
a sweet
floats
proclaiming that
and
!).
largely
through the
all
air; she
men walk
human
in
brandishes a scroll
still
All have
Romana
in the wall
re-
of Siena.
(the Sienese
which looks
contado.
This
(fig.
1) is
Ambrogio seems
to have
wanted to bring
all.
in the entire
grain
their
is
tutelage,
itself at
the horizon.
artist to
It is
last
are
clear that
it
suffice for
Ambrogio. He now represents details of plants and stubble by a few quick, sketchy strokes, a kind of shorthand
which will have to await the Quattrocento and Masaccio
for full exploration.
IN SIENA
93
5-
The
first
Renaissance
in a straight
dis-
measure anticiGiovanni
Nicola
and
Pisano,
pated. Without Giotto,
and Ambrogio Lorenzetti, the work of such leaders of
the Early Renaissance as Donatello. Ghiberti. and Macoveries, indeed. Trecento artists in large
in 1340, struck
no accurate way of measuring the human toll; estimates vary from a conservative fifty percent mortality
in both cities to seventy-five or even eighty percent of the
is
population,
all
swept away
in
The
like a
little
is
to
it
show no
produce works
it
did
in
immense
summer.
ditches in-
terrible
saccio
Trecento seems
one hot,
been described
effects
and
runaway
on every aspect of
have recently
religion,
Bibliography).
tastes.
in
Italian
changes.
in ever-increasing intensity.
and a succession
343 by
the failure of the important Peruzzi bank and in 1345 by
that of the Bardi. chiefly due to the bankruptcy of their
English branches, which were fatally involved in the
military adventures of King Edward III. Soon every
major banking house in Florence and even in Siena was
drawn into ruin, with serious consequences for economic
and cultural life. A brief experiment with dictatorship
under the Duke of Athens in 1342-43 did httle to help.
During 1346 and 1347 agricultural disasters brought
about widespread famine. The weakened and demoralized populations of Florence and Siena were in no posithe
tion to resist when in 1348 the bubonic plague
so-called Black Death
which had already caused havoc
costly
In Florence
activities
94
less
adven-
turous.
of the
mid-Trecento,
The nCO-mcdie-
abundantly
visible in
still
to be present, this
itself.
but
in
features
that
it
The
clear,
now been
crystalline
carded
in
disin
is
central gable.
frame,
all
the figures
seated,
this
standing, kneeling, or
floating
seem locked in a predetermined pattern
amounting to stasis, rather than having the free mobility
is
in rigid frontality,
crowned Lord
is a mighty apparition in a golden mandorla bordered by
two overlapping crescents of cherub heads and wings.
Without looking at either of the kneeling saints, Christ
extends His arms absolutely straight, presenting a book
of doctrine (inscribed with Biblical passages, from Revelations and from Kings) to St. Thomas Aquinas and
no throne
Mary
is
visible
behind
St. Peter.
the
stands behind
Yet no space
ground we
is
St.
Thomas
in
instead of a receding
St.
which
seems indeed to
it
be a horizontal division. The humanity and this-worldliness of the early Trecento has been replaced by the au-
thority of doctrine
religious
vision, disrupting
tion in
9)
St.
(active
ence
enthroned
John the
c.
between
in style
his
own
work and
rather Daddesque)
his brother
Andrea's
origi-
single,
all-embracing scene. In
complete illustration of its punishments as described by Dante, all enclosed in their proper
circles of the Inferno. The explicit and detailed repre-
attempt at a
fairly
may
crammed
generally represents in
The arrangement
is
(St.
Michael and
St.
martyrdom
(St.
Catherine and
St.
left St.
The
side,
on the
Michael out toward
in conversation;
St.
precisely
St. Peter,
looking fixedly at
is
drawn
intri-
340s
as
in
been painted
in a
may
well have
only
in
is
a softness
less brilliant
Bonauiti^-known^S-Andrea da Firenz e
77). Relatively
Florence,
is
little
An drea
(act ive c.
1343-
IN
TUSCANY
95
called
Buonamico Guidalotti,
as well as of the
merchant
Domini-
Dominican order
siastical
in the
in
general,
particular.
the
above: 112.
below: 113.
Nardo
Nardo
di
di Cione. Paradise.
Cione.
//e// (portion).
two seems
to be largely
if
Sta.
Sta.
mKt
the
Dominican order.
tailed representation
of the
an immense, de-
Duomo of Florence,
then
in-
when
the
for
was a Dominican, and that Andrea da Firenze himself was one of the
consulting architects for the Duomo. The Pope is enthroned in the center of this section, with a cardinal and
a bishop on his right, an emperor and a king on his left.
The sheep at his feet symbolizing the Christian flock are
the frescoes the archbishop of Florence
all
drawn
to a
much
floats
glory; below
Him
far
above
14.
Nardo
di
Cione.
with Saints.
in
in
Orcagna's Strozzi
His mandorla-shaped
the apocalyptic
Lamb on
his altar-
throne
in
the landscape
is
which combine to produce an effect of all-over patterning. This effect has been compared with the appearance
of some splendid embroidered vestment. The colors,
clear primary
Lazarus
(fig.
15)
do the dignity and the physical beauty of early Trecento figures. Scowling bystanders emerge from a city gate
as
is
tiny even
Himharmony of feature
given Him by the Gothic tradition. The most attractive
element in the picture is the veined marble tomb Lazarus
is forced to leave. The soft, slightly overripe surfaces and
proachful Lazarus
self
is
reappear with
97
right: 116.
Giovanni da Milano.
Pieta. 1365.
who
master
nary
in
many
respects.
It is
certainly
one of the
earliest
is
presented
remind him
endured for him.
all of Giovanni da
The
God had
shown
technical brilliance
is
in
unknown
in
any
of
detail.
this
unusual
in
artistic personality,
and expressive
qualities
one thinks of
stylistic
which
fills
Collegiate
Church
at
we lend
personality.
to think.
They
artists,
Bama-
98
da.-Sieiia,
stands out as an
IN
TUSCANY
only
And
it is
earlier
of these later
generally dated
\\
are.
is
San Gimignano.
in
The architecture
and reaches outward to embrace
the spectator: Judas, the High Priest, and the other
priests are drawn together into a huddle so that their
heads seem to form the voussoirs of a human arch.
into a rite of diabolical perversity.
In
all
figures,
more
is
desperately
(fig.
18).
Malchus
in the
foreground,
filling
Colorplate
ii.
Panel,
c.
9'x9'
8". Strozzi
Christ with
Madonna and
Saints. 1354-57.
Colorplate 12.
Andrea da
Even
St,
him and
He
glare although
is
steel.
off.
Christ
is
abandoned
resists
Judas'
an original
and perhaps necessary departure from the early Trecento
norms; these, in works by lesser followers of Giotto,
Duccio, Simone, and the Lorenzetti, were on the way to
becoming stereotypes. Barna does retain aspects of
Simone's style, notably his crisp linearism and idiosyncrasies of facial construction, but uses these for an
expressive purpose that is wholly un-Simonesque. Seen
from a modern vantage point, Barna seems to show the
way toward the art of the so-called Mannerists of the
early Cinquecento, even to such Northern European
geniuses as Bosch and Griinewald. In greater measure
than perhaps any other master of his time, Barna reflects
the tragic tensions of the Tuscan environment after the
his Florentine or Sienese contemporaries,
Black Death.
117.
Barna da
Gimignano
1321-63).
(fig.
119) reflects in a
Ambrogio
shown the tradi-
At the lower
left (fig.
120)
is
hunting, suddenly
come upon
three
still
open
draw back
in
Worms and
ser-
all three,
in disgust.
gentlemen and
nists
each
nose at
coflfins,
To
world
like the
young
protago-
sit
in a
charming
terrible,
brandishing the axe with which she will cut them down.
In the center
is
all richly
118.
Barna da
Gimignano
lOI
Triumph of Death.
Mid-i4th century. Fresco.
Campo
Santo, Pisa
left: 120.
Detail of
right: 121.
Francesco Traini.
102
Campo
Santo, Pisa
fig.
119
(A
Santa
in
left
hand to display the \Nound in His side, as if vengefulMary, raised to new pre-eminence in a twin mandorla,
puts her hand to her breast and shrinks back in fear. A
tempest of emotion sweeps the terrified damned, expelled
by archangels armed with huge swords, and the blessed
as well, even the Apostles. Earth is reduced to one great
tomb of square holes in which the dead arise. Alas, the
remarkable frescoes, like the other mural paintings of
the Pisa Campo Santo, were irreparably damaged during
World War II although much has been saved by prompt
and thorough conservation efforts, the remounted frescoes remain only pale reflections of w hat prewar visitors
remember.
characteristic of the
ly
Croce
Florence; a
in
recently
come
to light.) Traini's
story
no new
rank emerge
in the
other arts,
is
the
San Francesco
in
famous cycle
Arezzo figs.
;
form to those
century.
on
either side,
in the first
half of the
of the
field,
may
manner remi-
niscent
in
earlier. It
in
Government by committee
large
though
committee might often rotate.
Applied to artistic projects, the result of this patronage
was a leveling process, stressing conformity at the expense of individuality. Vast architectural undertakings
begun in earlier periods were either suddenly contracted,
color.
Cathedral of Siena,
Duomo of
all
parts of the
com-
Croce must acknowledge the decorative beauty of Agnolo's surfaces, treated almost like tapestry and main-
Florence,
itself.
In those scenes
skill
world. In this
over
control
all activities
certainly
Agnolo
G a^ddi
(active
c.
1369-96 ), already
re-
the master
whose precepts appear to be recorded in Cennino Cennini's book. In some ways Agnolo's artistic role, even
his pictorial style, could be compared with that of
Ghirlandaio
late
in the late
Quattrocento, or of Vasari
in the
had
Trecento
122.
over Chosroes,
IO3
was second
to
none
very knowingly
lizes
all
And even
Chosroes scene, he uti-
Florentine Trecento.
in the
drawn;
style.
maturity.
What
And
appear in Floren-
In
his
Among
so.
Monaco (Lawrence
the
in Siena, certainly
is
remarkable, however,
works of Lorcn/o's
is
new
Gaddi
in
Agnolo's landscape devices, drapery forms, and compositional methods seem to have determined the represenFlorentine painting until
it is
Trecento painters
to
scholars as the
flourished over
As
Prague.
all
far as
tell
what
International
Tuscan
is
center, in
art
is
is
Gothic,
is
known
because
it
a misnomer,
some
it
is
cases even
style that
tionaP' soubriquet
to
and gorgeous
often difficult
what country,
come
style in
clarity
known
Monk).
not later
nary plastic
in fact,
vitality in the
in
Donatello himself.
Monaco meant
very
little. It is
not easy to
Camaldolite order at Santa Maria degli Angeli in Florence in 1 39 1, rising to the rank of deacon. Yet by 1402 he
that
3),
Andrea Orcagna.
{Madonna and
104
lazuli.
Child,
Orsanmichele, Florence.
.^0i!i!Si !fE^B
altar of
this
huge triptych brings to fruition every force that had remained truncated and introverted in Orcagna's equally
its
into separate
own canopy.
which we see
shaded
dome
of the heavens
component arches
tones of piercing blue and studded
in cross section,
in different
its
double throne
in front
(fig.
123),
and on a
tional blue.
bow
inert: a rain-
reflected into
its
is
124.
Lorenzo Monaco.
Nativity,
from Western
and has equated its shape with the lozenge
inside the quatrefoil. In the dark night outside this magical shelter a luminous angel carries the message to the
shepherds, who have fallen in astonishment on their
distant peak. This and Lorenzo Monaco's other works
represent a glorious, last eruption of the Gothic style in
to the cave of St. Bridget's vision the shed
tradition,
Florence.
It
is
luminary display
how
strongly his
it
away
in
at a later period
to
enchanting of which
While
Lorenzo has adopted for these predella panels the French
Gothic quatrefoil shape utilized by Andrea Pisano for
the panels of the Baptistery doors (see fig. 84), it is symptomatic of the new freedom of Lorenzo's style that he has
drawn out the shapes to half again their width as if by
some
is
the
little
Nativity
(fig.
The
124).
Nativity
is
based partly on the vision of St. Bridget, a fourteenthcentury Swedish princess who lived in Rome and, during
a visit to Bethlehem, was permitted to see the Nativity
take place before her eyes in the Grotto
itself.
Not
every-
thing in
St.
the
figs.
54, 55).
essentially imaginative
ARCHITECTURE.
this difficult
Italian
Florence
(figs.
the
Cathedral of
in
who
directed
what
activity continued
Among
the
can be num-
who completed
was the
architect
IO5
"
Nave and
left: 125.
choir.
by Arnolfo
di
Cambio, 1296
'
'^
11
I.
'
'
'
'
10
HH
(fig.
127); but he
appointed;
its
is
only
in a highly complex
commission was
it
included at
106
rise directly
100
50
1
ISO 'CET
I
JO
JO
40
50
MtlEIS
1
1
constructed.
The
nave com-
posed of four gigantic bays, its lofty arches opening onto side-aisles half the width of these bays but equally
freely
to the
any of the
unes.
fifteen
a masterly simplicity
and
utility,
and
in the Quattrocento.
Talenti, 1350s
IO7
PART TWO
THE
QUATTROCENTO
6.
Up to this
point
compared
to the
wood ?
moment when
dawned on
human
dedicated to
new
art first
an art wholly
civilization of
who began
berti,
new
style,
Leonbattista Al-
first
new
stylistic
some
inventions of the
is
also
ing (in
Italian
Latin,
by Alberti
in 1436),
If
it
to be
much
greater, then,
if
art, Alberti
Brunelleschi
"Who
to praise
Pippo
[i.e.,
it
As we look today
proportions vie
in
at this
hills
surrounding
ists extol.
so
many
fig. 2), it
truth. Like
was an
in all
is
their solutions
in antiquity,
resembled Athens
To put
it
is,
the
first
cento, the continued existence of not merely the Florentine Republic, but even
was in
come under
state,
of Florence as an independent
had
called
the
377- 446), to whom the prologue was adcould be hard or envious enough to fail
dressed.
rightly,
submits the
moment
judge
of the new
if
the
our time,
oligarchy
threats,
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
III
and
in the
hot
poised in the
jerry-built
empire
their deliverance
cial
and
And
fell
apart.
rejoiced at
normal commer-
lar
too, functioned as
in
and sword),
threat-
felt
and dictatorship,
and
tion of these
for
this
The reason
his
their
fire
gilded bronze.
among
intellectual activities.
in
The Florentines
and returned to
his
willing to
sculpture in marble or
In
modest resources, and no standing army, the Florenarmed only by their commercial power and their
tines,
courage, in
work and
and
from
his
intrigue. This
dome
all
ancestor of the
including
artists' tools
and materials
it
also
had a system
numbers of these
its
bulk was
summer of
of Florence (see
doned
proficient,
As an
figs.
146, 147).
to architecture.
of history, so
ability to pay.
of
in the
tion
in spite
man
leazzo,
Brunellcschi 's
completed
128),
streets
Catasto, the
(fig.
visible. In the
in
fortune.
it is
sculpture
of Brunelleschi's
known
us that he went to
Rome
own
to study
ideas as to
first
how
ancient elements
works of architecture
at-
survive,
selves)
of course, the
replaced the capricious exactions of medieval tax collectors with a workable, if far
is
a prolonged stalemate;
nobody
The
112
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
and
its
intricate
Gothic
128. FiLiPPO
(see fig.
129. FiLipPO
130. FiLiPPO
131. FiLippo
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
Dome, Florence
II3
The
investigated,
and
it
is
is still
being actively
The
idea of oculi
and the
we
see
today,
it
in
a different style.
The undated
tribunes
(fig.
dome
buttress the
strikingly different
and beautiful
way, recalling the circular temples Brunelleschi had seen
in Rome and its surroundings, but with the columns
paired so that they would alternate with shell-headed
niches. No longer can one find a trace of Gothicism; the
capitals are Corinthian, and harmonize perfectly with
the shafts, bases, and full entablature. But Brunelleschi
has, as often in his architecture, introduced an unexpected and almost inexplicable variant. Between the
capitals and the entablature he has inserted little impost
blocks, which give the effect of a certain Uft to the halfcircle of the entablature and the cone of roof above. The
lantern (fig. 130) is a structure of great originality and
freedom, bringing to a climax all the shapes and forces of
the building. The eight ribs of the dome reappear in the
form of eight buttresses, each pierced by an opening and
culminating in a volute. The buttresses support the angles
of the octagonal lantern; yet around each angle, as if
an oculus seems to
it is
rest
number of
rec-
on paper. Indeed,
this beautifully
simple
message of Brunelleschi's architecture. After the complexity of the committee-built medieval structure, he
leads us by decree into a new world of simplicity and
order, clear-cut proportion and exact relationships. It is
in the gigantic harmonies that Brunelleschi established
for the Cathedral of Florence, rather than in the classical
details
enormous
thrust of the
above. Their
is
folded a
handsome
The
abounds in other fantastic variations on classical
vocabulary. The window arches are stilted, and rest on
capitals freely invented by Brunelleschi. The openings in
entablature and enclosing eight arched windows.
lantern
the force of
is
apparent.
that Brunelleschi
its profile,
shape of Brunelleschi's
its
in-
it
too
114
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
with
shell
like a
nal
The
attic,
composed of
alter-
nating niches and balusters surmounted by balls, supports a fluted cone which diminishes toward the gold orb
and surmounting cross. It has been suggested that, for a
while at
least,
for
bitter
comment,
"It
there.
is
perhaps
on the face of a
One of
his
cliff.
fame among
structional
the
The
time.
officials
Duomo
were con-
work
princi-
for
them;
it
from
the outset, he abandoned the Gothic compound pier and
the Gothic pointed and splayed arch as if they had never
existed. He substituted, definitively and at once, a vocabulary imitated
but greatly simplified from classical antiquity and, it must be admitted, from Romanesque
in all the buildings that Brunelleschi designed
fig.
83)
believed to be
proportion.
dome
of a
as
it
would have been required. A competitor of Brunelleschi went so far as to suggest building a core of earth,
sown with silver and gold coins; when the doors were
opened, the proverbial cupidity of the Florentines would
forest
ensure the rapid removal of the earth. Brunelleschi subsequently worked out his
work
in rings
own method
of laying brick-
The most
ment of Brunelleschi's
1420 was the Ospedale
tal);
style in
may
Innocenti, or
its
derivatives.
number of foundlings
handsome way;
creasing
to
of his followers,
it
dome; however,
it
in
an octagonal
The
first levels
of the
in pietra
From
there on the
work continued
in brick.
The dome
is
both
between the
shells
ribs;
the
main
ribs
re-
was
re-
scaffolding
hardly
more than a
shelf
the
in
Duomo
manded an unobstructed
view).
Church of the
(of which
Two
the
street,
Santis-
then com-
it
of steps. The
structure
(fig.
132).
first,
the hospital,
was Brunelleschi's
clarity of
its
propor-
The
(fig.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
133).
II5
above: 132, Filippo Brunelleschi. Ospedale degli Innocenti. Begun 1419; completed mid-i5th century.
Piazza della SS. Annunziata, Florence
way of taming
factor n that
of a
circle.
is
By
this
is
apparently
measurement
means the distance between the
may
be
column including
Now we can
windows
rest
from the
then used for the width of the principal doors and the
it
governs
and two
one to two, one to
are carried even into the proportions of capitals
simple relationships
to five
five,
116
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
Colorplate
13.
Virgin. 1414.
1
Colorplate
Begun
c.
belief.
the goals of
religious grounds.
from that of
Roman
the elements
from which
vastly different
new
architecture
Florentine
is
Romanesque columns
is
smooth
derived.
shafts of
Rome. He reserved
fluting for pilasters, such as the handsome ones which
embrace the outer arches of the Innocenti loggia and
must have seen
terminate
its
numbers
in great
lateral extension;
it
in
is
no surprise
to dis-
Roman
and
clari-
technical virtuosity of
Roman
and
In contrast to the
flat, coff'ered
same
little
ceiling of the
rosettes
nave
the side-aisles
in
which repeat
The width of
and
is
so
doubled
doubled
SAN LORENZO.
Brunelleschi
at the
flat
and
surfaces of
cool,
re-
And
lines
width of
in the
useless,
it
aids
can enjoy
down
its
leschi has
of one-point perspective
seen
No wonder Brunel-
(p. 89),
system which, as
we have
preserved
in
the
writings
of Leonbattista
Alberti.
vanced when,
the
No
one knows
how
Brunel-
no major
of the Quattro-
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
II9
Nave and
choir,
S.
cento
istic
20
10
S.
Sacristies
60 FEET
40
20
h+H
New
METERS
Lorenzo,
in Florence.
^
I
articulated
120
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
by four
of the room
(fig.
136)
is
and the
entablaiure, continuous
This arch
dome
is
dome
is
ribbed
is a hemisphere
from
the circle,
137).
cutting the drum into twelve round-arched compartments each containing an oculus. The ribs converge on a
lantern outside, a dainty peristyle originally open to the
Twelve
(fig.
its
dome does
New
not touch
kind of
from Heaven.
It
may
from the
New
life
of
St.
Jerusalem.
To
supplied false
real ones.
height of the
is
dome
dome;
this in turn
equals the
Each
story
to three.
On
S.
136. FiLippo
one
number of
the
artists
own sculptors
SANTO
coveries, in 1428
the year
137. FiLiPPO
,
Sacristy,
S.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
121
right: 138.
FiLiPPO Brunelleschi.
Nave and
choir,
Antonio
di
Tuccio Manetti
below: 139.
FiLiPPO Brunelleschi.
brilliant idea
no
less
trant angles,
effect
on
No
now
essential
origi-
122
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
his early
work.
He
is
chapels
flat
now
visible
wall masks
all
on the
the httle
is all
As compared with
elements, semicircles
interior of
and grace of
complete column with capital and base is nine and onehalf times the height of a capital, which is also equal to
the diameter of a column), but at Santo Spirito the frieze
The
we
are pre-
and delightful shifting of spatial views through alwayschanging relations of columns and arches. The massive
dome once
Old Saoristy at San Lorenzo, but
too, was completed long after Brunelleschi's death.
Old
Sacristy.
distance
module
for the
It is
(cubits).
The
module
is
clearly indicated
is
is
it
some
little
building;
construction in 1443, three years before the great architect's death. Inscriptions have been found which show
that the
dome was
finished in 1459
many
portico in 1461. At
places the
it
was added
after his
it
is
its
whose
elabo-
any
of principles announced
Sacristy of San
many
Lorenzo (figs.
35,
36)
it is
a rectangular
the
dome culminating
in a
As
is
twice as long as
it is
becomes an oblong
is
above: 140.
Giuliano da Maiano
(?).
Begun
c.
14).
1440;
completed 1461
hall,
roofed by the
The
left: 141.
full
FiLiPPO Brunelleschi.
two
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
I23
At
this
if
mind
in
the
admoni-
tine
On
the Dignify
and Excellency of
states in his
Man
book
The
may
disappoint
infinity
all
of Brunelleschi's churches,
The humanist
elite for
whom
Brunelleschi
worked
evi-
is
based, could
how
go about
to
it,
Who
was.
if
harmony and
human
per-
cosmos was,
MiCHELOZZO
DI
BaRTOLOMMEO.
base of the
dome
the lantern,
is
slightly less
controlled diminution
is
in importance and
dominates the interior to an extent impossible in the Old
Sacristy.
The
dome
in the angles
of the
124
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
Cosimo
(to distinguish
Duke
him from
known
the later
Cosimo Vecchio
Cosimo 1, first Grand
as
ence where the older famihes lived, but well within the
fig. i)
is
than seventy
As
above the
feet
more
street.
his architect
Michelozz o
di
and
life
times,
ing
on a small
when
design-
its
Palazzo Medici-Riccardi
(fig.
be thought
away
of the facade,
although with
less pleasure,
were added
in the
Michelozzo
Bartolommeo. Courtyard,
Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, Florence. Begun 1444
144.
di
in
or,
many
of his
minor contemporaries, Michelozzo adopted the vocabunew architecture, but was not sympathetic to
lary of the
its
mathematical principles
if,
indeed, he understood
them.
stones of
is its
ground
its
floor,
it
The immense
all
It is
like that
of medieval build-
of ancient
Roman monuments,
aqueducts, well
in the
turbulent
known
civil
to Renaissance architects.
Even
the interiors
when
stripped,
of 1494,
Florence
were
from
luxuriously
143.
Michelozzo
di
Bartolommeo.
Detail of cornice,
Palazzo Medici-Riccardi
in
1492
Luca
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
I25
is
first,
The second
is
accom-
almost
invisible.
fenes-
mullioned windows characteristic of Florentine Quattrocento palaces. These windows, derived from the
fig.
48),
now
utilize
round arches
145.
Michelozzo
Monastery of
S.
di
Bartolommeo. Library,
was
built
much of the
and
life
(fig.
political activities,
is
its
144), where
commercial
first
story
is
closed by mullioned
Among
all
and
is
the
little
library of the
nanced by Cosimo
felt
the Medici
appears
Fra Angelico,
126
(fig.
de'
Medici
in the years
backgrounds of paintings by
and worked in thlslhonasteryr
in the architectural
who
lived
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
lAflk
7-
the Renaissance
cal elements
tion system
classi-
are
first
Tuscan Sculpture
in
reliefs,
represent the
on the
same moments
throughout both
delivers
Among
boy kneels
reliefs
is
divine
that
the
We
must remember that the Florentines themselves credited the sudden death of Gianappearance of water.
most ambitious
sculptural projects of the Early Renaissance was the
the
woolen
was
still
whose nave
lull,
minute personal
it
may
interest
was a
not known;
observation.
qualities of
It
is
surprising,
and
bits
of naturalistic
nonetheless,
is
the
that
The
arm
is
Brunelleschi's relief
(fig.
all
of
is
is
The
and broken.
in the
heavens and,
The
The ram
I27
146. FiLiPPO
in Ghiberti's relief,
runs
composition in every
more complex
in the far
way
And
figure, every
Sacrifice
Brunelleschi's harsh
Throughout Ghiberti's
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
are
relief,
147.
its
harmony of Brunelleschi's later architectural creations but far above the odd discordances of
his sculptured relief. Ghiberti's melody comes to its
climax in the body of Isaac (fig. 148). Brunelleschi had,
it is true, analyzed the human body with unprecedented
understanding of naturalistic detail, but his end result
was ungraceful. In Ghiberti's Isaac there appears for the
first time a quality which, when academic theorists found
it
as the
in the art
we might
translate
the
Monaco
truth.
made
in 1401-2,
little
he created the
it
gilded figure of
first
truly Renais-
all
human
the strength
and
last
128
anatomy
as far as
fig.
147
149-
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
we know, seems
tissue,
Most
boy
in
the spring and lightness of his whole pose, from the tip
redemption from a
terrible death.
extremely
difficult,
Commentaries.
work
Much
whose
works could have been known to Ghiberti only from
literary sources. But the third Commentary, which takes
up more than half the volume, is devoted to an analysis
of the eye, its structure and its functions, and the
relation of sight to the behavior of hght. In this re-
sculpture.
either
more expressive by
senza
la
tures, or reflecting
it
into shadows.
is
And
in
almost
delineated in this
all
of
new way,
conferring a special vividness and sparkle to the expressions in his dramatic scenes.
spect
makes
of
cornea and the dot of the pupil. This treatment of the eye
underscores other new optical qualities which show
He
it.
started
ship
the
in
bronze,
and the final burnishing of the gold. Between the competition and the actual commission, however, the officials
of the Opera changed their minds about the subject.
Ghiberti now found himself confronted with the necessity of illustrating the New Testament instead of the
Old, and the story of his competition relief was saved for
a third set of Doors. The second Doors, like those by
Andrea Pisano, were organized in twenty-eight quatrefoils, and these in turn were arranged in seven rows
I29
but
tilts
the
little
before which
portico
stands,
Virgin
the
it
Andrea's
it,
as were
North
beltless tunic
its
body
in
appearance of vol-
a hint at conception
The
Flagellation
(fig.
which
would
(see figs.
in Florentine
numerous symptoms of
150.
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
North Doors,
(fig.
149).
the
on the
Gilded bronze,
of four
Annunciation, panel
2o'/2
The
x 1734"
inside
molding
fohage,
And
life
at
branches,
each intersec-
quatrefoil.
some
female,
strongly influenced by
of the Church.
scenes; the
version
is
Above
first is
the Annunciation
related to a
(fig.
to
the
Four
Four Fathers
New
Testament
150). Ghiberti's
Monaco.
In
all
from
of them Gabriel
flies
wings beating,
still
airborne at the
130
151.
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
North Doors,
Flagellation, panel
Baptistery, Florence,
Gilded bronze,
201/2
x 17%"
c.
inside
on the
141 6-19.
molding
at
Mary and
St.
subsumed
in
shows a counterpoise of the compositional elements and the directional flow of rhythms that produce a perfect abstract
typically Ghibertian composition always
152.
c.
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
Flagellation.
the
Roman Composite
capitals of Ghiberti's
onnade, however,
is
among
colonnade
these.
The
col-
still
new
classical
tradition
Ghiberti had established in his Isaac, and his face discloses only patience.
Red
relief.
Among
by
Albertina in Vienna
sibilities
(fig.
152),
re-
The
still
153.
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
North Doors,
Crucifixion, panel
on the
I3I
154-
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
Bronze, height
life
people emerged
5"/.
8' 4".
in
John the
Baptist,
c.
1412-16.
155.
Orsanmichele, Florence
the Baptist,
exaggerations of shape,
is still
of
from the North Doors (fig. 150); the St. Matthew (fig.
156), however, commissioned in 141 9 by the Arte del
Cambio, or guild of the bankers, modeled in 1420 and set
up shortly thereafter, represents the culmination of the
new classical style. Only the pointed arch and florid gable
of the niche still preserve Gothic elements. Otherwise the
grand figure, moving with perfect poise and balance
level
the passer-by.
and
new
still
it is
is
seen
first in
before
its
ancient style,
St.
Matthew
on one foot,
hand points
open Gospel book
toward
so that
we may
in
Florence (see
p. 21),
132
figure
is
first
and Nanni di
Banco (figs. 160, 164), in which, as we shall see, manifestoes of a new classicism were launched. But Ghiberti's
version of the classical style is his own; flowing through
it are the same linear ease, freedom, and harmony that
are visible in his most "Gothic" works. The grand head,
with its mountain of short curls, epitomizes the meditastatues for Orsanmichele by Donatello
tive intellectuality
of Ghiberti's
art.
was intended
for a position
Its fate
was,
in
some
/)ai7V/
by Michelangelo (see
fig.
set
up
in
in bitter struggle
right
hand
with
originally
now
remains, on Goliath's
gods
izing the
saw a new
157.
significance in
Marble, height
156.
can
it
stoneworkers.
He saw
way. He
things in his
own
vivid
and
revolutionary
shared neither BrunelleschTs
concern forjproportion nor Ghiberti's feeling for line. He
worked
bilities
almost as
if
he were painting
in
them.
More
than any of the contemporary innovators he was fascinated by the optical qualities he could observe in the
The
result
is
an art disturbing
life
in its
of his
imme-
drama
hitherto
unknown
in Italian
sculpture.
David (140S
it,
6' 3"
1416.
left: 158.
DoNATELLO.
Marble, height
above: 159.
Gothic may
easily as in the
the drapery,
and
curves,
this
youth,
in the skull.
7' 10".
St.
Mark. 1411-13.
Orsanmichele, Florence
The sculptor
is
detail
of
fig.
158
fascinated throughout by
Hne
unkempt masses which interest Donatello in their conDavid's smooth cloak and smoother neck and
cheeks. Even at this early stage in Donatello's style,
trast to
curious sculptural
eff'ects
jections
work. His
first
in
Do-
marble
dlers.
134
is
Colorplate
15.
c
l-i
E
c
j=
U
'3
o
j
o
C
a
CO
X)
o
l-H
Oh
s:
u
u
<
<
the Rigattieri) as
real
were
if it
and the
solid,
strikingly
Donatello seems to be
more attention
to
its
and
them.
Mark's mantle,
St.
about the
fall
around the
their structure.
folds.
The
Like so
hips,
left
without
in
the right
hand
and the
situation
between the
art
born of
Florentine
political
of
or even Ghiberti
of the eye
his analysis
itself
much
Mark
leg.
It
the pupil
is
dilated,
to be considered
new Renaissance
the
world. Yet
it
it is
tells
fig.
we can
294),
It is
weather and
up sharply
structure
the face.
is
The
stasis
reached
in the
in the
St.
Mark
its
stiU
much
of
of
concentrated power of
Dav/c/has been broken,
drill
its
than ever.
hand,
in his right
A socket held
way of
its
the young man's curly locks, and the sword must have
protruded menacingly into the street. The taut lines of
with drapery,
figure
first
in the hectic
ened by Ladislaus.
and
Bargello,
in bronze. St.
from the
now in the
enough, by a cast
it
summon
The
face
comes
as a surprise
(fig.
161). It
is
with people
It is
what
fear
is,
who
is
studded
I37
delicate features
inert
carved almost
background
reduced
in
in
projection in the
manner of low
relief.
tello's St.
fact, in
composition
(fig.
in
Orsanmichele
is
the
little
marble
relief
of more or
less
mere
series
in this
relief.
Here
and
cast
shadow.
we know
it,
tion, for in
160.
DoNATELLO.
Marble, height
6' 5".
St.
Gcorge.
c.
seemed to
141 5-1 7.
fig. 5)
upon
more
crucial distinc-
161.
Head of St.
George, detail of
fig.
160
on the
St.
Florence (see
fig. 5).
right: 163.
gable on the
St.
Florence (see
fig. 5).
it
into air, to
show us distant
the Trecento
hills, trees,
itself,
and clouds
and even
expression
for
Donatello's
new
invention
is
rilievo
does not just flatten the forms but abandons wholly the
previous notion of relief in favor of optical suggestion.
eff'ects
has become
is
is
could collaborate.
exposed to a
soft, diffused,
unchanging
light reflected
side, the
new
is
powerful
individuals
who were
by
and
to
create
later, alas, to
the
new
destroy
it
ships, leave
is
no doubt that
to contemporaries the
new
freedom
style.
In northern
place in
it
I39
benediction.
NANNI
its
is
time.
and freedom
God
the
itself.
The Lord
is
He
lifts
in
BANCO.
ancient
Rome who
commanded by
the
Rome and
whose
themselves to be.
felt
the
Roman
And
people,
it is,
of
i.e.
or more
Italian,
There
is
tation of four
men
united in a
common
this
confron-
in
the
St.
accepting
tion.
the
full
consequences of the
The movements of
terrible resolu-
Nanni
di
Marble,
140
c.
1413.
Orsanmichele, Florence
them
to
is
carved
in
some
hold
by two
an arc
movement
hair,
Roman
history, a peni-
many
enough
in
a sculp-
despite his
enormous
technical ability,
is
and remains
and
modeled
in the
God
quatrefoil as
the
in togas,
build a wall,
nude putto.
It is.
artist
who
makes
us
165.
if he
had
ofthe Virgin
di
Banco. Assumption of
lived to mid-century.
brief career
is
his relief,
which
the
doorway of
name from
at the conventionalized
(fig.
165),
fills
its
which the Virgin ascends to Heaven. The work, commissioned in 41 4, was said to have been incomplete at
Nanni's death in 42 but this statement may refer only
1
to the setting
gravity of Nanni's
strangely turbulent.
of a private revelation to
St.
Thomas,
the
most famous of
who
is
present,
the Virgin,
Nanni
wonder
fill
the
it
Monaco, still
less
storm of flying
folds,
might more appropriately be characterized as protoBaroque. These tumbled masses of real cloth are agitated
by the upward movement of Mary's little spaceship, or
they envelop figures of an insistent corporeality. And the
faces of these figures are full ofthe individuality, inner
awareness, energy, and beauty which are recognized as
hallmarks of Renaissance style. Nanni's faces and drapery were imitated repeatedly by Renaissance masters,
from Luca della Robbia to Botticelli. Nanni was in the
forefront ofthe Florentine Renaissance, in
full
control of
naturalistic
years later,
when he rejected
is
gift
received
by
St.
Thomas
The
of this great
relief,
sound of stonecarving, held a similar belief. The ornamental portions of the Porta della Mandorla, like the
Cathedral of which it was part, had been the collaborative product of the Florentine committee system. In a
manner not unlike the crowning of the Cathedral by
Brunelleschi's inspired dome, the sculptural problem of
the Porta della Mandorla was solved by individual fiat.
I4I
DONATELLO C.1417-C.1435. Donatello was involved repeatedly in work for the Cathedral, even contributing
two small heads to the Porta della Mandorla after Nanni's death. Over the twenty years from 1415-35 the great
master, together with his pupils, carved and set in place
in the niches of the Campanile (see fig. 127) a series of
eight marble prophets in the round,
former
effect
and
its
niche,
began to
cycle,
realize that
drastic methods.
right: 166.
Donatello.
Museo
Head of Zuccone,
detail of
fig.
166
Campanile, Florence).
1427-35-
Marble, height
6' 3".
Museo deU'Opera
Duomo, Florence
del
No
John the Baptist) are gentlemanly characters with flowing robes and well-combed
hair and beard, ready for appearance at the heavenly
the ob\ ious exception of St.
Not
court.
and
in their
ugly,
and
draws
(fig.
down on
i66), 1423-25,
and
mouth in condemnation of
its iniquities, and proclaims a rule of righteousness and
peace. The figure, drawing itself together, is skin and bone
under the rough heaps of cloth that do duty for a cloak.
The hand clutches convulsively at the strap and the rolled
top of the scroll. The bald head is carved with brutal
strokes, left roughly finished (fig. 167). A few marks
suffice to show the stubble on the chin, the flare of the lips
and the eyebrows. Donatello now uses his optical
knowledge to calculate the eff"ect of the statue on an
observer thirty feet below. This achievement was greatly
admired in the Renaissance, even more than the finish,
lost at a distance, of works by such sculptors as Luca
his chin in, gazes bitterly
the streets
169.
della Robbia.
The
1427-35,
is
equally
terrifying.
Jeremiah
168),
(fig.
1425,
represented symbolically in Gothic sculpture and painting (such as Giotto's grisaille frescoes at Padua; see
66-68), becomes a
modern equivalent
for the
figs.
name
ous narrative
reliefs,
the Feast of
Herod
(fig.
numer-
169) for
is
detail a painting
intricate
somewhat reduced
project in
in
in a
see,
relief surface
I43
He has constructed
observer.
pyramid
in
was
by using
his architecture
in
relief,
those of
floor
lines,
its
major
moldings,
many
and so
many architectural features which do not correspond
from one side to the other, that it is impossible to trace
all the recessions accurately. He has also defined two
introduced so
teristically
different levels,
who
Quercia (13747-1438).
early
are at
life
all
-Jacopo della
accurate, he
Doors of the
Florentine Baptistery
1401. Little
in
preserved thai
is
competition
fragile equestrian
was made,
tomb monument
in
Siena looked.
From
alas,
It
the
The major
middle period
a fountain in the
is
sculptural
is
the
cycle
FonteGaia
Campo,
in
Siena
(fig.
170);
it
was
was
"gay" on account
first reliable
up
in the
As a
result,
he imposes on
in 1409,
it
diminution
systematic
transversals in depth.
of the
We
distance
between
the
when analyzing
called
until late in
1419.
The
in high relief.
Virgin and Child, since the Virgin was the patron saint
is
it
published
formulation.
its
Nothing
in
Donatello's
architectural
perspective,
with
the event
on a
is
the presentation of
Herod. The
platter to
St.
shrinks back,
the spectators.
a guest expostulates,
another
Herod
recoils,
The niches
end contained,
at either
Adam and
the Expulsion
from
which Mary and Christ had redeemed mankind
liberated by Baptism, the sacrament of water. On the
terminals of the flanks stood statues of the foster mother
and the real mother of Romulus and Remus, for Remus
was considered to be the father of Senus, founder of the
city of Siena. By the nineteenth century the fountain had
fallen into such ruin that it had to be dismantled and
replaced by a copy. The fragments of the original are now
in an upper loggia of the Palazzo Pubblico. From the
from Eden,
Wisdom
beautiful
(fig.
of the
movement
gathering
still
looking.
The shock has not yet reached the figures at the right.
Salome dances and attendants look on, one with his
arm about another's shoulder. The perspective network
of interlocking grids, with
statement,
flicting
is
half
all
submerged
Leonardo
da Vinci, whose Last Supper adopts and refines the dramatic principle on which this history-making relief was
based.
144
masses of
energy of the
all
Renaissance
in
The bodies
sit
quietly, in the
preserved, they
Ducciesque
facial type,
The
badly battered Expulsion (fig. 172) remains a work of
immense power despite its condition. Adam and Eve,
recalls the preferences of
Nanni
di
Banco
(fig.
164).
70.
del
Campo, Siena
171.
slightly
the
172.
relief
145
The
resist.
in Donatello's art
physical action.
is
It is
and adopted
In
many
why
curious phenomenon.
He had
little
is
paid no attention to
its
spatial harmonies,
and
his rare
his days.
at
He
man
and
feet are
174.
irresistible.
Fortunately the
In the Creation of
Adam
Fonte Gaia.
(fig.
on earth:
hand He gathers about Him His enormous
mantle, whose sweeping folds contain all the power of
Donatello's and Nanni's drapery and none of their feeling for real cloth, while with His right He confers on
Adam a Hving soul. The figure of Adam, whose name in
Hebrew means "earth," is read together with the ground
from which he is about to rise. In contradistinction to
indicate
all
with His
left
is
a figure of
immense
athletic
fig.
234),
Adam
Byzantine ivory
relief,
now
in a
still
strongly classical
in the Bargello in
It is
Florence
common know-
In the relief
visible,
173.
146
Portal,
Bologna. 1425-38
The
in the
represented as a
evil eifects
Temptation
of
fig tree.
(fig.
175),
eloquently represented
which generally
static scene
175^ 176.
Portal,
Most
intense of all
is
the Expulsion
same
(fig.
comon the
176), its
well
in the
Adam's body.
pose of a Venus
and
their
Roman
are superficial
in the
own tormented
Quattro-
imagination.
I47
8.
in Florentine
Painting
During the
first
new Renaissance
Florence. The painters were
fight.
He
twenties,
their productions
era. In
document comes
to
From
it
chapel at the
is
also
filled
now
was
command of Pandolfo
lost.
He met
painting a
in Brescia,
Pope Martin
who, in
the Council of Constance
there
sidered that he
Eternal City.
42 1,
and
originality
GENTILE DA FABRiANO.
141 7,
to
in Milan,
some
respect to
detail
up to the
first
15).
in the
month
is
Venetian sojourn.
To
this
author
appears impossible
it
many
Moreover the
details to
altarpiece contains
and
it
seems in
be a natural antecedent.
numerous
traces of
would have been more than revolutionary. The period between these early works and the
Strozzi altarpiece is generally filled by the paintings, now
vanished, that the documents record. In other instances
(e.g., Fra Angelico and Castagno) when an Italian artist's
supposed early period lacks any dates, his birthdate when
discovered has turned out to be comparatively late and
and
which time
148
their style
The polyptych,
live
parts of which
reassembled
all
in
in
(fig.
77),
less
Monaco
arms.
top of the
architectural
model bisected
to
with stars and hung with sun and moon. The outer surface of the
dome
is
blond hair
may
veil,
Christ's reddish
milion,
and of God the Son are a splendid vermodeled in a darker admixture of the same
God
the Father
hue.
is
flat,
almost jarring
vermilion
The
effect
is
Father.
intensified
by the
gold background tooled in conventionalized flames issuing from the circle of coin-dots
pair,
of the scene
parition,
like the
is
that of
Aurora
some natural
Borealis.
celestial
ap-
in the lateral
is
Gentile's
own, as
is
the
four
little
above: 177.
Gentile da Fabriano.
Coronation of the Virgin,
1420.
c.
'/s
"
'/g
left: 178.
Gentile da Fabriano.
Assassination of St. Peter
Martyr and
St.
John the
c.
Panels, each 23
1/2
1420.
x 1534".
Maria Novella by Orcagna (colorbut the forms are now swept together by a
exuberant that
it is
difficult to
in Lorenzo Monaco's
polyphony is, as it were,
full
The complex
orchestra.
forms of the
in
two
is
strip.
in the
Temple
is
celebrated forty
The new
life
which prohferates
in the
windows
rather bleak
hometown of Fabriano.
In
all
probabihty
the
Palla Strozzi
was the
commissioned Gentile
ration of the
Magi
richest
its
Trinita.
altarpiece,
treatment unprecedented
Magi
Gentiles.
He
Ado-
Church of Santa
The
subject
both were
in Florence.
man
the infant
The shape of
of the frame, to
itself.
Magi gaze
at the star
stretches
city
on a
the cave
little
ass,
and
family. Dressed
left: 180.
Gentile da Fabriano.
on the predella of
Nativity,
Panel, 12
14
x 29 1/2"-
Uffizi Gallery,
Florence
opposite: 181.
14x43 14'.
Uffizi Gallery,
150
Florence
luminations
in the
Even
is
il-
too
Northern naturalism,
however, is grafted onto the style of an artist already
familiar with the landscape backgrounds of Paduan
close to be accidental.
this
p. 336). If
Gentile really
Monaco
Gentile
is
it
is
linearistic style
is
an ex-
certainly a
of Lorenzo
uninterested
in
profiles.
Edges are
softly
is felt
world.
is
satisfied
is
only as a direc-
al.
up
and jokes as
in the miracle, or
like
guests
at
(fig.
fasci-
179).
a bridal shower,
with
all its
time as far as
first
background
Monaco
180)
is
also
(see
in Italian
Nativity by Lorenzo
(fig.
in
we know
eff"ects.
fig.
Like the
124), Gentile's
now all of the light effects are real rather than conventionAlthough the pool of
still
light in
lies is
upward from
the Child
upon
the ceiling
it
shadow on portions
from below; it casts the shadow
Child; over the rim of a king's halo the ass stares with
napping;
of the shed
itself
upon
tree
who
de-
I5I
stars.
The
to be sure,
is,
The
ows
Yet
this
still
is
partly Trecentesque.
little
concerned with
is
the
painting
first
The supernatural
effect
its
on
treated as
is
is
all
if it
represented
were natural,
hardiv conceivable
ruined structure
is,
and put a
is
that be-
tween December
d'Olona.
the
gether.
Maso
di
Cristofano Fini
Masolino was
born
(Arno
Valley), in
Ghiberti
believed.
in the
who
the artisan
Baptistery.
assisted
Not
until
1423 did he join the Arte dei Medici e Speziali, and that
the year of his
is
first
dated work.
More
Is it
possible that he
anonymity?
was another Maso di
professional
in
was born
December
To him
first
made and
atmos-
those realized in
1401, in
21,
what
is
summer
Rome, where he
1428 he went to
He
also, as
is
Limbourg brothers.
we now know, the first Italian
far as
in
died.
If,
or
as
He
and worked
autumn of
is
November
generally
1428, the
Com-
artist did
almost endless
series
Quattrocento but
commonplace
later a
in
in
the
the Baroque.
maxim
"Nothing
is
however, and
er,
tions than
No
more
artists in
Florence
in the
in several
works as
152
well as
it
is
succumbed
The
along with
was
the
by the
with Saints
at
(fig.
182) in the
little
and freedom of
this triptych,
Colorplate
(for Sta.
Maria
del
^y^
^J"
J^
h
Colorplate
i8.
l82.
money he
received, so completely
was
At
no influence of
Gentile either, but it is present nonetheless, though
Masaccio's deliberately clumsy domesticity is in vivid
(fig.
154).
first
contrast with the courtly splendor of the Strozzi altarpiece (colorplate 15). Gentile
in
Two
angels,
one praying,
While
their
is
who
Both are
On
uncomfortable and
tent: the grapes are those of the Eucharist, the veil sug-
of death
triptych
Masohno
(fig.
183), a picture
those of Lorenzo
whose
Monaco and
The
delicately
modeled,
Gothic
style
I55
The
artists
now
in
painted
front
it
in
and back.
Naples, represents
left
London
(fig.
185),
represents St. Jerome and St. John the Baptist; the right,
in
shows
in
Philadelphia
(fig.
186),
183.
Panel,
He
touches the
Virgin's neck while she holds His foot; the easy curvilin-
all
of conservative Florentine
had
at least
lessons.
In the
same
unpopular
view
is
correct, the
their first
156
HI
far
left: 185.
Masaccio.
St. Jerome and
St. John the Baptist,
from the Sta. Maria
Maggiore triptych.
c.
1423(7). Panel,
45!4X2ll/2".
National Gallery,
London
left: 186.
Masolino.
John the
St.
and
Evangelist
Martin of Tours,
from the Sta. Maria
St.
Maggiore
c.
triptych.
1423(7); reworked
1427 or 1428(7).
Panel, 39^8X201/2".
John G. Johnson
Collection,
Philadelphia
the Evangelist
It is
and
St.
Matthias into
St.
Martin of Tours.
made at the
in Rome, pre-
pope's request
sumably
in
when Masolino
arrived
Most
scholars
now
new style.
London panel
full
by
depth and power
is
work
may have
the
snow
fall
basilica.
on
Even though
is
tine hills.
Under
St.
Jerome, one of
first
in the other, in
in
which can be
verses of Genesis:
In the beginning
God
the earth.
I57
omitting as
if
first
moments of
St.
Though
there
are
earlier
altarpieces
with central
(see
fig.
is
(fig.
idea of the
Ma191;
young
whose surfaces
simplifies
the sculptors'
making them
statements,
if
when
and
own game.
painters
may be
closest to
as
if
158
when
least
crushed by the
The fatahsm of
expected in Masac-
his
mature
194, 196).
And
St.
new
contemporary Florentines,
all
we have only a
by Michelangelo showing how
certain figures or groups of figures once looked. In 1771
a disastrous fire wrecked the interior of the church, and
its smoke darkened and damaged the frescoes of the
Brancacci Chapel. Even worse, in the remodeling of the
church it was proposed that they be torn down, and
indeed the series lining the vault and the lunettes was
ential
work
is
few drawings
some
saved the
artists
of Florence
rest.
now
Masaccio must have been summoned in 1425 to collaborate with Masolino in the painting of the second tier
of frescoes, the uppermost ones still remaining in the
Chapel. Included in this section is Masaccio's acknowledged masterpiece, the Tribute Money (colorplate
The
subject
trivial
16).
and
drachma
Mttui
is
in the
mass of the
On
and on the
the
right
it
similar
is
if
they were
was seldom
rivaled later.
was
in Gentile's Strozzi
men
181). The eye is taken inward harmoninone of Gentile's still-medieval leaps in scale,
past the plain and the river-banks, over ridges and
distant mountains, to the sky and the clouds. In this
setting Masaccio's rugged figures stand and move at
their ease. They and the landscape are represented with
the full power of the new style which Masaccio had been
measures.
principles.
of the Tribute
Money as
is
altarpiece
(fig.
ously, with
187, 188.
them and
sets
them
16).
I59
when
volumes
Even
lines,
in the present
condition of the
an apparent
it
must have
The background
is filled
"men
but as
Roman
times.
It
represents
not hairs but hair, not leaves but foliage, not waves
may
light,
found in
the works of Jan van Eyck.
five
or
The
also be
more years
Money.
later
revelation.
As
figures
when
still
adversity.
At times the brush must even have administered backhand jabs at the intonaco in a manner suggesting the
Each stroke of Masaccio's brush, in fact, is equivalent to
a separate reflection of light on the retina. The equation
and peasants on
divided
if
Christ
left: 189.
Masaccio.
St.
160
Man,
detail
of
fig.
189
191.
Masolino.
Healing of the
Cripple and the
Raising of Tabitha,
Brancacci Chapel.
c.
Masaccio painted
St.
Ghiberti (see
174) in
(fig.
Apennine headwaters of
fig.
151)
man
subtlety of surface
we
inhospitable nature.
indicated
in
extreme
left,
Money is
the Heal-
1424-25
the text),
and
down
ground, carried
Nowhere do
the styles
cio the
moment
Adam,
his face
l6l
Masolino.
right: 192.
Temptation,
Brancacci Chapel.
1424-25
c.
Brancacci Chapel,
c.
Jacopo
1425
Fonte Gaia
at Siena,
expelling angel
bidding as
if
own
guilt or the
if
to the barren
at the angel's
He
hides his
unable to contemplate
mouth
abdomen convulsed,
his
own hand, but completed by Filippino Lippi in a radically different style, much later in the Quattrocento. Were
they interrupted because the money ran out, or because
Masaccio
guess.
left
for
Rome ? At
The lower
162
tier
the
common perspective
altarpiece. On the left is St.
Superficially the
we
with an elabo-
rate
in Pisa
Shadow
(fig.
Money and,
in fact, difficult
The
setting
is
St.
us, not even looking at the sick who crowd before him
and across whom his magical shadow passes. It has been
smock
is
who
and so searching
in a short,
blue
Renaissance self-portraits
vivid
man
is
is
Masaccio himself. So
so eloquent
by
now
the Catasto
was
a part of
own hand,
is
words and
phrases set forth with the simple dignity one would expect
from him.) The movement of the architecture into space
is even more striking here than in the adjoining fresco,
owing to the view of the projecting room from below, so
that its hidden front wall must be imagined to move
still
the
by a towered
villa.
On
the
as noble as they
who
and
Masaccio's
style
weary.
more
loosely
in
fresco
was done
entirely
left: 194.
Masaccio.
St. Peter
fig.
194
163
intended
trees
in this case.
and potted
Above
the wall
new
life
arises in the
across the sky and so freely painted that they were long
More
strongly
human
than
elsewhere
in
Brancacci
the
submission of the
The columnar or
depth and
in light,
set.
free to act
Florentine
power against
in fact,
with
its
the
been
and
by
Milanese.
particular style
is
reduced
to simple
196.
around
St.
left,
the other
moving toward
us, the
other away,
formed
by the
is
en-
The
all
architectural setting
is
structure
kown
series
of Brunelleschian Corinthian
pilasters,
fine
and the
164
fig.
Masaccio's
extraordinary
of Picasso
ability
to
is
a tribute to
elevate
human
its
occupant by analogy. She towers, in fact, above the cornice, her blue cloak enveloping and falling in heavy folds
about the masses of her shoulders and knees. It is not impossible that Masaccio already used in this case a lay
figure with actual cloth disposed over
it
197-
Lippi. Raising
body of Christ
is
foreshortened
in silhouette
altarpiece
for
specified
is
by Giuliano
di Ser
and
now
totally nude,
(fig.
182),
is
is
of the Virgin to
its
Child,
The
is
Him by
His
The
strigil
ornament (imitated
sacrifice is
torical incident,
hands of the two little angels, are so brilliantly projected as to seem magically three-dimensional. Inexplicably, all but one of the haloes are set parallel to the
picture plane and thus read together with the gold background; that of the Christ Child is foreshortened in
depth.
The
little
was
fig.
162),
Christ,
Mary,
St.
"He
shall
come
165
wrapped
line
St.
John,
in his
under the
all
longer
art.
is
in prayer,
Him
and
calls
to be suffering
this
still.
will,
the
and
new humanity.
And
in these
Christian terms a
drama of Aeschylean
simplicity, uni-
versality,
''puro,
in the later
it
Quat-
ment).
The
in the
still
Magi
(fig.
smaller predellas.
199)
may
The
is
maintained even
represent Masaccio's
comment on
Maria
del
Carmine,
Madonna and
Child,
more
like fifty.
X28%". National
Gallery,
London
below: 199. Masaccio. Adoration of the Magi, from the predella of the Pisa polyptych
(for Sta.
166
Maria
del
Carmine,
Dahlem Museum,
Berlin
MUiilL
hammer
force as they
more
in
The
Novella
the artist to
compose
human and
shadows
legs
art.
is
the fresco
Renaissance
in
THE TRINITY.
The
spatial conviction
Gentile's world.
of Volterra.
in the nails.
for
Trinity
in
To
it.
(fig.
201), in the
this
when dated
at the
flat
by these
cast
in striking vivacity,
di
Ser
stand
own
(fig.
difliculties,
200). This
owing
to St.
left side-aisle,
its
but long hidden from sight and absent from old photo-
if
are,
and what
am you
also will
of the fresco are correct, the altar slab added during the
restoration
free-
one
side.
Yet there
it
sacrifice
it;
the diagonals of
are repeated in the shapes of the two pyon the pyramid of Gaius Cestius in Rome,
between which the cross is locked. Within the small remaining space the two executioners, faceless as their
heads are bent down, loom toward us with tremendous
St. Peter's legs
lons based
Dahlem Museum,
Berlin
The
is
a magnificent Renaissance
conform so closely to the architecture of Bruneland are projected so accurately in terms of his
perspective principles that he was at one time held re-
vault
leschi
it
ence
is
Now
this
correspond-
Vasari
new
of the wall
it.
The date
In the
167
mankind. Under
fig-
God
at
its
hand, converges
in
apex.
The
perspective,
on the other
a descending pyramid to a point behind the lightly painted mound of Golgotha at exactly
eye
level.
body of the
in the
sacrificed Son. In
its
intersect
reduction to geo-
clear as the
is
of the universe.
Within the imposing structure the individual parts are
projected with all Masaccio's knowledge of stereometry.
Photographic details of arms, hands, and architecture
show
its
The very
nails
which
is
rendered
comment when informed of Masaccio's death, "Noi abbiamo fatto una gran perdita" (We have had a great
loss).
Rome. For a
grand
Some
is little
trace of Masaccio's
if
San Clemente.
in the little
heroes,
Son
dance
floats the
stricken,
is
lost in
of the kneeling
is
ed
in the
how
and a
soft people,
nail,
and drapery,
all
in the Baptis-
147),
John,
who
Mary and
Who,
168
con-
which Ghiberti himself at this later date had long outgrown. What
is new in Masolino is the quality of the infinite, luminous
tery competition relief of 1402 (see
little
new gen-
MHHii!
9-
From our
Cosimo and
his descendants
new
new
style in painting.
But
in
still
officials.
techstill
tine
but
it
com-
The
artists
of
this
stylistic herit-
common
second Renaissance
style.
style,
which
worked
for a society
first
third of
the Quattrocento.
persisted in
name
only. Political
had resulted
in the
Florence in 1433.
in
1434
He left as a
and economic
rivalry
tastes.
Augustan elegance
169
We
and
first,
FRA FILIPPO LiPPi. He was born about 406 into the large
family of an impoverished butcher, in the poor quarter
surrounding the monastery of the Carmine in Florence.
Together with an equally unwanted brother, he was
entered at that monastery at an early age, and took his
vows in 1421. He is already mentioned in the mon;astic
records in 1430, and is said by Vasari to have decided to
become a painter when he watched Masaccio at work in
the Brancacci Chapel in Santa Maria del Carmine. The
initial mistake, that of making Filippo a monk, was compounded by his appointment to the chaplaincy of a con1
in the
foreground project
erratically,
and the
As
will
interior
be seen
fluence.
Philippus.
The
irresponsibility of Filippo's
life
corresponds, in a
in-
Masaccio of them
all. The heavy-featured, plebeian type chosen for the
Madonna, and the simphcity of the domestic interior
complete with a bed and a view into a courtyard, are as
reminiscent of Masaccio as are the heavy shadows
throughout the painting. Only the veined marble throne
and the pearled diadem seem out of place. A touch of
naturahsm is the absence of a halo for either of the
sacred figures. But a closer look discerns Filippo's
inability to approach anything like the consistency of
Masaccio's style. The powerfully lighted drapery masses
170
is
the
most
like
dpwn
edges, accenting
In the
began
many
same year
of his compositions.
as the Tarquinia
Madonna, Filippo
203). Clearly
ziano, in
Filippo at
it is
Colorplate
19.
Fra Filippo
Lippi. Annunciation,
c.
1440. Panel,
69x72".
S.
Lorenzo, Florence
00
Tl>-^
u.
(U
Wm
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s:
s:
s:
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Vb.
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(I>
t/5
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k-
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lU
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s:
(/)
Q
*
<o
"-1
X
OS
^ o
Si
,
o
u
J
Ul
o
z
<
<
a:
U,
d
(S
(U
rt
a
k.
o
o
13
<n
cu
203-
Fra
FiLiPPO LiPPi.
1437.
Panel,
the Louvre,
in
every detail,
still
and
The
picture
is
made
it
Him)
Domene-
suffused with
As
in the
figures
full
And
the nearby
call
Church of San
Felice put
on a similar
copper mandorla
in the
Mary
waiting in her
little
habitation,
lamps for
stars
dome
and with
The
fall
even
if
And
deep in the
I73
ward, the other gazes out over his shoulder at the observer
observer.
we
Perhaps the
finest
and
still
in its place in
is
the An-
San Lorenzo
The
and points
to the Annunciation
a device to
soon
who
is
lead the
was authorized by
had, as
A capti-
flattened,
plucked the
lily
on the
pier, are
a bit surprising, as
floor,
where
it
would have
shadow
conflicted
creates a delicate
204)
is
in
Uffizi Gallery
new
physical ideal
its
disarray.
Above
the
combed-back
blond
literally
skull.
the seashore
her litany,
is
religious
symbolism
in this
background,
it is
clearly sub-
204.
Fra Filippo
Lippi.
174
Madonna and
Uflfizi
Child, c. 1455.
Gallery, Florence
life
satisfac-
is
the de-
205).
religious
images
investigation
obscure.
It
in the
and
origin
its
for domestic
meaning remain
wooden
on the delivery of a
ladies
rooms of a
cento.
On
as
had occurred
if it
perous
which
the
left
gifts.
St.
At the upper
Anne
fabric of planes
is
depicted
attended
is
creates
one of the
compositions
pitch,
this usually
figs.
182,
198),
this
reahstic
like
the
Madonna and
Child, c. 1452.
a staircase
resulting
on
The
Lippi.
by maidservants
right there
and volumes,
Fra Filippo
205.
Florentine family,
carrying
encompassing
many of
rich,
soft,
unites
them
And
everywhere
showing the
human
sweetness and
The
of
in
life
many
St.
John the
warmth of Filippo
at his best.
which
style.
Siena (see
(fig.
is
also certainly
207), a
work of great
fig.
169).
commanding
job,
up to
at least 1466
when
left
for
relief in
Fra Fihppo
going
still
drapery
the
is
marble in
perspective.
trees
in a
set
I75
away
photograph,
in the semi-darkness next the window). In the center she
is
does her
little
left
and assorted ribbons saw the air. This touchingly awkward figure, for all
its shortcomings of draftsmanship, is the direct ancestor
foot, while her right foot, right hand,
At the
right
Salome
kneels,
still
Medici to
he was
in
no position
to refuse.
The
a disagreeable turn.
appeared
in Florence, the
hundred years
after
it
in
left:
206.
Era Filippo
Lippi. St.
below: 207.
Fra Filippo
Lippi. Feast
of Herod.
176
uufi
Medici
de'
one
her
for
in
(fig.
208)
Antonine on the
was copied
art
St.
Lucrezia's sister,
for the
in his
own hand
zia.
moral
treatise
by
first
for Lucre-
sight they
seem
is no cave, no shed,
no Joseph, no angels, no ox, no ass. The Virgin kneels
and adores her Child in the middle of a wilderness
fir forest in which many chopped-down trees can be seen.
God
Berlin,
now
in
And now
is
of the trees
good
fire.
208.
Era Filippo
Lippi.
fir
each
brated solitary
monk
made
in the
in a separate hut,
Mass and
lived
garden
theme,
plot.
St.
first
For whosoever
is
in
shall
mother.
St.
in our hearts.
from Heaven the fire of the Holy Spirit with which St,
John said Christ would baptize (St. Antonine has a long
chapter on baptism by fire). In the deep blue-green gloom
of the forest, Mary needless to say, not in this case a
portrait of Lucrezia Buti
and the praying saint (Romu-
ald, the
Child.
new
I77
Fra Angelico.
Annunciation. About 1428.
209-
Panel, 63x71".
Diocesan Museum, Cortona
St.
Antonine,
whom,
as
we have
seen, he eventually
which
is
now
Museo Dioce-
in the
has
of Songs,
"A
Following
St.
soul," Fra
AngeUco
is
sano
in
Domenico
in the
Cortona
(fig.
umns, that more resemble the colonnettes in the mulHoned windows of mid-Quattrocento palaces than the splendid cylinders being built at that moment by Brunelleschi
(see fig. 138), and thus lack most of Brunelleschi's learned apparatus of classical detail. Fra Angelico has divided
his panel vertically into thirds; two are occupied by the
lateral arches of his portico, the other by a receding
perspective of three more arches and a little garden. The
angel enters the portico, bowing and genuflecting before
Mary as he delivers his greeting. Mary, seated on a chair
draped with gold brocade, abandons the book on her lap
to cross her hands on her breast in acceptance of her
destiny. Gabriel's words run from left to right, as they
should, but Mary's reply (Luke i :38), "Behold the
handmaiden of theLord; be it unto me according to thy
word," since it must be read from right to left, from
Mary to the angel, is written upside down. The angel's
178
closed garden,
my
sister,
my
spouse."
little
we
see the
weeping
Adam
and Eve
is
is
the second
Eve.
fig.
What
Adam
St.
and, by extension,
Paul, Christ
Mary
the second
first
physical existence
their
rendered
is
visible
and
light,
expression in the freshness and brilliance of Fra Angelico's color. Supplied with
the angel
is
wings
like plates
of beaten gold,
utilizing the
and
to a grove of trees
claimed that
this
on the
other.
could be
It
is
clear
and
the wings are barred with red feathers, the tunic with
As remote from
unmarred
beauty.
pears.
eye
woman
labors up the
hill
more
toward
than
felt
Chiana Valley
of a
trait
perhaps
known
Beyond the
The
summer
than
in
in
imper-
sunlight
is
any previous
Italian
work,
in
Panel.
Museum
of
S.
Marco, Florence
spite
An
21).
Christ,
its
sacristy of the
Church of Santa
fulfill
tion of the Christ Child in Gentile's Adoration (colorplate 15), painted for the
group of figures
harmoniously receding landscape space rather
than on the foreground stage used by Masaccio.
first
into a
211.
Fra Angelico.
Jerusalem, detail of
Ijq
of visual
Christ
reality.
is
infinite tenderness by Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, received by John, Mary Magdalen and others, and
mourned by the kneeling Virgin and the Marys on the
left, and on the right by a group of men in contemporary
Florentine dress.
in
adoration
of San Marco,
who
tains, their
are
members of the
their
is
reduced to
common
His superior,
St.
Dominican
is still
now
a wonderful work.
in the
Museum
The gold
cur-
in festoons of
Strozzi family.
Golgotha
invention), part to
show
the court of
Heaven
is
all
enthroned
Corinthian order
is
in
upon
her,
that he
fig-
the
beard.
Around
this
dimensional reality
is
striking.
Fra Angelico's
brilliant
Angelico
how
such things
is
continued
He
construction
hills
punctuated by towns,
villages,
farm-
then up to a sky
filled
A work of
Fra Angelico's
its
date,
in the early
430s.
is
projected,
conversing saints,
resentations
of
is
the
Sacra
Conversazione
and
painters. It
is
less often
circle seen in
of Athens
harmony of figures
At
that
Marco
in Flor-
monks and
180
when he worked
865/8
S.
213.
1438-40. Panel,
X 893/8". Museum of
Marco, Florence
214.
181
picture
to Florence,
Dome
The
in
new phase of
we
who had
of Leonbattista Alberti,
and had
was
work De pictura {On
circulated, only
this picture
the broad,
may still be made out. Details such as the luminous pearls which adorn the vestments of St. Lawrence
at the extreme left show Fra Angelico's awareness of the
meaning of the blazing jewels in the works of the Van
Eycks, some of which may well have appeared in Florence
216.
Fra Angelico.
Annunciation. 1438-45.
in space
by the
late 1430s.
In the
versatility in
with
its
215.
Fra Angelico.
Annunciation. 1438-45.
Fresco. Monastery of
S.
his
Marco, Florence
effects.
At
first
sight
213),
showing the
217.
218.
Virgin. 1438-45.
source oflight
is
filters
left wall,
Fra Angelico.
Transfiguration. 1438-45.
through
floating clouds.
The
five characteristically
Florentine
symbohze the
five martyrs.
But
which to
measure the extent of the landscape; nothing hke its
convincing continuity had ever been seen in post-antique
painting, not even in the Netherlands.
Fra Angelico and his assistants, probably also monks,
(fig.
in their successful
kneels, his
the others.
(colorplate 21),
is
the
most famous
(fig.
poses of the
irrelevancy of a
sunlit spaces
modern
traffic
accident,
among
the
(fig.
209), this
one supplied
passing before
it,
this figure
and gold of the Cortona altarpiece give way to pale, chaste tints. Moreover, the architecture is now seen directly from the front, so that the
lateral columns recede toward a single vanishing point
picture, the bright colors
that
is
I83
Fra Angelico.
Lawrence Distributing
219.
St.
the Treasures
of the Church.
Nicholas V, Vatican,
Rome
The
field.
visual
all
about
184
into ever
about
floats
six feet
cells,
the
The world
lines.
is
cell's
uaii
an expansion of the
There
outside
the
arcade
only
Peter
garden,
and
St.
Martyr
is no
witnesses the event, a surrogate and example for the
monastic denizen who, under the hypnotic influence of
the pale colors, clear shapes, and harmonious spaces,
architecture,
cell
itself.
Virgin
(fig.
fall
terror
in
in
Rome
under Eugenius
Angelico's achievements
The chapel
is
in the
Eternal City.
deacon martyrs,
by Fra Angelico
Lawrence and
St.
in
St.
Stephen, painted
in architectural
and land-
itself,
him
endow them with a new and very Roman granOne of the finest is certainly St. Lawrence Distribut-
to
deur.
whose dalmatic
to the
fire
is
Renaissance portal
chian
of a
suggest
lithic
no
basilica
St. Peter's as
restored by Nicholas.
The mono-
common
before Him.
It is
cell frescoes
were
in the altarpieces
we have
all their
er.
Was
solemnity.
From
there
And
the
seen, as well as in a
AngeUco
1430s.
more
filled
the
meditative images
Superficially
may appear
these
as regressions to the
visions of the
trouble the
harmony of
the spirit.
In each painting,
sensibilities
is
figs.
158, 166);
the center, as he
is
and
in the
in his
in
each
Renais-
paintings
are
fully
Renaissance.
Rather than
all,
a grander plane.
in
and strength of
endow
patterns
his
less
the
a majesty
And
is
Zurbaran.
In 1445
simplicity
Pope Eugenius
his
monastery to
IV, expelled
from
Rome
Marco
in
1443 the
pope
slept at that
in
the cell of
his secular
contem-
in the
development of
all
at the
Fra Angelico's
last
works
in
knowledge of
his style,
regretfully
omitted.
185
10.
in Architecture
ALBE RTL
trocento
The ncw
come to a
stylistic
life,
thought, and
artistic activity
who
Style
and Sculpture
and
ecclesiastical
includ-
Gonzaga of Mantua,
several cardinals,
and
at least
two
work of
never
architecture, sculpture,
and on
all
of them
left
a lasting influence.
all
He
had
De
re aedificatoria libri
unknown
date,
De statua {On
the Statue).
and of
name
There
is
a doctrine evident
works
in
is
his
own
there
little."
ception,
harmony,
dignity. Alberti's
was by no means a
186
architects,
is
Andrea
del Castagno,
whose art
Uli2
it,
cord of
all
manner
that
by Michelozzo
those used
rusticated
same
as
three-story
windows
three stories.
all
is
do not
identical in
the rustication
is
is
of the Colosseum at
screen architec-
ture,
and
details are
grammar of ancient
is
Tuscan and
story
220.
own
own
invention,
composed of a
The rectangu-
human
head, an odd
number
all
the arts
and the
principles of nature.
far
lar portals
element
is
Renaissance
cornices
and the
would
it
masonry
human
Malatesta,
beside
from
the only
How
building, like a
Sigismondo
mondo
tyrants,
sym-
num-
while
still
man
jf
Sigis-
having been
Hell
alive; the
187
iLta
right: 221.
Leonbattista Alberti.
Malatesta Temple
(S.
Francesco), Rimini.
below: 222.
Leonbattista Alberti.
West flank,
Malatesta Temple
188
Veronese architect who was responsible for the remodeling, continued to clothe the Gothic arches of the interior
in Renaissance dress, destroying earher works including
frescoes by Giotto.
Rome
in
At
the jubilee of
Pope Nicholas
V in
made the
who was then advising the pope
acquaintance of Alberti,
city.
work of Matteo
sharp disapproval in a
letter
Ml
Colorplate 21.
Panel, 5' 9"x6'.
Museum
of
Colorplate 22.
mifi
new
exterior shell.
motif
appropriate
especially
for
transformed
the
Arch of Augustus
in
constructed
humanists of
by
openings
wrote
and should
piers. Alberti
in a wall,
therefore be sustained
grandeur
is
The
in the
eff"ect
con-
make way
for
what was
this
visible in the
dome have
medal.
looked, and
how would it
own words
ribs,
the
dome
How would
itself,
for
in the
in
came
admired Brunelleschi's
ence (see
fig.
128),
he insisted that
Cathedral of Flor-
its
proportions were
in the
Pantheon,
own
disastrous for-
Temple, the subsequent history of ecclesiastical architecture might well have been different.
and
con-
of massive
columns filched from Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna), and the extraordinary capitals. A second glance at
these apparently Roman Composite capitals discloses
that they were invented by Alberti out of volutes, eggand-dart moldings, and acanthus leaves, and unexpectedly adorned by winged cherub heads. Matteo de'
Pasti described Alberti's designs for the capitals as "bellissimi,"
and so they
Matteo's medal
are.
(fig.
story, consisting of a
it.
circles
and the
224.
I9I
kki
was completed
central temple
circular
was
make
a virtue of
elaborate system of
in the history
of Italian architec-
ture.
sant' ANDREA.
monly
An
polychromed marble incrustations confers geoupon the structure. The result is one of the
in the
metrical unity
how
to unite the
and
Albcrti's
Mantua
225), although
all
of
it
was
(fig.
death (the
enough
Alberti
spectators
the
and
side-aisles.
However,
this
three-aisled
20
40
l-H-l
plan was
FEET
60
20
10
left:
METERS
225.
Leonbattista Alberti.
S. Andrea, Mantua.
Designed 1470
above: 226.
Plan of
S.
Andrea,
Mantua
left:
227.
Leonbattista Alberti.
Nave, S. Andrea, Mantua.
Designed 1470
below: 228.
Side chapels,
S.
Andrea,
Mantua
it
Alberti maintains,
its
own
228).
The
single-aisle plan
is
matched by a
single-
story elevation, for the barrel vault rests, without clerestory, directly
upon
piers, articulated
by
pilasters, in alternation
with
Austria,
architects,
however, main-
to pierce
felt,
229),
Roman
nearby
all
was
II's
I93
ILL^
Rossellino, the
Rucellai.
(fig.
Michelozzo.
ALBERTI
PAINTING.
is
Alberti's relation
striking, if
moot
sometimes
point
among
known
treatise
handbooks of shop
229- Circle of Leonbattista Alberti.
Libro delVarte.
abave: 230.
II,
Pienza. 1459-62
right: 231.
194
Bernardo Rossellino.
is
the
height of
a.
e. "little
human
space"
/.
being
b.
base Hne
distance point
c.
vanishing point
g. vertical intersection
d.
orthogonals
h. transversals
no system
and their contents within
a pictorial field. Alberti's formula, however questionable
from a modern scientific standpoint, produced a result
that was aesthetically attractive and visually convincing
(fig. 232). By and large it was followed, though not
necessarily as rigidly as Alberti seems to propose. He
would become
the desired transversals in the first construction, and form
trapezoids in conjunction with its orthogonals. The results can be easily counterproved by drawing diagonals
human
first
field into
field,
across to the
first.
These horizontal
fines
space.
construction.
It
relative
first
provided a
single,
it
Then
how were
The
on the
by the recent discovery
was
the
to
and
same height
struction, again
point to base.
above
drawing a
The
set
first
it
at
con-
viewer's distance
new diagonals
at
artist
wished. Then,
It
side. So,
if
all
the verticals.
Such
the transversals
fact, that
note of another
Alberti
fact,
but to incorporate
it
in a
wall
came
and reception of
on drawing, division of
and shade, and color, to which
he was extremely sensitive. His recommendations for
light.
These include
his notions
coloristic
arrangements of the
I95
Trecento. Albert!
is
tive
known
whom
personally.
the San
in
Marco
in copiousness
objects, in poses
all
ments
common
all,
Alberti
is
gift
religion
proart,
and the
tells us,
"con-
present, as friendship
In
it
comes
(see
corridor (see
fig.
209)
fig.
215)
apostrophizing
the
copiousness
the
spectator,
and
and
of the reception of light correspond to Alberti's principles, as indeed do many of the ideas of younger masters.
G HIBERTI AFTER
Originally the
Doors were
was
to have been
composed of
Andrea
number of
still
A second
scenes to twenty-four,
visible
fields,
each a
abandoned, but so is the notion of a consistent bronze background. Each square is totally gilded,
background and all, so that the sculptor could proceed
with the representation of depth as if he were a painter.
Donatello had, of course, already done so in his St.
George rehef (see fig. 162), but without approaching
Ghiberti's precision and mastery at this mature phase of
quatrefoils
his style.
233.
196
c. 15'
(East Doors),
The present title of the Doors derives from the fact that
they open on the paradiso, the Italian term for the
area between a baptistery and the entrance to its cathedral. Michelangelo, playing on this word, is reported to
have said that the Doors were truly worthy to be the Gates
of Paradise, and the nickname stuck. The modeHng in
wax of all ten scenes and the surrounding sections of
been convincingly dated in the brief span between 1429 and at the latest 1437, when all were certainly
frieze has
236.
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
Detail of Jacob
and Esau.
234.
Creation,
237.
Lorenzo Ghiberti.
Self-Portrait,
235.
I97
^j.
it
was not
until
Still,
set in place.
all
arranged within a
in size
is
relief,
hills
off,
phere.
The
first
Creation of
Adam
at the
lower
(fig.
left,
shows the
Eve in the
234),
that of
planation doubtless
lies
of
Adam
is
whom the
Lord
more angels
(the
number of the
198
co's probably
it is
the Cross
two com-
many
it
and therefore
is
no
New,
shadowing of the
pearing to
from a spring
St.
in the side
of the
Antonine's emphasis
Not even
Abraham
scene,
and
in the third
whose harmony of space and figures was not surpassed by even the
greatest masters of the High Renaissance, Ghiberti has
adopted the perspective construction formulated by Alberti in De pictura, which he had not employed in the
scenes of the upper two rows. Presumably the relief was
composed shortly after Alberti's arrival in Florence in
1434. The sculptor was not willing to renounce the protruding apron, which he had also used for the panels in
his North Doors. The apron, however, now became a
row
base
fine,
dicated,
relief,
his reced-
It
and therefore apparently do not correspond to the Albertian construction. But Ghiberti must have reaUzed that
these squares, if drawn in rigid conformity to Alberti,
would have been compressed into absurdly distorted
above
left:
238.
length 17'
c.
38 x 24"
move back
contention
perspective
away from
the picture
plane.
this scene, too,
is
expounded by
St.
Jacob)
The
it.
figures, too,
the
that
represent
bodies,
so as to reveal the
this
with
earlier
left
in the
Gates of
the first-born
is
Raphael to do?
demonstrate Alberti's
should
artist
(fig.
The meaning of
into
What was
there
left
for
one of
the medallions of the frame (fig. 237), placed just above
theeye level of theobserverandalongsidehisconspicuous
In his
remarkable self-portrait
in
shown
and
form of applied pilasters,
belongs to decoration (see p. 191); presumably Alberti
entertained such ideas long before he wrote them down
in the Ten Books on Architecture. Despite the airy beauty
all,
details.
He did
not
know what
to
its
is
probably the
that totally
in
earliest
space construction
in Italian art
is
single
still
pre-
achieved by setting
ground
figures
it is
an unforgettable
seem almost
self-assess-
"made
the dead
alive."
Alberti's
introductory note to
surprised
in
the
same league
as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti,
To
posterity, the
name
become
associ-
in
glazed
terracotta
in
its
surrounding. The
style
was
I99
right: 240.
Donatello.
Museo deU'Opera
Duomo,
del
Florence
of
and
singers
whom
and perhaps
in-
the seventeen-foot
room
five
acanthus consoles,
The eight
two
square spaces in the
stories, as well as the two oblong
panels at either end of the gallery, are filled with musicmaking children and adolescents conceived as illustrating
Psalm 150, which is inscribed in its entirety on the frieze
and the two stylobates. The boys and girls do indeed
praise the Lord with the sound of the trumpet, drum,
choir, organ, harp and stringed instruments, timbrel,
and high-sounding cymbals. They are beautifully
grouped in compositions that are carefully centrahzed
consists of a parapet divided
by
five pilasters.
Augustan
continued by Luca's nephew and successor, Andrea della
who prolonged
the
left sacristy
altar.
Luca's gallery
(fig.
238), as well
of the cathedral
(fig.
240),
was removed
for a grand-
frieze
monument
on the Ara
and
Roman
erudition. These
cloth-
Roman
204),
who by
this
(see
especially the
already bass
(fig.
treble,
some
retain a high
Luca's
200
is
Duomo.
In the documents,
loft,
but that by no
n^
The
Cantoria!
and to have assembled his loot somewhat indiscriminately upon returning to Florence. While all the elements of
the
his Cantoria (fig. 240) are to be found in antiquity
urn,
such combinations or
sical art in
is
itself
in
such proportions.
matched
in
pairs,
one
employed un-
upside-down,
architrave
and
strous, heavily
marble.
life (fig.
it,
241). Donatello's
242.
Donatello. Annunciation,
with
gilt
c.
1433. Limestone
(terracotta putti),
243.
Luca
Head of the
Virgin, detail
of
fig.
242
chng to
their
is
work
much
201
LU.
left:
244.
Bronze, height 62
above: 245.
14". Bargello,
Head of David,
detail
1430s.
Florence
of
fig.
244
Greek
life,
and
evident here in the instabihty of the poses, in the complexity of the surfaces,
sharp gold.
By
in
its
two
leaves).
There
is,
in fact,
202
it
The
lascivious content of
and destination of the work. The least accesis the cold detachment shown by
this pre-adolescent boy as he looks out over and beyond
the decapitated head and the observer, untroubled by
the web of desire and violence in which he stands (fig.
the nature
sible
of these riddles
245^. Is
he
in reality, like
New
Testaments), symbolic of
He remained
Padua
at
some time
in
343)
the
frogs." Vasari
tells
among
it,
us that the
Padua
comment admits
us to an essential
will, this
for rulers,
kind of
must have
is
by no means the
first
equestrian
monu-
left:
Donatello.
246.
Equestrian
Monument of
Gattamelata. 1445-50.
2".
above: 247.
Head of Gattamelata,
detail
of
fig.
246
1^
DoNATELLO.
left: 248.
S.
below: 249.
(see p. 144),
had been
statues,
and
two
only
years
before
commem-
known
of Ferrara, where
it
remained
until
it
was destroyed
in
1796.
Roman
Italy in his
tion of
now lost. But Donaend result surpasses the Marcus Aurelius in majesand, above all, in determination. Moreover, the artist
and
ty
has
outdone
previous
his
self.
The
subtleties
and
to be placed.
204
He
71".
Head of Christ,
detail
of
fig.
248
tello's
c.
Crucifix. 1444-47.
High ahar,
Antonio, Padua
Bronze, height
how
247).
The
life
ought to look
open jaws,
devoted to the contemporary cult of personality that he wrote a book on the "singular men" of
Bisticci, so
character
The
this one.
The
general
is
But the
its
endow
with
the Renaissance
is
the ideal
While he was
in
at
work on
man
virtus.
seven
life-size statues in
remodeled
in the sixteenth
all
as Donatello intended,
and
its
original
reliefs and
The bronze Crucifix that now
stands above the altar (fig. 248) was originally to be
placed elsewhere in the church, and is the first work
appearance
is still
Donatello completed
powerful, athletic
Padua. Christ
in
man
is
depicted as a
249) whose sensitive features display great intelligence and the ability to endure pain calmly in the
face
(fig.
manner of an ancient
To
show
more completely,
parted to
the nude
left
flank. If
the loincloth
is
is it.
250.
Donatello.
Miracle of the
Believing Donkey,
relief
on the
high altar,
Antonio, Padua.
S.
1446-50. Bronze,
221/2X481/2"
Donatello.
251.
Miracle of the
Irascible Son,
relief
on the
high altar,
Antonio, Padua.
S.
1446-50. Bronze,
22/2x48 1/2"
205
ments with
relief
made remarkable
experi-
San Lorenzo
which unfold
Padua
in the
altar are so
(see
fig.
137),
did.
Old
much more
it,
Sacristy of
shiped
reliefs
of the
seems
permissible to interpret them as Donatello's answer to
it
and
piers,
viewpoint
is
duced to absurdity
at the corners.
pyramid
is
is
In the
how a Proven9al
known
in the
Renais-
with metal
vaults
two
grilles
and other
lofty
windows
grilles,
pilasters
with
modified
Corinthian
capi-
of Paradise.
It is
this
kind of space,
among many
other
in
Padua during
252.
Faith,
an outdoor
ball court, ancestor of the modern football field
somewhat too grimly appropriate to the incident. Most of the
like structure
identified as
Aragazzi,
Cathedral,
Montepulciano.
c.
young man who had cut off his foot in remorse for kicking
his mother. For a setting Donatello has chosen a stadium-
1430. Marble,
lifesize
flight
refuse to conform, as
if
of steps in the
main
axis
and
simple
many
tomb
Madonna and
206
i^
O
'n
E
D
o
X
c
d
u
o
u
D
o
o
<
A,
r<-i
&
'o
Colorplate 24.
1445. Panel,
82x84".
Uffizi Gallery,
Florence
Lucy
altarpiece).
Colorplate 25.
c.
Domenico Veneziano.
1445. Panel,
St. John the Baptist in the Desert, from the predella of the St. Lucy aharpiece.
\1x12y4". National Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C. (Kress Collection)
uu
c
"o
<
(55
o
o
a
c
u
I
to
6
z
o
<
H
<
1/3
u
U
Q
<
u
oi
Q
Z
<
u
'S
"a
left:
c.
253.
1445.
below: 254.
Head
Bruni.
fig.
253
tomb of Lionardo
set
up a
Muses over
(fig.
him
at this
Luca
especially close to
della Robbia, if
more
energetic
Settignano (the
work of
we have
As an
architect
Bernardo had,
Pius
II
man.
(fig.
230). His
most con-
circle
his
had control
showing
in a
He was
a powerful
brow
crowned with laurel (fig. 254). In this clear-cut, simple
arrangement of handsome geometrical forms that bear
out the dignity of human beings, Bernardo established
211
The
II.
Four
painters, each
more or
sum up
with
the possibilities of
We
must bear
in
mind
among them.
In the
Domenico
interchange
still
at
EAOLO UCCELLO
Paolo
was long,
is
Dono, known
di
yet he painted
remarkably
as Paolo
figure.
little.
His
Uclife
Although he
work, that the age gap between the four "later" and the
was responsible, so
far as
we know,
At
for a single
major
patrons com-
Modern
criticism, according to
its
among
him
somewhere in between.
Uccello, entirely by means of per-
tells
us that
spective theory,
was able
lies
Alberti.
artistic
work he
dated
is
lost.
Opera
del
His
Cathe-
on commission from
Duomo, an
equestrian
monument to the English condottiere Sir John Hawkwood (fig. 256), known to the Italians as Giovanni Acuto,
to whom a monument in marble had been promised just
before his death in 1394. Donatello had seven years to
assess the painting before departing for
255.
Paolo Uccello.
133/g
212
xgi^".
Uffizi,
Florence
Padua
in 1443.
table.
The baton
the
air,
however, expressed
tail
is
flow s free.
Nor does he
(see
fig.
238).
The simulated
architecture
is
projected in
at
level
of a person
standing in the side-aisle. But the horse and rider are seen
from a second point of view, at about the middle of the
horse's legs. One is tempted to speculate as to why
Uccellc changed the perspective system. If he had projected the horse and rider from below, in conformity
w ith the pedestal, the observer would have looked up to
the horse's belly, and seen little of the rider but his projecting feet and knees and the underside of his face. But
might not Uccello, a lifelong practical joker, have done
exactly that? Perhaps at
Opera objected
first
he did. The
oflRcials
and
of the
and
rider
cir-
is
surely the
in
Verde
Florence
(fig.
by various Quattro-
damaged
ject)
(ironically
as,
it
would
name by
its
256.
Paolo Uccello.
Sir John
Hawkwood.
1436.
about 1445-47.
Despite the damage the work has sustained,
majestic creation. Uccello has
same
from the
form the
it is still
brandishing a sword as he rides a swimming horse, another threatening him with a club, a third clutching at
Ark with
On
lightning,
the
left
the
Ark
is
afloat, beset
by thunder,
humans
one
the
his fingers
(fig.
afloat
On
its
window
leans
Noah,
whom
is
and from
returning the dove
to rest,
213
above: 257.
c.
1445-47.
opposite
left:
258. Detail of
fig.
257
No
fig.
257
in the right
man
(fig.
260) standing
if in
fig.
257
Deluge
is
continuing tradition of Masaccio, but charged throughout with the new intellectuality of the second Renaissance
style.
More
artificial in effect,
fully
imbued
23
fig.
Romano (colorplate
chamber
in the
later
occupied by
Lorenzo the Magnificent. The three panels are now diamong the National Gallery in London, the Ufiizi
in Florence, and the Louvre in Paris, and their separate
vicissitudes have reduced them to widely varying states
of preservation. Originally they ran just above a
wooden wainscoting, to which they were united by gilded
vided
End
tie
the panels to
coloristic brilhance
214
in 1432,
frieze.
but with a
"!
and modeling
brilliant
other or
really bleed.
panels.
But not
its
intensity:
261.
is
Paolo Uccello.
Battle of San
Romano,
c.
in the
reality.
really
wound each
plaster, or
from the rigidity of the perspective construction. Most of the broken lances, Hke
the floating ladder in the Deluge, have fallen in conformi-
1445. Panel,
6'x
10' 6".
215
in
some cases
modeling
is
very informa-
tive
little,
rip-
still
Paolo Uccello.
Romano,
Domini
in
Florence
orthogonals
ty with Aibertian
(fig.
So have the
262).
is
with
wrapped a
all
the letters
orthogonals formed by
phenomenon of
is
as
managed
of
to die
acquiescence on
left
all
enforcing
Only
in
who
The
subject
is
poverty-stricken
pawnbroker
to
all
The
pictures are
down
all
little
badly worn,
263.
i'
4V2 "x
n'
on a
trivet in
who
battered
down the
and
the Host had
woman,
after
been returned to
London panel of
forced by a Jewish
felt
about Uccello's predella, its poetry and wit and the brilliance of its design have delighted the twentieth century.
del
unsuc-
tried
Compagnia
altar
first
6". Galleria
first
its
264.
c.
DOMENICO VeNEZIANO.
Dahlem Museum,
Berlin
given us an exemplary visual statement of Albertian perspective construction. But in the next scene,
beyond the
The
room
is
shown
is
visible at the
same
time.
As a
result,
nomena of
vision.
have seen
we
theory (see
own
in the
^OMENico VENEZIANO
217
is
Magi
(see
fig.
199),
but
in reverse.
of the
all,
the
Magi came
191).
Gothic
in
Lucy
echoed only
in the three
203),
is
seated.
oil.
elaborate pavement,
marbles
is
conceived
in color.
Moreover,
all its
its
shadows
many
sun-
Domenico
and
their globular or
is
letters.
fig.
and
especially
its
on the
fabrics
inged legs,
overlap,
St.
della Francesca,
among
him
218
and that of
is
Domenico's new formal colorism more apparent than in the lovely figure of St. Lucy
herself, extending the palm of her martyrdom and the
platter on which rest her eyes, which she plucked out so
that she might not be tempted by the attractions of her
fiance (the Virgin rewarded her with a new pair). The
light dwells in the shadows of the cloak and projects its
forms, all in tones of glowing rose. The saint, in her
perfect calm and poise, typifies the new aristocratic
ideal of the Florentine upper middle class. With the utmost elegance and refinement Domenico has studied the
way in which masses of St. Lucy's blond hair are brought
back and curled under, and then contrasted with the
wispy locks which controlled accident allows to escape,
in order to bring out the sensitive pallor of the face and
color in fight.
Nowhere
is
DoMENico Veneziano.
265.
c.
of the
artificially lofty
Annunciation, from the predella of the St. Lucy altarpiece (see colorplate 24).
forehead.
The
entire
X2i
14
head
".
like
is
Fitzwilliam
light
it,
in
the
Desert.
In the
The event takes place in a small colonnaded court whose elegant forms contrast with the rough
bench on which Mary had been seated and with the
John had often been shown trudging cheerfully off into the rocks, cross-staff in hand. Domenico's
picture is unusual in that it depicts the boy wistfully
dropping his clothes on the rocky ground as he is about
to assume the camel's-skin raiment of his sojourn in the
desert. With a sensuous grace typical of the new Renaissance delight in the body, the youth is exposed to the full
glare of the sun. The almost Greek rendering of the nude
figure
purest crystal
rimmed with
The Annunciation
the predella,
is
now
(fig.
gold.
265),
in the Fitzwilliam
Museum
in
Cam-
bridge, England.
Italian farmhouses.
still
used in
Mary
Trecento
is
St.
in
this regard,
finest
still
achievements in
relief and
147, 151).
The
somewhat Byzantine forms of the surroundmuch like the rocks on the right in the
the
ing mountains,
Angelico (see
209, 215).
figs.
Velazquez
in their
in the
is
wooden
bolt.
The rendering of
in
and
the
trellis
are
manner somewhat
was intended
more
it
For Domenico
is
which changes their facets from white to bluewhite and yellow-white. The same light reflects from the
rounded forms of the boy's body and dwells on every
pearly stone along the way.
sunlight,
equated
Domenico's Contemporary in
Florence, and probably his friend as well, was Andrea
del Castagno (14 17/ 19-57), a man of such different
temperament and artistic ideas that the association
of the two artists still eludes understanding. According
to Vasari, Castagno was a man of coarse and violent
nature, so jealous of his friend Domenico's skill at
painting in
oil in
the Venetian
manner (although,
we
as
219
presents
is
mountaineer
Mascoli Chapel,
(fig.
266),
is
now
the
in
left
transept of San
Marco
made
Giambono) in
in Padua. The
Florentine Renaissance
is
here
in all its
ground,
its
fig.
201).
The arcaded
street in the
back-
Chirico's work,
is
De
Mark
Florence, for
frieze
The rugged
plain,
its
simple, iriangle-within-
embracing a grand
and its majestic alignment of sculptural
figures, must have been a revelation in, still-Gothic
Venice. The influence of the composition was incalculable
throughout the Quattrocento in Venice, in Padua, and
indeed throughout North Italy.
Another early work is Castagno's fresco of the Crucifixion (fig. 267) painted about 1445 for one cloister of the
monastery of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Florence,
where Lorenzo Monaco had lived and worked until only
twenty years before. Imperfectly transferred from its
a-square composition,
its
large arch
perspective,
is
now
in-
museum.
We
see a
266.
220
wooden
man
whose
grain is depicted with all the care and knowledge of a
sawyer's son. Mary is a weeping, toothless peasant woman with collapsed features, wringing her hands, and St.
John clearly after the same model as the St. John at the
suff'ering for his friends, nailed to
cross
267.
1445. Fresco.
Cenacolo of
left in
is
a stalwart, square-jawed
Romuald,
as in Lorenzo Monaco's Coronation (colorplate 13). The
shape of the flattened arch must have been determined by
youth.
St.
Benedict and
St.
The proletarian
fell
of the night
we shall
Castagno was capable of mocking Alber-
perspective,
as
principal
its
Kingdom of Italy
expropriated
As we saw
Taddeo Gaddi (see p. 71), the Last Supper
was naturally suitable for monumental representation in
refectories,
Crucifixions, later so
form of bread
and wine. Castagno has set the scene in a paneled chamber, hardly intended to represent, as in the Gospel account, the upper room of a house in Jerusalem. In fact,
it seems to be an independent construction one story
high and roofed with Tuscan tiles, its front wall removed
Christ's sacrificial self-perpetuation in the
partly
big-boned and
shghtly to the
left,
stoic Christ,
is
is
Bernardo Rossellino
freely
ly
fully
as
in
space as success-
pictorial
Domenico
Veneziano.
entombment,
life is
a kind of
entombed
in their
Today Castagno's
The work
monk Ludolph
(fig.
almost as soon as
was under
it
was
clausura,
finished in 1447,
and the
fresco
on the outside of the table (fig. 269) but does not dip his
hand into the dish with Christ, as described by St. Matthew and St. Mark and as almost universally represented
in Italy, notably by Giotto in the Arena Chapel and by
Taddeo Gaddi. Instead Judas takes the sop in wine to
signify his betrayal, as recounted by St. John: "He it
221
he holds to his
lips
upward from
start
Heaven
upward,
in
a daring
dread disclosure. They hold their hands over the consecrated bread, or to each other in expostulation; St.
right,
in the
Mark
in the
by
grief displayed
(fig.
266).
St.
So Castagno
268.
Sta. Apollonia,
Florence
still
Renaissance.
By
to
whom
when
have dipped
it."
Here too Ludolph of Saxony seems to have been Castagno's source he tells us that this sop had not been blessed
by Christ and therefore was not true Eucharist, yet that
all those who receive the Sacrament unworthily (and,
according to St. Paul, are therefore guilty of the body
and blood of Christ) are comparable with Judas the betrayer. Castagno carefully contrasts Christ's hand blessing the bread and wine to be consumed by the Apostles
:
Ludolph reminds
in
moment
own
and
fate,
yet,
a fixed
who
down toward
St.
lays his
The
Ludolph says
dependent on Ludolph,
St.
is
clearly
Bartholomew the knife with which St. Bartholomew was to be flayed alive. Next to St. Peter, St. James,
who was to be beheaded, gazes fixedly at the glass of wine
ing St.
222
He
ar-
numerically to the
six
same
to panel.
We
read the
room
is
as square, because
six
it
has six
frieze
is still
the unluckiest of
numbers
We
are never
An
and tends to
attribute
of Albertian perspective. In
troubled to trace
it
it
to Castagno's mastery
fact, writers
who have
not
means of a chalk
footrest,
line
and a
nail.
that matter, to any common vanishing point. The orthogonals formed by the frieze do not converge but
remain very nearly parallel throughout their course, and
the ceiling panels are identical in their depth from front to
features, sending
prototypes
earlier, at
Orsan-
ma
on within the
souls of these virile Apostles and is revealed on their
impressive faces, old and bearded, young and strong,
handsome or ugly, tormented or secure. With great
crushing
grief,
hope of
salvation, goes
The
greater part of
was detached
from the walls of the Villa Carducci in the nineteenth
century and is now preserved in the Castagno Museum
at Sant'Apollonia. There were a number of such series in
Quattrocento villas and palaces in various portions of
Italy, although Jew survive today. These images were
the series, comprising nine standing figures,
269.
Cenacolo of
Sta. Apollonia,
Florence
270, 271.
Cumaean
(left)
and
Sibyl (right),
from a
series
of
1448. Frescoes.
Cenacolo of Sta.
ApoUonia, Florence
and Niccolo
women
in
in
number
was
224
oif,
of blue
darks.
earlier strong
system of minute
in favor of a
of garments and ornament, locks of hair, and even individual hairs in the beard and eyelashes. Doubtless the
new
now
272).
The
in the
(fig.
picture
shield,
and the
still-Gothic landscape
is
legs.
Ufiizi.
The
quiet
in
later
in fact
murdered
his parents.
above: 272.
David,
c.
1448. Leather,
jagged rock
in a
On
saint,
Above
the heads of
in
all
form of a dove,
in the
all
after-
St.
we look down on
the top of
the crossbar,
Jerome,
detail
c.
down on
and
muscles twisted
like a
Christ's
rope
(fig.
274), or
by the intensity
little
own creation.
lower lids as
with His
in
right.
His
left
and
St.
beard.
The broad,
and
if
(the saint's
suff"uses the
Only, as
in thick gouts
floating Cross,
we
work
art such
by
pigment lighting the hair, set this work apart from the
artist's more rugged earher style. One can only regret
the loss of the lower portion of the figure (especially the
beautiful hunting
when a higher
altar
At the next
altar
is
Castagno's Vision of
St.
Jerome
its
own
excesses.
A curious sidelight on
and by a
diff"erent
hand
that of Castagno's
supposed victim, Domenico Veneziano. Yet an examination of the landscape backgrounds of both frescoes in
the Santissima Annunziata
(fig.
ly St.
theologian
of the David
(fig.
Domenico's
light
companion
piece. Previous-
226
272), clearly
Coloiplate 27.
1454-55- Fresco.
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C
rt
ft.
commissioned
in
John
portrait of Sir
(fig.
275).
As we have
Hankwood by Paolo
Uccello
(fig.
seen, Uccello
is
inevitable,
tirely in
arm
tion
of compelling
grandeur.
an appari-
is falsified so that
for
no
single point of
throws into
It is
Characteristically
relief the
its
torsos of the
today to
that of
fulfill
the
motion
is
we
sity
shall never
know
275.
23I
right: 276.
Commissioned 1445.
8' 8"xio' 6".
Panel,
Pinacoteca, Sansepolcro
below
left:
IT].
Madonna of Mercy,
center panel of
Misericordia altarpiece
Misericordia altarpiece
HP WP
as a regional celebrity
is
dead to
and the
and standing
several stories
polyptych
in
townsmen
Arezzo,
100).
fig.
The
altarpiece
willingly.
Domenico Veneziano.
the
little
men and
left,
four
In 1442, Piero
council)
and retained
town,
set in the
with the hood pulled over his face so that his eyes look
through
slits,
as
it is still
As
in all
facts.
rustic
people, four
from the
colossal Virgin,
who seems
Madonna
of
compared
to the
whose
in tiny scale
she symbohzes.
protection
of her
the Misericor-
images of the
knee,
is
kneel in a
circle.
made models,
Vasari
clothed
tells
them
actual drapery,
and
on these folds.
Here he seems to have done exactly that, setting a
strong side light on the slightly varying tubes and
masses of hanging or bunched folds of cloth, or on
the smoothly sculptured countenances shown fullface, profile, three-quarters view, lifted and fore-
He
most
the
all
fig.
50).
and
it
produces
reflected, suff"using
new
problems,
all
shadows
tive in the
in the
man
to
his universe.
Piero's earUest
sioned in 1445
is
is
establish
tactilely
233
DELLA FrANCESCA.
Baptism of Christ, c. 1 450.
Panel, 66x453^".
279- PlERO
National Gallery,
The
Crucifixion
(fig.
Angeli
cio's
(fig.
267),
is
sharply foreshortened
left
London
communion between
Sistine Chapel.
Around
the Crucified
St.
John.
It
date
is
is
as
below, robed
234
in
London, shows
Piero's
second
command
in the
beauty of
its
outdoor setting
Renaissance
style
one
thinks
immediately
280.
left:
Fresco.
Pinacoteca, Sansepolcro
below
left:
detail
281. Christ,
of
fig.
280
Head of a
detail
of
Soldier,
fig.
280
which
sistence
is both limited and deepened by Piero's inon representing Scripture in terms of daily
little
like
fine,
clear-
towering cylinders of
light
and the
is
own
Domenico Veneziano's
ing
the priests
and
water, as clear as
the
it is
So
be
set
down
at
236
its
towers touched
and of the straight road running toward AnghiBackground details are, of course, painted freely,
without a line, for Piero had mastered Domenico Veneziano's doctrine of light and his equation of the single
brush stroke with the separate sparkle of light from a
by
light,
Piero's
moved from an
Town
is
it is
His
left
left
hand
the figure, leaving the right side bare to reveal the spear
in the
(fig.
281).
carved
in
inmost con-
tomb
the four
recall-
phenomena during
ari.
natural
prise, for
priests.
this
in
worn by Orthodox
down
watchers sleep
still
264),
is
figures
(fig.
bright.
hill
his
shining stones
Christ had said, "If they do this in the green tree what will
while
"If they
do
this to
me
was connected
with the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil and the
Tree of Life, standing together in the Garden of Eden.
The idea of green
trees
and withered
trees
and
world before
and Resurrection.
outside
the Crucifixion,
face,
cession
Christ.
di
Lorenzo,
who
work
days'
in
two days on a
single
section)
work
painting
need
and up the
left,
it
beam
will serve to
the
The
into
Queen of Sheba
story of the
two episodes:
wood
283)
(fig.
is
divided
down to worship it, and proceeds onSolomon, who thereupon has it buried deep
toward the picture plane across a tiny brook running past the bases of the palace columns. The shadow
of the kneeling queen falls across the beam in accordance
ly
with the actual light from the window of the chancel. (In
room
they decorate
is
In his choice of types for the queen and her six ladies in
waiting
Piero
characteristically
avoids
conventional
women make
hang, kneels
stately
ward
to
their Florentine
is
contemporaries
partly
in the earth.
appears to Constantine
in a
this sign
illumi-
similarly exploited.)
shall
tell
down
extends
restored state.
The subject,
is
due to the
gaze, and
more to the
The heads with
and lines.
become porcelain spheroids,
the
in parabolic curves.
237
1!
283. PiERO
DELLA Francesca. Discovery of the True Cross and Meeting of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba,
from Legend of the True Cross. Probably 1453-54. Fresco. S. Francesco, Arezzo
when
first
the post-
acclaimed
The second episode takes place in the classical archiand here we are faced for
the
first
ca to Leonbattista Alberti.
the Composite order that Piero has chosen for the portico
221),
yet exist,
DELLA Francesca. Invention of the True Cross and Recognition of the True Cross,
from Legend of the True Cross. Probably 1453-54. Fresco. S. Francesco, Arezzo
284. PiERO
The
and
Alberti himself was in Rome directing operations by
correspondence, but Piero must have seen the drawings
and the model. He must also have absorbed Alberti's
perspective doctrine in Florence, and many years later
Piero himself was to write the first Renaissance treatise
on perspective (see p. 246).
Whether on purpose or through ignorance, Piero
broke with one cardinal principle of Alberti's theory of
its
in the field
it is
centered
first
is
than thirty years, which, since the fresco must date 145354, tends to confirm a date in the 1420s for Piero's birth.
In the
wall
left is
(fig.
284)
the Invention
light
and the same ladies, done from the same cartoons reversed (a dodge Piero often employed), are received by
a sumptuously dressed Solomon, whose gold-brocaded
ceremonial robe was painted a secco and has, therefore,
largely peeled
away.
The queen's
Wood
revelation
of the Cross
is
of the
received with
from the
left
work
corresponds feature by
do
in
feature, allowing
The episode
is
dominated by what
is
most beautiful
is the more
when we
239
286, 287.
had
None
and semicircular
on
piers,
main
deeply
felt.
most
Roman-
(restricted here to
army
of a horse there.
little
in a beautiful
on the one
amounting
a head
is
the
to the loss of
Castagno wanted
the chancel.
Had
(colorplate 23;
fig,
tated Goliath
to convince us that
to
its
painted
it
as the
little
three
white ducks.
the blue
240
soft gray,
still
others
to
make
flat
of
stripes
The
legs
look, a soldier near the throne jabs his dagger into the
floats in
Emperor John
whom
white horse a
little
overlapped by a figure
in
and
profile,
is
his
It
emperor on
in
in
an actual procession,
his outstretched
a series of
patterns.
draw
To
To
fit
to themselves,
reflect to the
light.
And
it
is
observer's
Arezzo.
slight-
upward to the
belly of the rearing horse at the extreme left. The horse is
foreshortened toward us, and in fact looks at us as his
the feet of the riders, so that one looks
flat
The
Battle of Heraclius
and Chosroes
(fig.
it
has
little
of the
utter brutality, as
flesh collide.
by
clarified
time.
The
its
St.
Virgin
stands
under a
who
loggia
consisting
the Angel
above
a low wall treated with the same white marble moldings
and cornice and the same veined marble incrustation
Gabriel,
God
nunciation (see
fig.
242).
Among
St.
Antonine's writings
is
the Father,
relief
at this
down toward
left.
wearing
"Narrow
is
salvation," by which
reconciles the
He meant
the
is
way
way
to sal-
Himself
said,
it
was
Of this
The entire
The suggestion of a
beam
cross
man
window, and above the column the rope hanging from the
beam is an allusion to the column at which Christ was
bound and scourged. The object Gabriel holds in his left
hand, clearly not the customary lily, has even been
described as a reed cross! It is actually a hand mirror,
slightly convex as was customary in the Renaissance,
and in its curved back are reflected the beautiful Gothic
ornaments that fill the panels of the door. Mary, in Christian literature and art, is often characterized as the wisdom which is extolled (Wisdom of Solomon 7 126) as "the
brightness of eternal light: and the unspotted mirror of
sculpture.
It
is
on which a number of persons, mounted or on foot, have huddled for the purpose of murdering
each other, and Piero has studied with care the grim mestretch of ground
no lovely
armor has no
allure.
is
reinforced by the
24I
Florence
from the real window of the chancel falls upon her womb
the light also pierces the open arched window above her,
a symbol of divine revelation, and throws the shadow of
the portico upon X\vt porta clausa, the closed door of her
virginity. Into this simple,
and the
massive composition,
all in
rich
light. It is,
all
revealed by the
right
arm
is
downward with
It
simply
is
there,
As
No
this
in the
it is
worship him as
God) awaiting decapitation and for God the Father
sending His Son for the redemption of mankind.
To
the
left
his followers to
of the window
Mary becomes
its
the greatest
right the
The
Vision of Constantine
(fig.
we must not
its
tine's
pointed tent
fills
ancestry, in the
81, 103,
80).
Constan-
from window
to
242
sive,
cycle.
same
forget
Much
Arezzo
light.
when one
plete reality
is
the
com-
light, vegetation,
DELLA FrANCESCA.
Triumph of Battista Sforza
289. PlERO
worked
in
He seems
(now
Rome
He may,
at
The
istic
see.
combination
nobihty.
of unsparing
realism
with
inner
two
figures create
an
more convincing
effect
ohve skin
is
set against
Lippi's
somewhat
earlier
in
the
243
which Piero may even have seen during a visit to Florence. Every element of luxury in the
hair, its veil and its jewels, has been submitted to the
sense of order that dominates both portraits. The headdress conforms to the architecture of the head, and the
pearl-studded jewels against the sky seem like a lantern
crowning a dome. And those pearls! Even more effective
than the shining armor in the Arezzo frescoes, they concentrate the cool radiance of the landscape and sky in
their chain of lucent globes, set off against Borgo San
Uflfizi (see fig.
himself
perspective.
some moisture,
in a
hills,
so strangely formed,
Columbus on
of Urbino
prove
Solomon's palace
observers
all
deep
Italy.
He then
is
in the
Arezzo
What
series.
ranges
Why
have
easily measurable.
disconcerts
as the
studded the
but are not
anthills.
The
more
this
rate at
therefore
in
in
is still
it
connected
and
the texture
number of years
An
set
204),
It
may
refer to the
body of Christ)
infidels. It
to torments at the
hands of the
did brocade
the
by reason of the fat neck with its deep wrinkle at the back,
by a pair of
winged Victory
Who,
at the top.
ring like silver bells against the infinite depth of the land-
scape, into
244
is
unmistakable
ear,
then,
is
Arezzo.
He wears
mouth
is
The Paleologus-figure
is
more
may
still
elude us.
Deep
in the
blows about to
fall
the
His head.
He
bound
is
to a
column
set in the
center
in the other,
an
idol
it
would seem
modern scholars have been able to play Piero's perspective backward, so to speak, and reconstruct the plan of
the inlaid marble floor. This turns out to have been put
grandly
important.
filled
is
coffered
290. Piero
of light
sunny day
The
ceiling panel
work
his habitual
field)
is
deepens and
intensifies.
no document
mained in the
is
Nativity,
c.
1470-
artist's
ly
is
Mary
No
miracle
as yet
ass, rep-
Never was
lyrical, es-
deep blue,
bluejay.
more
this signature?
"
della Francesca.
Panel, 49 x 48 Vi
found
in a gigantic
left
On
the
245
silver cord.
total
stillness
reigns.
his
John the
Baptist,
is
where
vacant. In
472 the young countess died shortly after the birth of her
and first son. Federigo's heir Guidobaldo. So
fifth child
exact
is
ence
for
it
one
hangs
still
was believed
in the sunlight
in the Baptistery
let
of Flor-
itself,
on a
believed to subsist
diet
and the awakening of the Child, His Resurrection. The event for which
Federigo and Mary are praying, and for which the
assembled saints and angels are waiting, is the wakening
of the Christ Child, the Resurrection which will assure
bly foretell the death of the adult Christ,
Battista's eternal
The
291. PlERO
Panel, 8'
DELLA FrANCESCA.
7".
Christians.
all
it
and
reflected
from
its
the soft
fight
mood
2"x6'
of
penetrating into
Madonna and
like that
life,
ing a
harmony yet suspense these render the paintfitting swan song for Piero. He lived on for about
of
principal theoretical
underdrawing
Painting
in perspective
is
clearly visible.
in
De
Perspective), in
in his
own
which he
treats a series
of
century a
had
last
(fig.
major painting,
is
the
Saints
sits
the
246
style,
man
led Piero
still
lived
who claimed
that, as a boy,
he
his
still
even
if
So the second Renaissance style ends in the contemplation of those mathematical harmonies which, for the
mind of God.
Colorplate 32.
Benozzo Gozzoli.
Madonna and
Child,
c.
The Louvre,
Paris
Crisis
12.
first
and Cross-Currents
Nanni
were dead.
cio,
di
all
flicts
little
let
(see
fig.
II,
life
tic
della Francesca
in the 1450s,
of unshadowed delight.
new
the
metalwork, leatherwork,
ceramics,
ed
all
processional
chests,
painted
pennons,
friend Castagno,
deeply
aff'ected
We have
In the
1450s, just
when
was
which widened so rapidly that within a few years there was no longer
a single dominant style but several, almost equally impor1320s (see
p. 51),
there appeared a
little rift
in
gener-
to the previously
Florentine
art.
by the
terrible events
who
depict for us a
life
Easter Sunday.
reliefs
just discussed.
speak of coloring
style
city
bridles, not to
whose
by
the sculptors, and painting outdoor tabernacles and
altarpieces for village churches, using ideas and motifs
sometimes even by means of stencils borrowed
from the revolutionary painters whose works we have
shields,
and
banners,
Roman
noble, led a
hung over Europe in the summer of 1453. Repeated earthquakes shook Central Italy, especially Florence, whose
inhabitants slept outdoors for a month. Finally, also in
1453,
Orthodox Church,
fell
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
249
man and
his sons
its
wonder
order,
harmony
had
lost
their
Whatever
and
in the third
sance style
is
DONATELLO AFTER
453.
Among
the
ist
intellectuality,
relevance.
styles
in
poplar
wood
long sojourn
own
of her
(fig.
292), carved
only
in the
from her
tangled mat
mouth
(fig.
figures created
before
and
still
Magdalen has
lost
is
which
it
wooden
from
was carved as any columnar statue on a Gothic
as closely confined to the
shaft
portal.
ing of
and
its
now
and
in-
medieval
side,
streets,
250
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
St.
admit us to a hitherto unexplored inner world of emotional stress, and study with fascination the ravages of time
and decay on the human body, whose youthful beauty a
happier generation had discovered with joy.
In 1456, as recently discovered documents have proven,
Donatello made and signed an equally disturbing bronze
group of Judith cutting off" the head of Holofernes (fig.
294), apparently for the courtyard of the Medici Palace.
Today the
in Florence,
where
of the Medici,
tyranny.
it
in
was
set
1494, as a
(From 1506 to 19 19 it stood nearby, in the Logwhen it belonged to the Medici, the
sin,
source of
army
broken
it.
The sword
is
293.
One
directly
foot
on
is
lip (fig.
is
pierced at
292.
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
25I
left: 294.
fig.
294
as Desiderio.
who probably
the break,
and so
his
method
is
question.
fig.
253).
Of
necessity
in the
and arches
are similar in both monuments, but that of Marsuppini
produces at once an impression of greater lightness
and grace, achieved by a number of devices. The
sarcophagus and bier are lower, the white marble
moldings narrower, and Desiderio has divided the
In his last
its
evolution,
still
undisputed master of
own
ideals in
its
every techni-
an excess of fervor,
human
suffering to enable
p. 588).
them
But
to explore the
These are
pilasters
DESiDERio DA SETTiGNANO.
in
of the
follow, even
252
when they
CRISIS
tried.
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
lofty
Roman
hang
pall
in
From
the
the garlands
wingless,
on the
plinth.
two
little
lift
smiling Virgin leans back slightly, the better to contemplate her Child as
Desiderio
He
blesses.
was probably
the
greatest
little
sculptor
of
Museum
of Art
(fig.
aimed
at achieving in
marble the
left:
296. Desiderio
da Settignano.
Tomb
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
253
through the atmosphere. In the children on the Marsuppini tomb these effects are obtained by breadth of surface,
at the
irresistible child's
in
^h
by
parently by filing
lets
re-
suppressing
surface
definition
ap-
it
if all
Rodin
in the
effects
sensitivity
\\
298. Desiderio
c.
1460. Marble
Philadelphia
Museum
relief,
Child.
23 14 x i7^/4"-
is
the
tomb of
unity.
The
entombed
at
instantly forthcoming
254
CRISIS
and CROSS-CURRENTS
299. Desiderio
in 1462,
left:
300.
Antonio Rossellino.
Tomb
and
below:
Miniato, Florence
},o\.
Virgin
detail of
fig.
and
Child,
300
303.
Head of the
Cardinal of Portugal,
detail of fig.
300
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
255
in
(fig.
moment
moment
all
in a
might disappear.
who once
shows
all
the
new
lightness
in
features,
sculptural
of flesh
be
less
control
One
is
effect
304.
Palmieri.
his
master.
cy
place.
To
use an over-
work.
Most touching of
young cardinal
himself, who seems to dream of the Paradise to which the
sacred figures are promising him entrance although it
lies all around the observer as he stands in this most
perfect of chapels. Desiderio, so the documents tell us,
all,
perhaps,
is
the
was
in
From
this
reality
its
was designed by
hold cornucopias on
clearly
is
attached a gar-
One
256
is
a continuous
CRISIS
surface
of deep
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
red-veined
portal to a
life
if
the
and
in
Madonna
Doni
Michelangelo's
(colorpUite
and
S7)
Sistine Ceiling.
in
damage
Matteo
Matteo in the Bargello (fig.
which the surface has been
of
all
type in Florence in
The
flat,
in the
hands of
a lesser artist, a
mere
caricature.
Quattrocento
village,
It is
close to the
still-operative
305.
c.
Mellini.
art.
Goes
and the Palazzo PazziQuaratesi (fig. 306). Although both attributions are
tentative, the fragility and slightness of these designs
seem quite in keeping with what we know about Giuliano.
It
fig.
Pazzi Chapel
tines.
Yet even
if
Imperial
Roman
portraiture.
It
Roman
portrait bust of
and early
its
and
in the infinite
tural
known
woodworker and executor of architecornament, but since his name turns up so often in
best
as a
140)
building
itself and
There
more appropriate
architecture. In
all
to
work
in
wood than
probability, therefore,
if
now appears
similar taste
is
to stone
Brunelleschi
little
of his
there.
at
results, in
The heavy
rustication of the
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
257
disappears. The
sculptor.
walls are
ornamental designs) so
Florence and
its
common on
subject cities.
The
and
tinted
house facades
floral
in
ornament of
them today
which
townhouses
is
typical
we would
call
The Palazzo
Strozzi
is
an exception
(fig.
it
307).
Of such
rise in
which were to
(fig.
308)
is
proba-
However
may
that
Maiano, Giuliano's
whom we
have seen as a
wooden
be, a still-extant
work
will
was added
and
unknown whether or
it is still
not the
The
wanted
(so the sources tell us) to build a palace which would
outshine any other in Florence. Mindful of the fate of
his exiled ancestor Palla, however, Filippo slyly showed
designs for a more modest structure to Lorenzo de'
Medici. Lorenzo thought them insignificant, and urged
Filippo to build something more imposing, as befitted
the magnificence of the Strozzi family and of Lorenzo's
Florence. This gave Fihppo the green light to do what
he had intended to do all along. He and his architects
great Florentine banker, Filippo Strozzi,
The
courtyard.
in the
in the
from
superb
all
other
its
unification of
all
three stories by
so slightly
is
won
of
all
harmony
it
Giuhano da Sangallo,
in
his Palazzo
in
windows
of the
palace.
Nonetheless,
total
Benedetto,
set
up
little
and decrease
just as sharply in
GlULIANO DA MaIANO.
258
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
cento courtyard
in
(fig.
309)
is
command and
the greater
307.
Benedetto da Maiano
and II Cronaca.
1489-1507
above: 308.
II
Cronaca.
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
259
right: 310.
GlULIANO DA SaNGALLO.
Villa Medici,
below: 311.
Portico of Villa Medici,
Poggio a Caiano
life
we know from
historians and
Roman
the writings of
contemporary
philosophers.
Many
still
antiquity
tures he
drew have
since
adopted by Michelozzo
vincing
work
ful, especially
refinements.
about
open
and on the
windows
sur-
mounted by
in the
new, grand
to
and. despite
style.
in
in later life
five
260
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
in the
(fig.
311),
apparently the
first
and
in
sense.
Roman
It
is
was
GlULIANO DA SANGALLO. Giuliano da Sangallo (1443 ?1 51 6) was the first eminent member of a numerous dy-
310),
(fig.
own
villas,
and
tonaco of the
villa wall.
pietra
whose white
at the court
of Lorenzo.
architecture than
Augustan
grouped columns and
Roman
\ertical
temple, with
its
closely
shade.
much
larger, roofs
of Pontormo's
loveliest
frescoes
(see
fig.
6io).
The
Giuliano da Sangallo.
Maria delle Carceri,
left: 312.
Sta.
Prate. 1485-92
Maria
delle Carceri,
Prate
Giuliano da Sangallo.
Dome, Sta. Maria delle Carceri,
top: 314.
Prato. 1485-92
Giuliano's other
extant
principal
structure
built, like so
is
(fig.
the
312),
of the later
are
313)
all
ly left
is
figures
and
unfinished,
all
is
different.
a masterpiece of
marble incrustation
famous
Urbino panels (see fig. 394). A Doric lower story is
surmounted by an Ionic story of two-thirds its height,
both with pilasters clustered toward the corners. The
proportions of the stories are brought into harmony
with each other by the device of paneling off the upper
third of the lower story with the green marble bands
(the same Prato marble used for the green incrustations
of buildings in Florence) which surround all the panels.
in
BENOZZO GOZZOLI.
The
painter
who more
than any
Benozzo Gozzoli.
Benozzo's long
artistic activity
commences
his patrons.
in
in
the studio
in
painting
fig.
219).
in
1459 to paint a
pupil.
It
his
to
Company
of
the Magi, and perhaps for that reason stipulated the Jour-
do with
nated
316. Lorenzo the Magnificent
detail
262
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
the penitential
mood
before
of the
little
St.
Antonine-domi-
painted by Filippo
may have
felt like
children
let
out of
The
walls of the
no proof
is
first
Cosimo
villas in
Magus
is
a portrait of
plant (Lorenzo
is
317.
Grammar
Benozzo Gozzoli.
St.
S.
distance,
tine
draw
figures in action
something archaistic
(fig.
in his insistence
last detail.
but
The
in the equally
sharp insistence
nicely.
Again, the
artist
modern
howling baby
eyes,
is
at the right,
shoulder.
and
like
quite seemed to
fulfill
Baldovinetti (1425-99).
Among
all
promise
Alesso
in
ings. (Donatello,
true,
it is
of
Baudouin
life
in
in the
foreground, architectural
vinetti
Baldwin),
and
their
house-tower
still
Alesso was, for a while, apprenticed to Domenico Veneziano as a successor to Piero della Francesca
frescoes of Sant'Egidio,
in the lost
series
on
his
own many years later, for the cost of the materials alone.
He soon came under the influence of the terrible Andrea
del Castagno,
and
CRISIS
having painted a
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
263
many
more or less
latter was ill at
infernal furies"
filled
light,
conclusions.
Whimsical,
witty,
eventually
unsentimental,
with
Domenico Venezi-
to delightfully
dry,
improbable
and
to such an
charming,
conservative
mainstream
Florentine
of
ideas,
was
Baldovinetti
was
in Florence,
little
and now
in the Uflfizi.
N
>"\
x/'V
v/
-J
v'
^
318.
Alesso Baldovinetti.
65%
X54".
'{^
in;
*
T
'
v'
1:
r
1
C>
%v
^:
'
V'
^'
4
N,
\i
v)
little
loggia
Mary.
(see
In a pose derived
fig.
tall
reading
formerly in the
It is
Mary
(fig.
alia
one of the
3 1 8),
Costa
loveliest
receives Gabriel in
lifts
in
docility.
Colorplate 34.
Mj*.va'-...-^**
L-f*r.-< -,-
7"x6'
8".
;'ias.^'_.^'33j'r?r
Colorplate 35.
Sandro
Panel,
Uffizi Gallery,
Florence
left:
Alesso Baldovinetti.
319.
Nativity. 1460-62.
Fresco. Atrium,
below: 320.
Virgin
and landscape,
detail
of
fig.
319
The rose and powder blue of Mary's tunic and mantle are
reversed in the garments of the angel. Brighter tones,
show
But
the
Alesso's
all in all,
command
light.
eff"ect is soft,
Polaroid glasses.
It
should be
Madonna
of Fra
in the Ufiizi
(see
fig.
204),
The Virgin
is
seated precari-
Arno Valley
winding tributary
diminishing
in
precise
hills
light,
in
of Mary's
veil,
down
The
delicacies
should be kept
mural
in
mind
we examine
as
at the Santissima
occupied him
off"
which Andrea
knocked
out a fresco
del Castagno, let us say, could have
this size in a month. That method was all right for
Castagno, who cared little about diff"used light or about
traditional piecemeal method, by means of
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
267
right: 221.
Alesso Baldovinetti.
Annunciation. 1466-67.
Miniato, Florence
below: 322.
Head of the
Virgin,
of fig. 321
detail
who
it
followed
it.
was impossi-
had thoroughly
to paint a secco as
if
dried,
and sometimes
rains.
painting
is
is
visible.
Even
its
so, the
setting,
with the small figures, the lofty ruin and shed, the
trees,
sentials,
was the
perfect choice
when,
in 1466, the
paintings
268
is
the Annunciation
CRISIS
(fig.
321) designed to go
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
had
to ex-
The new
her, dressed,
severity of the
Annunciation
(fig.
is
more
befitting its
lily
sellino
the
Among
is St.
accessible to us
is
most
Panel, 25 x 16".
c.
London
easily
323.
whose slender
It is
humor
know how
to extricate
worked
features can
today,
is
still
posed
persists until
in the
in the past.
CRISIS
AND CROSS-CURRENTS
269
13-
At
and Prose
Science, Poetry,
still
alive.
dynamic,
is
not names)
as well,
these
its
which
jects
can
emotional
gratify
unchallenged leader in
this
The
yearnings.
movement
is
BotticeUi, but
less the
Medici
platonic philosophers.
predecessors.
The
are retold.
The foregrounds
how
its
in
terms
or
and now,
inhabitants thought
it
aim of the
exact
and
None
dif-
all
and
intelligible.
is
the
deals
history.
The
first
plant, animal,
all
of nature
between
is
man and
is
no
artist
subtly with
psychological values.
style,
title)
Ghirlandaio
and
shop
he
his
in Florence, for
On
when
characteristic of our
re-
270
The
greatest
exponent of this
SCIENCE, POETRY,
vitalistic, animistic,
AND PROSE
scriptural
can be allowed
free
324
reign.
a, b.
Antonio del Pollaiuolo. Hercules and the Hydra and Hercules and Antaeus,
Panel: a,6Y^x^y^";b,eV^X2y^". Uffizi Gallery, Florence
have exercised
this
humble
c.
1460.
Antaeus
(figs.
replicas
come
until
to light,
As
Antonio silhouettes
his
man
in serene control
pitted against
and
it
in
tail
man
mortal com-
of the many-
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
no
27I
Arno
Apuan Alps
left,
little
above.
statues
and
Verrocchio as well
consists
in the liberty
won by
the
figures to
still
determined by
figures
and
groups. PoUaiuolo's figures are not posed in a configuration; their actions, rather, determine the composition,
whose contours are those of flying legs and arms, clutching toes, noses, open mouths, even unruly curls. For the
first
is
electrified
with the
In his
(fig.
human
figure
he ex-
upon
above: 325.
right: 326.
'/s
x 23
'4".
what
less secure,
Nudes
anatomy seems some-
in
still
due in
an early
is
German
engravers, es-
The contours of Anand responevery motion of the muscles they describe. The
Schongauer and
Diirer.
since the
two central
it
figures
one
is
substantially the
left:
327.
1470s.
Fresco underdrawing.
Villa
La
Gallina, Florence
back turned
Two
swordsmen
in the
upHfted axe of a
man
behind him,
who
in turn
does not
upper
left.
superimposed
registers to indicate
suggested by ancient
foil
and pro-
As much
as the
on the faces of
Antonio's figures convey the horror of a scene which has
actions, the expressions of pain or cruelty
only medieval counterpart in the torments of Hell displayed in representations of the Last Judgment (see figs.
its
Equally unrestrained
is
painted by Antonio
presumably
La
Gallina, near
in the 1470s
on a
San Miniato, above
fig.
we can now
see
is
327
away and
human
animal.
it
London
(colorplate
34),
is
Renaissance
art.
scale composition
just seen
is
demonstrated
is
hardly a
new
is
movements:
who
St.
him
with arrows. The minute the last arrow is discharged and
the bowmen leave, the pyramid will dissolve. The painting, object
in
fill
Vasari's time
Two
he
left
that to Piero
longbowmen and
but
the six
three crossbowmen.
at their
machines,
in
tension.
among
six
men.
Antonio has turned each figure around for his counterpart on the other side of the tree, as if he had reversed a
clay model instead of the common practice of reversing
the cartoon. Sculptor that he was, he may have done
exactly that, although the flesh
looks as
stages.
if
he had living
men
is
so convincing that
it
final
size.
this
nude
crossbowman for one of the famous nude youths on the
Sistine Ceiling, but remembered it as late as the Last
Judgment for an angel hauling two souls into Heaven.
Moreover, Antonio's incisive contour, a new kind of
painting, because he not only used the pose of the
can
feel
them revolve
we
angelo.
fills
the background
above the altar in the Santissima Annunziata this landscape was well-nigh invisible. Even in the National Gallery today most of the delicacy of observation is lost.
At the upper left appears a triumphal arch, adorned with
rapidly drawn battle rehefs, and looking more hke a
ruined Renaissance fagade than like anything in
In the distance, enveloped in nature, should
lie
Rome.
Rome
From
blue-green valley.
becomes a speck
in the
luminous,
toward
329.
Undated. Panel,
274
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
us,
moves
life itself.
Antonio was interested not in the abstract shapes Baldovinetti found in nature, but only in the spontaneity of
growth, and the movement of atmosphere over
hills
and
medium
We know
nal of Portugal in
M iniato
San
Antonio used
light, distant
mound and
perhaps he used
convey the
the
that
oil
here as
soft effects
of
is
some
is
the tiny
London
(fig.
touched
in
Arno,
embracing
his prize,
whose
He
is
on the point of
moment of victory he
left
taken
root, her
down smilingly, for in another minute she will have become a laurel tree. Perhaps this picture was intended as
an allegory of the invincibility of Lorenzo de' Medici's
government^ for the laurel was his plant. But to Antonio
it
may just
the insignificance of
man and
still
330.
of a Young Woman.
x
1460s. Panel, iS'/s
^SYs"Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan
another example of
Portrait
nature.
One of
sance
(fig.
is
Antonio's head of an
one of the
way
Museum
in
Milan. This
is
which
tells the observer far more about the subject. Antonio
nonetheless still delighted in the profile, whose rigidity
yields to vibrant fife in his hands. His analytic hne responds to every nuance of shape in the face of to judge
from this portrait a refined, self-contained, and shrewd
young woman. We can follow the line with delight as it
models her delicate features almost without the aid of
give
variations of light.
By
influence in Florence
and
his
until 1493.
company
(fig.
333); she
is
The
portrait of Sixtus
any of the
dwelling with fascination on the
is
as harshly honest as
flesh. Superficially,
the
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
275
Vatican Grottoes,
Rome
below: 333.
Perspective,
Vatican Grottoes,
IV,
Rome
was as a youth the protege of an ecclesiVerrocchio. His most notable work of paint-
astic called
ing
Pollaiuolo.
made
is
the Baptism
Florence, but
of Christ
now
(fig.
334)
Church of San
an altarpiece
which
suffers
(verrocchio
refers,
276
SCIENCE, POETRY,
according to recent
AND PROSE
earlier
and
St.
life
Uccello-style,
Bony masses,
with
all
picture
is
impressive in
its
directness.
The
Baptist looks at
it is
is
lavished
nificent gilded
sell its
niche to the
moved to Santa Croce. The subnew group, probably ordered from Verrocchio
own
The Baptism
quired, as
St.
Thomas
in Donatello's niche,
334.
Baptism of Christ,
c.
470.
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
Florence
277
r:
the wound revealed by one hand, approached by another (fig. 336). Or even the space above
them, for Donatello's shell niche assumes a new meaning,
between them
that of eternal life promised by the Resurrection. Nowhere does drapery build up the figures in the manner of
the Early
Renaissance.
pockets,
it
Rather,
in
its
countless tiny
shimmering
facets of
light
free
the figures
is felt,
is
employed
identified,
tress
above: 335.
1465-83. Bronze,
lifesize.
Orsanmichele, Florence
detail
of fig. 335
Drama
278
is
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
and Piero
Gone
is
the plucked,
domeUke
is
The con(d.
1475)
sum of
ing
monk
is still
in
338.
337-
whose
tresses
and
pearls.
The
subject's hair
drawn
is
veils
to the sides,
and allowed to
left broad and
costume
is
is
not a pearl to
be seen. With her large and graceful hands the lady holds
to her breast a small
the
is
in a
When commissioned
bronze David, probably in the early 1470s, the practicalminded Verrocchio clothed the angular boyish figure in
leather jerkin
and
fig.
nudity
244),
and
49%
"
Bargello, Florence
bronze. This
^W!
(fig.
the
339).
Leopardi deprived
if
one comes upon it, crossing the little bridge into the
Campo San Zanipolo, is stupendous (fig. 340).
In keeping with the new interests of his period and the
stylistic current to which he belonged, Verrocchio has
abandoned Donatello's static concept of the equestrian
monument
This
is
now
mands surrounding
space.
ed)ove
and right:
339, 340.
Bartolommeo
Monument of
Colleoni.
Bronze, height
Campo
c.
1481-96.
c. 13'.
Venice
horse's
cannon
ball
effect
left
foreleg steps
of Donatello's
drawn
The
freely,
is
in (fig. 341).
341-
Head of horse,
detail of
fig.
342.
339
Head of Colleoni,
detail
of fig. 339
jaws clenched
nakedly evident in
SANDRO BOTTICELLI.
Sandro
is
Botticelli (1445-1510).
twentieth-century
list
Moreover,
in
any
mask
drawn over
in
his personality in
his
style.
understanding of
mony
who
patronized Botticelli
Botticelli,
repeat the
brother, and
Botticello,"
and indeed
his form,
and Piero
of his
gentleness,
Sistine
(fig.
354).
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
28I
Botticelli
He
training.
Lippi (they
became so
wayward monk
younger son Filippino). At least the shadow of Masaccio's mantle, tfierefore, descends on Botticelli; certainly
he knew the tradition, and from the very man who
had watched Masaccio .paint. Later Botticelli was
active in the shop of Verrocchio, along with the younger
Leonardo da
Vinci,
and
his
knowledge of the
scientific
all
brothers,
one
least
project.
whom
with
own
His
he collaborated on at
therefore,
style,
despite
style,
two apparently
to this
One
trivial
is
own
anti-atmos-
from the
start,
events give us
neighbor
some
insight.
Ves-
the
is
which the Medici took part, and to its religious significance must be added a certain political ingredient as
in
well.
of the interest of
uity,
Botticelli
first
appear
in
by
critics as
and others
why
us
tell
examples
in classical antiq-
grandiose ancient
in
other
subjects,
from the
who owned
the house
dream might
return.
(colorplate 35),
Magi in this
Cosimo, who had died
as the
Company
is
before the
perhaps identifiable
first
circumstance: the
first
Magus holds
utilizes a veil
body
The Adoration
of the Magi was, of course, the first occasion when the
body of Christ was shown to the Gentiles. At the feast
of Corpus Christi the Sacrament was carried in solemn
procession from Santa Maria Novella, past the very
altar on which Botticelli's painting was to be placed, to
its foot
282
SCIENCE, POETRY,
faithful.
AND PROSE
of the
and only
of arches at the
line
New Law,
recall
left
Santa
So
cracks
and
very corner
in this
in the stones,
move
at the right
in flawless
is
The ghostly
real.
sionality.
when
it
seems
is
fragmentary,
real, its
very reality
and Piero the Gouty, Cosimo's sons, but little resembling their known portraits. The youth at the extreme left,
a
C
<u
E
>;
i-i
13
O
'n
O
X
>
c
OS
oo
to
oq
o
H
b
CQ
O
oi
Q
Z
<
l-c
"o
c.
1485-90. Panel.
6'
10"
6' 5".
left:
343.
Sandro
Botticelli.
Florence
below: 344.
Sandro Botticelli.
Self-portrait, detail
oi Adoration of the
Magi
embraced by a friend as he listens to the words of a somewhat older mentor who points to the sacred figures, may
be Lorenzo. At the right (fig. 343), a bouquet of faces
turn and twist in delicate formal and spatial interchanges,
until reaching a dark-haired youth gazing downward,
who strongly resembles in profile the portraits of Giuliano, Lorenzo's brother. The folds of the cloaks worn by
all the figures move in linear variations toward the central
delicately illuminated
and foreshortened from above, below, behind radiates
group.
From some of
the faces
down
most
distant, are projected with equal sharpness by means of
sculptural contours and incisive light, yet none of the
they contemplate the miracle. All,
to the
(fig.
in the characteristic
ally
manner of a
self-portrait,
has gener-
commonplace
mouth with
and the heavy chin are pervaded by an expression blending keen intelligence and deliberate withdrawal. It is not hard to believe that the sensitive and
melancholy Botticelli looked Uke this at about twentyopen
lips,
seven.
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
285
345-
27%
X41''.
left. Its
great
fig.
212),
beams
broken only
Old
Botticelli
recall the
St. Peter's.
picture,
on a
line
Madon-
and we along
with them, are excluded from the scene by the entire
width of the grassy lawn, which we instinctively attempt
na. All the other worshipers, therefore,
to traverse in order to
come
right.
perspective
cameo
eflFects.
Considering the
it is
hypo-
Vinci (see
fig.
465). In
may
other's
compositions. They
them, as
land-
scape.
right.
286
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
which the grooms are having some difficuhy restrainis common to both pictures,
although more tempestuous in the work by Leonardo
in
behind Minerva
tranquil sea
The
lies
on which
a ship
full
of people.
was
who,
claimed
it
characteristic of Botticelli's
point of view,
still
scientific
or quasi-
beautiful,
ment of the
provide a
foil for
group of worshipers.
Like Pollaiuolo, Botticelli was called upon to paint
the mythological subjects fashionable at the court of
Lorenzo and
of the Florentine
my-
semblance
is
the halberd
The
cruciform shape
is
evident. Botticelli
The god-
toward
According to recent investigations, Ficino taught that Minerva,
goddess of reason, appealed to the head (she herself had
sprung from the head of Jove), that is, to the intellect, the
highest of human faculties. The animal part of the cendess,
almost
life-size,
a cringing centaur
advances with
infinite grace
human
its
is
often
known
Pallas.
346.
Sandro
'/a
x 58 14".
Florence
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
287
men
to
way of
life
artificial,
prevailing in the
hnear
style
life
and
life
scale,
without
much
meaning
subjects. Botticelli's
ample,
is
(fig.
outstanding in strength
trine aspect, as
.
we
watching from
sextile
or
malignance
Mars never
visual
as:
in opposition to him, or
masters Venus.
Mars
him.
power
on a grand
wasps").
literature
because he makes
Quattrocento
ly relevant is
tion of
human
Mars
"little
classical
come from
means
repentance.
Botticelli's
neighbors
compHment
enchantress Venus.
antiquity.
Like
many
ment of
slight evidence,
poem La giostra,
347.
288
Sandro
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
c.
in the
its
meaning,
scene
is
(fig.
348)
we
The
fruit
fill
the upper
if in
benediction.
At
1475. Panel, 27 14
hand
raised
nymph
above: 348.
Sandro
Botticelli. Primavera.
c.
Florence
from whose mouth issue flowers as she is transformed (according to recent discoveries) into Flora,
goddess of Spring. Next we see her fully metamorphosed,
strewing flowers from her flower-embroidered garment
upon the already flowering grass. On the left Mercury
points idly with his caduceus at tiny clouds which drift
among the golden fruit. Next to him the Three Graces
dance in a ring; above, the blindfold Cupid shoots blazing golden arrows in their direction. The saintly lady in
the center, so much like one of Botticelli's Madonnas
(her pose has been compared with that of the Virgin in
Chloris,
The
for
Lorenzo
to the
and
fig.
318),
the Centaur,
is
Venus.
was painted
second cousin
the Magnificent,
and hung
recommending
to
the
Venus:
Venus, that
is
is
nymph
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
289
and Magnanimity, the hands Liberahty and Magnificence, the feet Comeliness and Modesty. The
whole, then, is Temperance and Honesty, Charm
and Splendor. Oh, what exquisite beauty!
My
dear Lorenzo, a nymph of such nobility has been
wholly given into your hands If you were to unite
with her in wedlock and claim her as yours she would
make all your years sweet.
.
we cannot go wrong
we regard the Graces as emanations of Venus, embodying the beauties she creates. The
late Roman poet Apuleius, in a book famihar to the
Renaissance, described a pantomime in which Venus
if
side,
shown nude or
in transparent garments,
One
dancing
350.
forth again.
suggested,
Under
may be
it
of Venus
is
The
detail of Birth
aside
from
his
innumerable duties
which
included
Venus wished
which miraculously separates the foreground from the background in the San Romano panels
(see fig. 261) of Paolo Uccello (although oranges cannot
be raised in the Arno Valley), has escaped comment.
As we have
seen,
To
the
last
similar to that
have
Medici
The entanglements of
reviving antiquity
Lorenzo the Magnificent. Mercury's beautiful rosecolored chlamys is strewn with golden flames, and
these, it has been shown, are a proper attribute of
Mercury. But such flames belong equally to St. Lawrence
(Lorenzo), and embroider his vestments in Fra Angelico's
San Marco altarpiece (see fig. 212), done for Cosimo
de' Medici, and many other representations; the meteor
showers that descend on the earth in August each year
are known in Italy as "fires of St. Lawrence" because
Nor
is
this attribute
gown
is
row of golden
flames,
290
Around her a
thicket of
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
transcended
leaves
it
embodiment, and
in poetic elevation.
fruit
at the
same time
move with a
however
it
describes. In his
hands
line
is
no edge
firm,
visible.
oped
We
style
is
veiled in atmosphere,
all
masses
no brushwork
in Botticelli's devel-
tilted
the axis of the eyes slopes at a stronger rate than the rest
may be more of
its
a persistent man-
by Vasari
in the
from the right and the wind gods blow from the
in the Primavera the directions are reversed. Prob-
birth of
(fig.
346).
drawn
air
The
flat,
is
height-
same room, which had its principal source of illumination from one side and ventilation from the other.
Although this picture really does correspond to a passage
in Poliziano's
La
giostra,
it
(fig.
for
who
Cosimo
so ostentatiously,
We know
is
is
subject's
left
hand, the
tilt
of
the medal opposite to that of the axis of the eyes, and the
right.
The
351.
Sandro
Botticelli. Young
1470s
(?).
Panel, 2254
Uffizi Gallery,
Man
x
with a Medal.
nW.
Florence
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
29I
right: 352.
Sandro
Botticelli.
below: 353.
Rome
Head of an
detail of fig.
African,
352
papacy
It
was
has
be called to
Rome
in 1481, together
with his
fellow-Florentines
292
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
artist
all
of them
stayed on the
left:
Sandro
354.
Botticelli.
Punishment of Korah,
Dathan, and Abiram. 1481-82.
Fresco. Sistine Chapel,
Vatican,
below: 355.
detail
both of
whom
were
Head of Moses,
of fig. 354
later
Rome
Sharp discrepan-
style.
down
to
make way
for
which
is
by a
as architecture
killing the
drives
away
who were
molesting Jethro's
Israelites
left,
represented three
more times,
first
is
Botticelli's
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
293
Abiram
(only
two
figures are
shown
the
first
may
356.
Sandro
Mid-i48os. Panel,
11'
2"x8'
10".
history.
Sinai
Jerome balked at
anyone who antedated Christ. The
attributing light to
also
throughout Christian
art
horns. In
St.
be rendered "horns," so
Moses
is
represented^ with
word "rays"
a compromise
Commandments.
The experience of ancient Rome undoubtedly had its
effect on Botticelli's style. The paintings which seem to
have been done after his return to Florence in 1482 (the
Washington Adoration, fig. 345; the Birth of Venus,
colorplate 36; Pallas and the Centaur, fig. 346) speak a
simpler formal language than do the earlier works. We
the
Some
the
make themselves
Enthroned Madonna with Saints (fig.
of these elements
as early as
felt
356),
an
altar-
its
and textiles, as to produce the effect of a carved and polychromed relief. Delicate variations from exact symmetry
are the only factors which disturb the almost Byzantine
rigidity
John the
Baptist,
painted
Pazzi and
now
room
The event
294
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
tions
19),
by Donatello (see
and Baldovinetti
caught
in
fig.
(see
a rushing wind.
242),
fig.
The
architectural lines,
and deaf
Savonarola,
sermons of the
who came
fiery
monk Girolamo
Sandro
357.
Panel, 59
create
x 61
Florence
finally
letter
toward a
common
judgment
les'
gibbet.
la's
enough
ly visited
have to be trapezoidal
The
lateral piers
in plan.
is
Botticelli's
illustrated
flicting
podium and
we
stand, with
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
295
358.
Sandro
Botticelli.
X 36'.
Uffizi Gallery,
Florence
The
surfaces
and no
clear-cut masses.
Not only
first
the second
are cut
off'
by the
penetrated by niches.
and
359.
Sandro
fig.
270).
Botticelli.
Alte Pinakothek,
296
Munich
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
More
right,
pose of
reliefs
the piers
rest.
Even
on which
reliefs.
Within
frenzied
that
rendered with
out on the
it is
all Botticelli's
formidable
skill in
(fig.
352),
Calumny
and Truth
is
recall
an obvious
of the 1520s,
in Florentine painting
is
strikingly pre-
style. It
most extrava-
memory
of Savonarola
whose
the
more
is
rendered
Dominican habit in
Yet no one seems to think the
In 1500 there
it is
comes a relaxation
in Botticelli's style, in
tion.
London
360.
Canvas,
At the top
is
This picture
I,
trodden underfoot as in
this picture.
extremely
difficult to interpret, as
after the
is
in other
not hard to
of Cesare Borgia
in
a ring, the
The embrace of
is stilled
SCIENCE, POETRY,
at last.
AND PROSE
297
is
many of its
practitioners are
still
living,
who
we
are painfully
appeal
is
timeless.
FiLiPPiNO LiPPi.
The fourth
unfair
is
because
Filippino
was a splendid
artist in his
own
right
start
in Botticelli's
shop
was enjoying
first
at the very
Lippi, accompanied
him
from
that master
Fra Fihppo
his father,
until
in
of years, perhaps
1
was
called to
1469,
number
Rome
in
Masaccio had
unfinished
left
in the
(fig.
361)
which
and poetic resources of
Filippino's style. Nonetheless, the influence of the young
Leonardo da Vinci, who had left Florence for Milan in
1483, can be felt in all Filippino's works of this period, in
which he abandoned the resolute Unear clarity of Botticelli for the soft sfumato (smoky) manner of Leonardo.
Another very prominent element in the Corsini tondo is
derived from Leonardo the mysterious landscape in the
background, toward which the perspective of the Virgin's
palace moves. A seaport with towers, breakwaters, and a
lighthouse is enclosed by jagged mountains, suggesting
the distant Apuan Alps which can be seen from Florence
against the sunset on a clear evening. A similar port scene
with the same fantastic elements appears in the background of Leonardo's Annunciation (see fig. 463). On the
displays to the full the artistic
left
many
The
star
is
hers by
and
down
the
long perspective,
of
St.
John the
silhouetted
against
the
harbor.
In the foreground, before a richly decorated niche
stands the
361. Filippino Lippi. Virgin
c.
298
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
Child.
Two
tall
362.
8'
Panel: center,
if
in
sfumato and
veils
soft edges
is
trait that
Filippino
A flow
of tone
which
will
appear
in the paintings
of Michel-
whom
the
work of Filippino
the
greens, violets
in the often
diaphanous drapery.
And
new personal
hillside
of a sad delicacy
a hole in the rocks just above his head can be seen a demon
must recognize a
style, full
shimmering
and poetic
in feeling,
The extreme
in tone.
gnawing
is
at
its
strongest in the
by a huge owl.
trees,
and
VisioTt
whether
much
it is
to be
attention to
it).
doubted
Filippino
Cosimo
de'
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
299
right: 363.
FlLIPPINO LiPPI.
Maria Novella,
Florence
below: 364.
Group offigures,
detail
of fig. 363
them
drapery surfaces
first
to
fig.
307),
Rome
for
many
of Filippino's later
300
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
Colorplate 38.
Shepherds. 1485-
Colorplate 39.
a Child,
c.
1480.
St. Philip
Mars and
the priest of
dead.
fell
subsequent
incipient nausea,
the
frame for the picture, united in fact with the screen architecture in which he clothed the entire chapel. The
ally consisted
and other
lion's feet,
first
Roman
vault.
amples,
if
not the
first,
into
entire wall or
one of the
first
ex-
Maria Novella.
On
a huge exedra
The
ledges above
By such
sance
is
renounced
even though
by an
was
classified
in
1494 as
what
is
much
it
may
hand.
On
soldiers,
tume
either
side
power of
stand
Philip's lifted
St.
priests,
courtiers,
and
364).
All shape
Despite differences of
One
and
It is
much
(fig.
Botticelli, to
new
achieve a
months
human
vision of
after
the
destiny.
fig.
487), the
like
rest in the
it
of Mannerism, a style
Filippino's introspection
Santissima
for this
very
was
evaporation of
was
to paint
first
and expressiveness.
Quattrocento
like a living
caresses
individual elements
artist
altar,
of Mars.
is
architecture of Santa
ornament
pilasters, or
enframement
its
is,
and
Filippino's
was
woven
It
figures
utmost
little
v/ith the
all
faces are
ends
in a career
the
del
p. 593),
Ghirlandaio and
The
of
Botticelli to
Lorenzo
di Pierfrancesco
SCIENCE, POETRY,
and
his friends.
AND PROSE
303
knew what he
much fierce
earliest
throughout
tion
subsequent fate
was
cento
century
is
instructive.
rediscovered
critics,
in
When
the Quattro-
by
ninetfeenth-
earnest
view of the
ne\'er quite
glance in
Then came
cesca.
the revolution of
"Form"
in the
wake
Ghirlandaio
new
fell
shown
at
He had the
and most consistent color sense of any Florentine
painter of his day; he was closely familiar with the
achievements of his contemporaries in the field of
architecture and was thus able to compose figures and
architectural spaces into a complex unity beyond that
achieved by Quattrocento painters anywhere in Italy and
should guarantee him a permanent position.
freshest
finally, in his
an unsurpassed delicacy
in the analysis
of character.
whom
remained
permanently
Filippino.
The
mark
his rapid
remote
absorbed some of
from
Botticelli
and
last
work
fast
enough
to satisfy the
life
in fact
demand.
in
The
table
is
situated in an upper
room with
a view over
underrated.
Nor
life
of the Apostles
is
not to be
is
and dra-
pery.
Domenico and
Rome
called to
his brother
in 1477.
(fig.
366).
formed by an enormous
Garda
in
The space of
the fresco
is
suggestive of Lake
stretching into the luminous
glacial lake
northern Italy
remains
cliffs,
walled
in the stern
cities,
365.
304
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
366.
foreground
is
Masaccio's Tribute
Money
Rome
St. Peter,
The chapel
in
Francis,
shows Ghirlandaio
He
life
of
St.
ment.
367.
apparently cared
little
DOMENICO
DEL Ghirlandaio.
Miracle of
the Spini Child.
1483-86. Fresco.
Sassetti Chapel,
Sta. Trinita,
Florence
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
305
368.
DoMEMCO
DEL GhIRLANDAIO.
Funeral of St. Francis.
1483-86. Fresco. Sassetti
floor,
background, to the
left,
the
little
{fig.
boy can be
Spini, but in
is
from
fig.
210),
which then
still
was
like in his
own
day.
On
the
left rises
is
the
Roman-
and
in
Assisi
is
wound
feet or
gently
hands and
is
whose
stood
in the
away from
the
Noblest of all
is
the rendering
monks
Ghirlandaio's masterpiece
is
The kneehng
the distance one can see the Ponte a Santa Trinita, lined
crowd
at the right
fig.
722).
Among
the
us.
(fig.
368).
of
Ghirlandaio has
whose forms
of Giuliano
306
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
its
cornice.
Two elegant
Pompey
man
antiquity.
Around
comes
tri-
altarpiece
(fig.
362).
Filippino, Ghir-
much
come
monumentality.
new
filling
ality
The
full
of
St.
all
his
absorption
in
and
harmony,
and
tonal
Anne
reclines calmly
dam1490.
in
was done for the wealthy Giovanni Tornabuoni, a relative by marriage of the Medici, and Ghirlandaio was under such pressure that he enlisted his whole
shop in the undertaking, including possibly the thirteenyear-old Michelangelo Buonarroti. On one side the
frescoes narrate the life of Mary, on the other that of St.
on a bed
Roman
child
is
that
is
(fig.
surrounded by
The
name and
his
nickname.
ren-
of course,
369.
of Ghirlandaio's
was
tiniest detail
series
brilliant
The
career, supported
and
of frescoes
in
is
as the honesty
series
scenes,
artist is a Florentine,
compositional
dis-
his shepherds,
For
Baptist.
its
John the
details,
An
(fig.
is
seen in
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
3O7
370.
Innocents. 1485-90.
Ghirlandaio used
by Roman battle scenes, especially the Trajanic reliefs on the Arch of Constantine.
The mothers clutch their babies, and the ground is
httered with the bodies and severed heads of little
children. While the details are unequal in quality, some
passages show great power, foretelling in the violence of
their movements the battle scenes of the early Cinque-
Louvre
was
certainly influenced
the
that
it
honesty of
Our
made with
man with
loses
its
The
deformed
nose would seem to be easily traceable. There exists
a drawing of the old man on his deathbed (once in
Vasari's collection; now in Stockholm), and probably
subject has never been identified, although the
SCIENCE, POETRY,
AND PROSE
of the
appear
distant landscape;
bility
The
and
inflexi-
all
drawing.
five
arts,
its
rigidity
artist's
a child,
in the painting
detail, studied
cento.
308
here
drawing
this
real
century found
ning,
and
to
it
a blind
necessary to
move
entire
The new
new begin-
alley, in fact.
make an
it is
The Renaissance
14-
that the
felt
sance.
in
obliged
common
towns had
Italian
little
Florentines.
Florence
ly at
whose
territorial
protecting the
the sea
they
fell
Arno
Valley,
from
its
headwaters to
some of
There
Cen-
in Central Italy
is,
Jacopo della
if
fig.
artists.
Donatello returned
finest late
work
in the
for Siena,
way save
figs.
230, 231).
4),
merly
By
linked
Siena
with
its
Trecento
confidant,
close to nature.
villas
still
slopes
visited in state
III.
by the emperors
is
artists perspec-
tive
and greater heights that ring Florence seem constricting. Without the aid of Florentine science
by sympathetic vibration, so to speak, with the world around
them Sienese painters made certain discoveries about
art, particularly about landscape, which were denied to
the more systematic Florentines. In the tedium of his
country town in Tuscany, even Piero della Francesca
found much to learn from the Sienese.
SASSETTA.
cento, Sassetta,
who came
to Sansepolcro in
1437 to
309
'
illustrating
in the
276). Stefano di
for
Giovanni
(c.
fig.
major work. It was freestanding; the front showed the Enthroned Madonna and
Child (recently discovered in France and now in the
Louvre), between four saints in four separate panels.
Two of these were later arranged to flank the St. Francis
Sansepolcro altarpiece
in
is
his
which
in the
National Gallery
Musee Conde at
panels, on whose
versal agreement,
seums and
To
its
of
in
St.
1934,
London;
St. Francis,
Francis, were
the eighth
(fig.
is
in the
371). Smaller
no uni-
is
other
in still
mu-
In
in
life
Chantilly in France
who have
all
accompanied the
stood
original position
was intended
monks' choir,
Berenson
it
to decorate for
Christ at San
Marco
(see
fig.
and accompanied by a
rectangular press.
Virtues,
shown
with her
lily.
woman
dressed
Above
in
black
money bag
in
as three dainty
Poverty dressed
in rags,
and,
in the center,
St.
Francis'
appear
in
perfect accord.
of the nose for the center of the face. But a circle described
from
this point
circle
of the
and of this the forehead and hair fall short, apparently a device to indicate that they were tilted back. When
we approach more closely we fall under the spell of the
old Sienese linearism: what appear to be wrinkles in
the saint's forehead, temples, and cheeks are drawn as
artificially parallel curves, moving in elliptical, parabolic,
halo,
Around
effect.
composed of red
371. Sassetta.
310
away from
the gold
eff'ect
ture.
It is
true that
many echoes
affinity
luminated figure
Florence.
in the smaller scenes Sassetta gives free rein to his
(fig.
371),
first
among distant
ranges
in
own aura
the evening
air.
No
com-
The Pact
with the
Wolf of Gubbio
(fig.
paw of
372) shows
Wolf of Gubbio,
from the Sansepolcro altarpiece. 1437-44.
Panel, 20 1/2 X34y8"- National Gallery, London
St.
a fearsome wolf,
the city gate, which looks like one of those in Siena (Sassetta
sits
a notary,
seven-
in the
teenth century.
holding the pact ready for the wolf's signature. The authorities of the
is
Most
cranes
striking of
in
all,
formation high
in
of
Di PAOLO.
The slcndcr figures, pinched feaand button eyes so charming in Sassetta's paintings
are reduced to the point of caricature by his prolific contemporary, Giovanni di Paolo (14037-83). We do not
know which of the two was the older. There was a Giovanni di Paolo born in 1403, but hundreds of people must
GIOVANNI
tures,
Our
artist
in
was painting
Siena
in
in the early
1420
not
Quattrocento.
impossible for a
he painted enough to
at Siena, not to
the
fill
used to the
artist's
up
in
THE RENAISSANCE
IN
CENTRAL ITALY
3II
(fig.
little St.
374.
Giovanni
di
and wilder
as he
it
color
Giovanni had already seen Uccello's Battle of San Ropanels (colorplate 23; fig. 261). In the background
mano
which alternate
prototype?)
1
in
460S.
di Paolo and
magpie borrowings are abundantly visible in the
panels of the life of St. John the Baptist, which he painted for a still-unknown purpose at some time around the
his
312
by Lorenzo
vivid effect
fig.
Monaco
124).
opening years
in the
sep-
arated by no more
producing the effect of a sudden and disconcerting
change in scale and in hindscape character as the eye
moves up the
DOMENico
figure,
panel.
Di
but the
A somcwhat
BARTOLO.
first
Sienese painter
attractive
less
whose
relation to the
The
elements
is
Domenico
influence of Masaccio
ico's
Madonna of Humility
in Siena,
is
di
1400-1447).
(c.
very apparent
(fig.
probably, judging by
Bartolo
375)
its
in
modest
The representation of
is
Domen-
in
the Pinacoteca
size,
painted
the
Madon-
a Sienese invention
it
in
or so later (see
figs.
we can
mentally reconstruct, on the basis of Domenico's picture, the lost early style
surrounded by a
clear,
375.
largely
Domenico
di
The Christ
is
traits
silvery quality
of so
much
of
is
crustations that
it
architecture in
some
so cut
(fig.
376).
In their
tine
topical
paintings
window views
all
their
In
life.
Duomo,
away
at the
opposite
The arched frames are determined by the Gothic vaulting above. Through them we look, as through windows,
straight into the fifteenth century. The perspectives are
Ghirlandaio
decorations
fact,
still
in
corner of the
in the
1480s (see
figs.
THE RENAISSANCE
IN
and
free disposition
among
in
Ghirlandaio's
CENTRAL ITALY
313
DoMENico Di Bartolo.
Care of the Sick. 1440-47.
376.
Fresco. Pellegrinaio,
Hospital of
Maria
Sta.
della Scala,
Siena
earliest
chance to
visit
may
well have
in
had a
its
Domenico
The sick man being placed in bed at the exand the wounded man next to him being
washed must rank among the most convincing figure
nude
figure.
treme
left,
MATTEO
DI GIOVANNI.
The
who
314
them
One
He was certainly brought up in Siena, howand by the 1470s maintained a very productive shop
there. His brilliant St. Barbara altarpiece (signed and
dated 1479; fig. 377) for the Church of San Domenico in
Siena is an excellent example of his highly personal style.
The richly dressed saint is seated on a throne which, for
all its parade of Florentine Renaissance pilasters, moldings, balusters, consoles, and the like, is not fundamentally dissimilar to those of the Madonnas of Duccio and
Simone Martini (see figs. 87, 92). The tooled gold background, of course, persists in Siena throughout the Quattrocento. St. Barbara holds her martyr's palm between
thumb and forefinger with a gesture of supreme nonchalance, as she props on her lap the tower in which she
was imprisoned. Through the open door we can just
discern a chalice and a Host. Two long-haired blond
angels play a viol and a lute on either side of her throne,
while two more angels float above her, poising a crown
been born.
ever,
On
one side St. Catherine of Alexandria studies a book, on the other St. Mary Magdalen
holds her jar of ointment. While the drapery folds look
as
if
in plaster
all
ster:
saintliness,
is
is
mon-
on the arm of
his throne.
From
the stair
rail
beyond a
Duomo.
It
moment
is
due
to the
mas-
southern Italy
in the
if
shown some
many
if
he
jects.
Siena
is
fairly typical.
in
Rome.
strong,
Herod's
It will
be
left
Herod's
hall
above:
Matteo
St.
di
2tll-
Giovanni.
Barbara altarpiece.
1479. Panel.
S.
Domenico, Siena
left:
Matteo
di
378.
Giovanni.
Agostino, Siena
FRANCESCO
GIORGIO.
DI
farious Florentines,
two
who
was Francesco
arts,
well at three.
cento
artist
He
Giorgio
di
was, in
fact, the
439
502),
who did
in
worked
which
at the courts
latter
metropolis
by Leonardo da Vinci.
Of his numerous
(fig.
379)
now
in
is
paintings one of
Francesco
in
paneled
veined marble.
on
it is
this subject
probably
painted by
monastery of
Monteoliveto Maggiore, situated in wildly eroded country a score or so of miles from Siena. The spatial composition of the towering altarpiece is difficult but by no means
impossible to unravel. A marble floor recedes to a flight
of steps which ends in a wall articulated by pilasters and
in
1471
The
floor
all
of
Above
Mary
first,
God
primum mobile
as described by Dante.
Around
379-
Francesco
love).
However
well Francesco
age perspective
almost renounced
metal
grille,
Of
light.
all
children watch the slaughter with open dethe lifelike faces in the group, the head of a
because he pauses
the spectator, with
Can
portrait.
holocaust
this
in his
all
column
is
at
in his
lated,
The
little
in
weapon penetrate a
316
is
unreal,
child,
and intended
through the
to be so.
For
THE RENAISSANCE
IN
CENTRAL ITALY
is
in his architectural
it
in this
able to
man-
backgrounds, he has
in-
and
Duccio's Maesta,
is that of an abstract schema like
which nobody in Siena ever quite forgot (see fig. 87). The
mournful faces and staring eyes are as characteristic of
Francesco's paintings as
is
in the interior
San Benedetto
a Nativity,
is
in
now
Siena
in the
Francesco painted
itself,
Pinacoteca
in
Siena
(fig.
in
1475
380). This
Florence. Verrocchio's
in
and consistent
in
Siena has
way to a measured Baldovinettian landscape background of fields, roads, a lake, a distant city, hills moving
off in an orderly manner toward a horizon in its proper
place. Ghirlandaio could not have done it better. Yet
some will look with nostalgia on the more insular and
given
forever,
and
in
sway
it
movement remains
linear
to
380.
pRANCtsco
Panel,
5'
6" x
Di
3' 8".
Pinacoteca, Siena
Giorgio.
The extraordinary
by the
the
233).
its
left
is
The tormented
pose of Christ, with His head thrown back and His legs
bent, and the yelling executioner moving at the limit of
his powers, suggest the wild poses
and expressions of
381.
Francesco
Bronze, 22 x
DI
16". Galleria
left:
382.
Maria
del Calcinaio,
Cortona
up later by
Raphael and by Andrea del Sarto. Altogether the relief
is an extraordinary piece of work, in conception and exsteps are a compositional device picked
ecution;
its
lies in its
abrupt jumps
is
and other
Francesco
itself
cities,
story),
is
later to
often
Roman
are, rather,
own
Prato (see
fig.
Maria
delle Carceri
upon
Bramante,
Raphael,
up by
Some
318
Francesco
di Giorgio's
in the 1480s.
St.
80%
1437-44. Panel,
u
E
o
aC
>
15
a
03
-C
U
C
C/3
d
o
CO
u
00
^
CO
o
z
o
o
oi
u
Colorplate 42. Pintoricchio. Departure of Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini for Basel. 1503Fresco. Piccolomini Library, Cathedral, Siena
Colorplate 43.
Melozzo da
Rome
completed
until 1515,
seem
to
have pro-
in
the entrance.
The
of proportions
flexibility
is
order
from
made
nades. His
vault
(fig.
is
tion of each
as a
mere
pilaster
strip,
is flat
preserved in Italy, stands on the top of a nearmountain, dominating a considerable section of modern
still
Umbria and southern Tuscany. Although the city emnumber of splendid buildings, and
although the most important Roman, Florentine, and
Sienese painters worked at nearby Assisi, Perugia did
bellished itself with a
not
may
activity of
in
nave
which
windows,
identical inside
all
attention
is
directed.
The tabernacle
their sharply
One
of the
fig.
593).
The four
first
aissance style
Florence
to speak of the
His delicate
flat,
not
art.
is
town)
ments of Florentine
the
Its finest
in
the Trecento.
early 1450s
in
work of sculpture before the Quattrocento was the Fontana Maggiore, the
great fountain carved by Nicola Pisano and his assistants.
But in the 1430s the presence of Domenico Veneziano in
person, and of a notable altarpiece by Fra Angelico (who
Dugento or
little
who
heritage of
reflect
and
The tabernacles
fore, operate as
independent sculptural
entities, active
The
dome is octagonal, supported on a peculiar compromise
between Renaissance pendentives and Romanesque
385.
Benedetto Bonfigli.
Nativity.
Undated.
Tatti, Florence
drum, a de-
of
all
in
more
in his
theoretical
in-
PERUGIA.
little
known, having lapsed with the dissolution of the Roman Empire. In ancient times Perugia was an important Etruscan center, and belonged to Etruria. In the
Middle Ages the communal government asserted itself
against the Duchy of Spoleto, and in the Renaissance
Perugia came under the control of the Baglioni family
while owing ultimate allegiance to the papacy. In the
rhymed chronicle by Giovanni Santi, the father of Raphael, dating from 1478, Perugia is in Etruria (Tuscany).
The designation "Umbrian" for Perugia is therefore
avoided in
this
book.
323
back into flamelike mountains, resembling those that appear in the predella panels from the St. Lucy altarpiece
(colorplate 25) and those in the Adoration of the Magi
(see
fig.
pears at
264).
its
The refinement of
Bonfigli's
its
drawing ap-
linear patterns
reproduction)
difficult to see in
is
the
way
in
which the
little
was an
atheist)
and tended
ter
unknown
gold background.
in
(c.
born
Pieve but
Perugino ("Perugian").
from
artistic
445-1 523),
He
it
is
had a hand
in the
Where Perugino
may
be said to have
where he
Luke.
and
and
is
painted
listed as a
),
The leading
PERUGINO.
before his
member
of the
in
is
Florence,
Company
of
St.
to
Rome in
48
atively
frescoes
good
taste
willing to
and
common
work together
from the
of the success of
tive style,
although not
all
mirable.
moment when
Christ
is
founded on the rock of St. Peter. It is flanked by triumphal arches, modeled on that of Constantine but with
a few added and not-too-classical embellishments, including three candlesticks on each arch, which together
com-
inscriptions that
shown
Who
is
is
in
which
Caesar's"
The all-embracing perspective of the piazza is constructed more or less according to Alberti's system,
although with larger squares than those he recommended.
It
recalls,
in
fact,
466), a
painters
Verrocchio.
temporary portraits
386)
(fig.
is
Yet the
effect
of the fresco
324
Rome
word
Perugino's composition
tial
is
is
The
we contemplate
..Ill
,,,,,,,,,,,,
'
>
II
'
'>H
>
>
'
'
>
i,
387. Perugino. Crucifixion with Saints. Before 1481. Panel, transferred to canvas: center, 40x221/^";
laterals,
each
37I/2
12".
by architecture. Perugino allows the eye to wander freely through his piazza, filled
with little but sunlight and air, and open at the sides so
frame
itself,
by
figures, or
that
No
even contemplated
Renaissance;
in the
would have
it
in
But
in
Perugino's painting
it
bad weather
in
if
intolerable.
the spectator
mo-
of his
is
the hallmark
style.
one
tilted,
upward
growth of a plant. Raphael was to adopt this Sshaped figure principle from Perugino, and it was to survive, in altered and spatially enriched form, to the very
like the
last
phases of his
art.
brian"
art,
may
in fact
is
really the
anywhere
in
rate,
an open space,
is
more
intuitively per-
do those
The simple grace of
their stance makes their drapery flow more smoothly, and
in
consequence a
soft
in the chapel.
One
Washington
(fig.
gino's activity in
THE RENAISSANCE
IN
CENTRAL ITALY
325
in
the ab-
looks downward,
Mary
made
artist
could
sky.
feel.
Nature
is
This
teau
is
the upper
in
Arno
Pratomagno,
of Pian
di Sco.
little
town
He
and
exploited to the
full
much
as he did, for
portraitist,
and
in this re-
(fig.
388) in the
is
and the
Uffizi
figs.
494,
a typical Neth-
DEUM
is
work of Raphael,
for the
is
still
at Pavia,
unfinished in 1499.
commissioned
The
three central
are
recumbent Satan
in front
of
388.
326
Michael,
and the
dog in front of Tobias the effect is still one of calm
repose. Joseph is absent, yet the presence of Mary,
the Christ Child, and a great sack in an open landscape
was doubtless intended to suggest the Flight into Egypt,
and the Rest on the Flight was a common subject
in the Netherlands at this time. The sacred figures are
guarded by St. Michael, dressed in armor of glittering
steel and bearing a marshal's baton; on the other side
stands Tobias, holding the fish which was the object of
Panel, 20
St.
sits,
Raphael, to
fish
whom
was supposed
Tobit). Tobias,
it
liver
of the
commissioned by mercantile
families sending a young son to work in a branch office in
another city, and possibly the entire altarpiece was
destined for an altar at which travelers prayed for divine
protection. Though the facial types are by now fully
standardized, the heads are drawn and painted with the
subject
for
altarpieces
its
It is
no won-
possible
to
in
Madonnas
PiNTORiccHio.
The
last
to posterity by his
is,
in
1499.
pare
c.
London
(c.
1454-1513),
known
charm
between
artist's
his fresco
and
His masterpiece
is
to the frescoed
III,
by the
series financed
The
long,
narrow room,
in
327
11
Domenico
lusionistic frescoes of
di
on the other
Maria
Duomo
and after his election to the papacy. Their stilted flattery makes a strange
contrast to the salty memoirs of the pope himself; these,
though long suppressed save in an expurgated version,
have been preserved, and furnish us with perhaps the
most vivid eyewitness account of events of the middle
Quattrocento. The frescoes fill ten lofty compartments,
which run around the room, from the dado above the
Silvius, before
MELOZZO DA
FORLJ.
Every
now and
in centers
was Melozzo da
Fori!
make
these masters
little later,
original
and
self-reliant
of
and
The
as well as
and
framed by
illusionistic
soffits
are decorated with a diamond-shaped marble incrustation (painted, of course); the pilasters
brilliant colors
life,
when
painted
in clear
backgrounds, save
later to
in the port,
and
at sea
we
is
town
little
Italian
hill
contrasts in colors
among
bow
is
in
the distance
It
the thunderclouds.
The
rain-
and even
examine his heads of horses and mules. The young
Raphael may have participated in the painting of this
fresco, and two or three of the heads are of high enough
Pintoricchio's faces, often schematically drawn,
less to
and faces
ly rigor
in the
of a Ghirlandaio,
natural.
328
all.
by other Quattrocento
writers.
first
Benozzo
Even
detachment
from
the
today,
Melozzo's
!).
great creative centers of Tuscany and Central Italy, and
the very slight volume of his surviving work, result in his
the Santi Apostoli frescoes (see p. 329) were by
(Gozzoli
He began his
Rome as early as
and a few
where he
worked for Federigo da Montefeltro and must have come
in contact with Piero della Francesca. Although Piero
was certainly the dominant influence on his art, Melozzo's perspective interests seem to have been well established even before that time. He must also have been
impressed by Netherlandish art, particularly that of
Justus van Ghent, who was active at Federigo's court,
and, unexpectedly enough, by Italo-Byzantine art as well,
for he made two documented copies of a Dugento Madonna (one of the innumerable images of the Virgin
supposedly painted by St. Luke), one of which has been
recently identified. There is no record that Melozzo
or even Mantua, where
ever went to Florence or Siena
Mantegna was working, save for brief intervals, from
1459 until his death. But Melozzo must have known
about Mantegna's work through a local artist, Ansuino
da Forli, who worked for a while side by side with Mantegna in Padua. It is likely that Melozzo encountered
Leonbattista Alberti in Rome, and certain that he was
years later
was
visits to
1460,
Pope Sixtus
Vatican Pinacoteca
(fig.
390).
It is
the
first
now
is
in the
surviving papal
from tomb
effigies,
in
the paint-
Two
brother Davide.
The power of
room
is
390.
An
Forli. Sixtus
IV Appointing Platina.
in the simplicity
Melozzo da
Pinacoteca, Vatican,
Rome
(like the
Italo-Byzantine ones he
arch at
chamber,
upheld by an arcade
handsome Corin-
and thus
associat-
whose
room
rows of
discloses a transverse
of which
we
coffering.
is
and
drawn by Melozzo from ancient Ro-
coloristic display
other ornaments,
man
all
in gold.
IV belonged,
is
an oak
the
Rovere
is
intensified
and
brilliance the
mosaics
in the
choir
tree) are
in
1477 by Cardinal
Giuliano della Rovere, whose titular church, San Pietro
in
329
'T^f><.'
'^MH^P^^^HR'
y;.
^-
'-?:^**^^%.
now
^^^^^^^I^^^^^^^^HpF r ^jEV'^^^u^
^^S^VIk^.' v^a7
^^.^^^.^E
'
^''t"
'
iw'^aJ^r K ^^^^^^^^^^w^Bfll^^^l
'
>
^^V^^i
HMlB^^^^n^^^^^^^''
-^
'''^^^^^^IX!l^^L^^fl^HA'
IC^^P^^^^^^^^I
i^^^^^^^^^^^s!^ >.^v^9
wSMMIr^J^^^SSm
Vatican.
in the
From
these
it
is
possible to gain
beard floating
in the breeze.
if
seen
time, as far as
large-scale,
"aWTP^SWi
391.
Melozzo da
Forli.
Dome,
Sacristy of St.
Mark,
480s. Fresco
and panel
moment, somewhat on the order of a modern planetarium. Moreover, the Early Christian apse mosaic of the
Church of Saints Cosmas and Damian in Rome shows
on sunrise-tinted clouds
through an azure Heaven, and possibly some similar
mosaic may originally have decorated the apse of Santi
Christ
walking toward
us
The
Christ in
pointing Platina.
The
full effect
IV Ap-
illus-
Heaven blow
392. Angel, detail of
330
fig.
391
the color
is
freely
brilliant.
all in
The rosy
and green
enjoyed the
title
why
his
work
is
not to be found
Chapel;
in the Sistine
Sistine
Mark
St.
in
bomb
survives in
its
World War
II
in
San
dome
guilloches
on the
cardinal's coat
in
illusionistic
sit
structure
or float within
dome
is
The
treated as a parapet,
sits
name and
a passage from
who
him on the
ledge).
is
propped beside
angel
The
is
is
above
his
of the angels'
Ferdinand of Aragon
in
Naples) which
(that of
arch
is still
preserved.
and that of
whom we
Battista Sforza,
Duchess of Urbino
in
(fig.
393),
may
serve as typical of
in
common
feet,
architecture of the
transitions
some
This
all
converging
of arms.
first
painted orna-
in
acanthus, bead-and-reel,
the
on a central
leaves that embraces the
ribs,
and dolphins
of Rovere oak
palmettes,
garland
for
Biagio in Forli.
ments
color,
dome (fig.
392).
distorted
da Montefeltro appointed as chief architect of his unfinnow the Ducal Palace of Urbino, Francesco
Laurana's brother Luciano (d. 1479), in a celebrated
proclamation in which the duke mentioned that he could
find no one in Tuscany, "fountainhead of architects."
The chief glory of the Ducal Palace is its courtyard
(colorplate 44), whose construction can be dated during
the years of Luciano's activity, and it is therefore generally assumed that he was its architect. After Luciano's
death in 1479, Francesco di Giorgio was brought to
Urbino to complete some of the decorative detail, but
ished palace,
do with
his style.
some of
33I
He
if it
in
in a modified
Doric capital with fluted necking. At the corners of the
arcade level the cornices of intersecting fapades just
touch along what was once the skyline they fuse, so that
;
a single
entire courtyard.
compound
pier containing
two
an L-shaped
and two half-
in
pilasters
the two
friezes,
and
whose only ornaments are
handsome Trajanic
verticality
393-
Francesco Laurana.
Marble, height
c.
Battista Sforza.
c.
1473.
and
capital letters.
density
of
As compared
Florentine
Renaissance
even the
letters
in
to the
windows,
dominant direction of the courtyard is horizonskill with which the intricate problems of form
and space are solved, and the consequent appearance of
integrated and harmonious calm, mark a determined
step in the direction of High Renaissance architecture.
Bramante, born in Urbino in 1444 and therefore twentyfour years old at the time Luciano was appointed to his
historic task, found his own artistic origins in this building, and the young Raphael walked through these
that the
tal.
their
major
difficulties. First,
stories in a single
come
to rest
The
tecture
result
is
of the fagade
of the
fig.
The
perfect arcades.
In
all
probability
artistic circle
we should look
in
the general
Ducal Palace
Both of
these panels show enormous piazze, bordered by palaces
and centering around monuments of a more or less
classical nature. A number of ingenious solutions, none
wholly convincing, have been suggested to explain the
the other
still
in
in the
Luciano Laurana (designed by; probably painted by Piero della Francesca). View of an Ideal City.
Third quarter of 15th century. Panel, 235/3 x l^V^"- Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, Palazzo Ducale, Urbino
394.
395- Studiolo of
Federigo da Montefeltro,
Palazzo Ducale, Urbino.
1
A more
470s. Intarsia
was
had
full fruition
minor
Rosselli, a
made
in
A much
older
at
to
left,
The
ciple of
open framework
dark against
light,
filled in
some
left
light
Italian.
same
prin-
Both palaces
enclosed
Renais-
It
only
been
has
in the
and found
out
such
that
architectural
cabinetwork
of inlaid
panels
composed of
several
choir
This chapter
stalls.
may
rooms and
especially of
Federigo da Montefeltro's
where
little
study
Urbino (fig.
in
395),
all his
was,
from
in part
his
room
the
door
cupboard
architectural
filled
perspective
with
magnificent distant
ments of an
ideal life
refine-
consummate
of Renaissance
ever to recur.
230).
its
Baroque.
pointed
requir-
it,
was
333
15-
in
relations
Milan
and
city-states
Venice
and
maintain.
Its
devised by
founders
and Aegean
of hereditary
dynasties.
Lombard
of the Western
Roman
commercial center.
It
Milan,
near
the
capital
Its territory,
Duke Gian-
galeazzo Visconti in the opening years of the Quattrocento gained temporary control of Pisa.
seen
that
the
opposition
to
Milanese
We
have
imperialism,
seas,
The
states.
of that
rival to
the Vene-
Mark,
over ports
took
city.
Not
point
it
transferred
its
new
is
one
St.
Mark
cities,
and
in
trocento,
in the early
334
IN
NORTH ITALY
maintaining
its
buff"er
states
its
was nourished by
contacts with Florence, avidly sought by the Venetians.
But before Florentine masters arrived in Venice in the
initial
first
life,
East. In Greece
and
in the
who
style
still
all
visible
the
in
Venetian-
up
to
despite
its
we saw
many
it
in
wood gave
embankpremium, so
at a
Narrow
The houses of
alone participated
in
no true
streets.
wooden
palaces,
built
piles,
muddy
defense
for
street
founded on
islets
or even the
literally,
against
to be
squares,
all
over-
all
brick, limestone, or
marble are
illu-
TRECENTO PAINTING.
In the
Dugcnto a
lively
school of
found
its first
in
style,
all
familiar
its
German Gothic decorative elements of the frame, but the freedom, freshness, and
sions are the French or
of Venetian
taste.
The whole
picture
is
forms emerge,
picture
is
in the
manner of Tuscan
lines,
organized in
No
clear-cut
painting; the
396. Enthroned
Madonna
Between
IN
St.
NORTH ITALY
335
ous
and silks.)
Independent of the immediate sphere of Venetian
North
Italian schools,
and
in
Padua is
most vigorous of
some
respects
it
may
their art
397-
Virgin. 1324.
impassable,
im-
in the
dominates the
398. Jacopo Avanzo. Liberation of the
Companions of St. James, c. 1374. Fresco.
Chapel of St. Felix, S. Antonio, Padua
336
gorgeous in
its
399- Altichiero.
Martyrdom of
St.
George.
1380-84. Fresco.
Oratory of
S.
harmony
its
emphasis on
details of
the picture
at
much of
is
to imagine Gentile
we know
nothing), the
Paduan
tradition as enriched by
left
North
of
it,
since
Italian naturalism.
He worked
the splendid
Animals,
it
is
ornament was
a tour de force of
appears, constitut-
The
Giorgio, Padua
ferent
their
(fig.
species
minute
401),
fidelity to
and
even more
dif-
in the intensity
and
feathers, but
to
wished to paint
several
North
in
Florence.
Italian princes
as a medallist for
and
the Princess
(fig.
400), painted
in
Verona,
IN
NORTH ITALY
337
^AKtr\/9*GF0RaVS^
above: 400.
PiSANELLO.
St.
Princess,
Fresco.
c.
1433.
Museo
Civico,
Verona
.^
right: 401.
PiSANELLO. Study of
a Head of a Horse.
Pen, 107/8X73/4".
PiSANELLO. Study of
Hanged Men.
'A^
c.
1433.
British
'/gx 75/8".
Museum, London
.
338
IN
NORTH ITALY
'/
c.
1465-after 1472
Colorplate 45.
Antonio Pisanello.
Panel, 21
1/2
Vision
of St. Eustace,
London
c.
1440(7).
with Donor,
c.
1441. Panel, 23
>;
16
".
The Louvre,
Paris
Colorplate 47.
S.
Zeno, Verona
(S.
Zeno
altarpiece).
pinnacles,
city
(such
a gallows
most, in
at the
motif reappears
five
years
later,
Magi; see fig. 264), at the left are uplands divided into
fields and farms, then the sea with a ship under sail. The
show
slaves.
Many
strongly Asiatic
It is
Tuscan
intellectuality that
fill
refers to
brooks, so panteth
my
who
and
fashion,
lifts
one hand
in
mild astonishment.
Space continues on
all
sides
and up
were
North
whom
sometimes strikingly
similar.
Gothic, then so
is
And
man
if
is
subordinated
entines toward a
man
to nature
and
in the
National Gallery
in
London
by Paolo Uccello
visited
in 1433-34,
Andrea
del
(colorplate 45),
Domenico Veneziano
have any
fine stag
appeared before
403.
panel
The
horse snorts, rears back, paws the ground with one hoof.
of
water
this
after the
O God." No pro-
left,
more
foliated capitals.
angels,
its
naive charm.
404-
Panel, 7'
as they
may
be to
specialists,
example,
who
ing Justice
(fig.
4ions, but
it is
had
little
touch with
Gentile's naturalism.
Antonio Vivarini
still
(d.
(c.
city
of
Murano
near
San Pantaleone
and
Renaissance
in Venice. Here Gothic, Byzantine,
elements blend in a strange amalgam. The space of the
picture is formed by five tiers, like choir stalls, to hold
seated saints and prophets in ceremonial array, as if
344
(fig.
404), in
IN
NORTH ITALY
405.
Child.
their
first
sight Jacopo's
summits are touched with light. Even more persuasive is the sky with its low banks of clouds illuminated
from below by this same light, apparently the last glow
of afternoon. The soft, heavy atmosphere common in
North Italy appears here for the first time in painting.
These clouds with gently glowing undersides will
reappear again and again as a standard motif in
the art of Jacopo's greater son, Giovanni. Despite the
fact that
the Florentine
in
nonetheless
sense,
exquisitely
his
(back) of the
left
or facing folio.
inherited
in leadpoint.
The books
All in
all,
compose the
with a harmony and restraint
In
donor
of Lionello. The Gen-
tilesque elements
in
if
the
if
constrains
ly
him
to present us with
absurdly rapid
its
prop-
objects,
beyond Gentile's phase of development. Technically this is a Virgin of Humility, seated low on a cushion
like the probably slightly later examples by Giovanni
di Paolo (see fig. 373), which show an immense view over
the distant world. But Jacopo's Madonna rises grandly
against the sky, and the words repeated on her halo,
"Hail Mother, Queen of the World, Hail Mother, Queen
of the World," explain her dominance of the landscape.
The tiny scale of the donor kneeling before her is an
is
far
in the
Cinquecento.
semi-
last vestiges
of medieval double
Mary
is
little
reduced to two-thirds
deeper into the con-
circle
of trees,
in
in
farms,
castles,
and
cities,
hills,
on the mis-
dominance of
nature.
The
figures are
mere specks
in
landscape world.
The same
principle
is
IN
NORTH ITALY
345
4o6.
Nativity,
British
Jacopo Bellini.
c.
1450. Leadpoint.
Museum, London
.S.A^,
/i
enormous Gothic
in
.4
'i
W:
^^^^'^^^^^^i'ifv'i
<
'"sl
'_
lllil.'(..iiliir.ii'i
I'
v\<
',
>,
'Tta
'i^w^
fey.!
Al'lf''
407).
We
see
an
..#
(fig.
and
statues adorning
its
walls,
-^il^^
f'^lf^
^^^:
.'
'
!t
%.ii
407.
Jacopo Bellini.
Flagellation,
c.
1450.
346
IN
NORTH ITALY
Calvary
set
of Padua, with the three crosses seen diagonally (apparently for the
first
us.
At
its
composition.
ANDREA MANTEGNA
collector, part
to have
employed
who seems
whose
services
he farmed out to prospective patrons. Eventually Mantegna got free from Squarcione, but not without legal
his
When
difficulties.
young
the artist
in
the
Jacopo Bellini.
409.
Leadpoint. British
Crucifixion,
c.
1450.
Museum, London
A new contract in
killed in a quarrel.
subjects to
masters such as
field to
Mantegna,
who emerged
style, finished
was
when
new
the artist
united by a
concealed
408!
Leadpoint. British
c.
1450.
Museum, London
the
frame
between
the
Baptism
ofi
(fig.
IN
NORTH ITALY
347
law
(whom he had
visited in
above
left:
him
life,
(figs.
on which Hermogenes
kneels,
correctly diminishing
the figures.
At
this
moment
who
even ticked
This
their
relief including
from
which Mantegna
has painted with great care a fine variety of jars and cups
and even the wood grain of the rough counter built into
an arch. He has also shown precisely how the water from
the familiar Renaissance detail of the horse seen
St.
up
to a potter's
shop
in
Mantegna's naturalism
who wants
restrained by an older
is
typical
ceremony but
is
left,
easily
a pier.
On
348
James
is
410.
above: 411.
St.
Andrea Mantegna.
below: 412.
Head of a
soldier, detail
of
fig.
411
above: 413.
St.
James Led
Andrea Mantegna.
to Execution, Ovetari
Agrippa
Chapel
in front
Head of St.
James, detail of
fig.
Andrea Mantegna.
Martyrdom of St. James, Ovetari Chapel
aboye right: 415.
413
Roman
any
specific
Roman
re-creation of
below: 414.
of a
direct imitation of
art in
Roman
examples but a
specific details.
The atmosphere
element
is
Mantegna's paintings, is
last tree and the last
castle
on the
farthest
The rocks
hill.
are formed in
in
Jacopo
The same curves are carried up into the sky by the flight
of birds. The experience of Donatello's sculpture, and
perhaps even his personal
in his
influence,
highly pictorial
in stone,
seems to have
Every figure
windows of
the
fall
comes from
and
in
fig.
158).
The
soldier at the
of
left,
(fig.
412),
It is
is
FN
NORTH ITALY
349
its
tomb chapel
consistency, so harsh in
in
its
still
difficult
the chapel,
is
naturalistic byplay.
The boy who holds the soldier's shield and wears his
enormous helmet looks right, while the eyes of the mask
on the shield look just as sharply to the left. And the
sword has been neatly placed parallel to the transversals
plane
is
by the
powerful tension
in
rail
depth
is
established
rise
all
of the
As we wait
to
common
a castle on the
James
The last two scenes, therefore, are planned as if Mantegna had a stage in front of
him, filled with models of human beings seeming to move
downward as they recede from the eye. Thus only the
from the top almost to the foundation. The contrast between this terrible tension and the calm of the soldiers
of the pavement.
The lowest
feet
fact even
James
413),
hilltop.
idly
for the
illusionistic devices,
is,
and apprehension.
We
upon us.
The blow fell, delivered by another executioner. On
March 11, 1944, a stick of American bombs, intended for
which is intensified
by the random placing of medieval structures in a
curving street their arches and battlements rendered
effect,
mark and
utterly
pathetically
classical elements
preferred
and
due
this,
any more
wall on which he
in
consequence, the
single, already
life
now
keeping, are
earlier
of
for safe-
The
reconstruction,
lost
masterpieces.
Christopher
St.
in provincial
The penitent
its
sets
human
experience.
soldier
Sant'Antonio
follow.
Mantegna's
strict
humble
faces
ments.
in
wooden
saint
350
IN
NORTH ITALY
effect
of the actual
In the side
Mantegna
typical
trick
is
putti
waist.
power of the
of reality
temple frame
is
higher
overpowering.
reality
within
the
It is,
istic
and so intense
tion
it
altarpiece itself
417), so majestic in
in its tragic
emotion that
its
in
is
the
composireproduc-
panel.
Skull
(fig.
The
are
three crosses on
set in holes
Golgotha
made
in a
rounded, skull-shaped
At first
appear to conform to
Albertian orthogonals, but they do not intersect rationIn front the rock
ally.
is
hill like
two
4 1 6.
Zeno
Child,
Zeno, Verona
On
and
painted architecture,
and the
lines
Strengthened by the
in
Mantegna's
suffering
style,
women,
always operate
scene the
make
a garland of
fruits
piers,
hangs
From
the
same
Madonna
and Child with Saints (see fig. 291), and from the egg a
crystal lamp full of oil, with a flame burning. Around
and below the throne, putti sing or strum on lutes. A
418)
this
art.
(fig.
Zeno
altarpiece, indeed a
done
al
for a
IN
NORTH ITALY
35I
(i
right: 417.
Andrea Mantegna.
from
Crucifixion,
Zeno
altarpiece
1456-59. Panel,
26x353/8".
The Louvre,
Paris
below: 418.
The
Virgin,
detail of
fig.
417
Man-
Agony in the Garden derives difrom one of Jacopo Bellini's drawings, even to the
ominous bird perched on a dead branch, but all the rock
masses and human forms have been subjected to Mantegna's relentless passion for definition and organization.
Jerusalem appears as a mixture of the North Italian
medieval cities Mantegna knew well and the Rome he
knew as yet only from drawings and descriptions. Mantegna's versions of the
rectly
usually presented to
let this
cup
Him on
is
a floating island of
suggested
to the artist
feet
down
Roman
renounced
his
Marquis Ludovico
Gonzaga, where he worked for nearly half a century,
becoming one of the first princely artists of the Renaissance. There he continued to paint altarpieces and
frescoes for churches, chapels, and palaces, to design
pageants, to paint allegorical pictures, and to perform
many official tasks which fell to the lot of a court artist.
as official painter to the court of
color,
Zeno
altarpiece;
perception to
last
352
its
utmost
mountain, the
last rabbit in
the road,
IN
is
projected
NORTH ITALY
From
early in this
triptych
(fig,
420),
Mantuan period
now in the
is
to be dated a
identifiable with
an altarpiece painted
in
422)
fulfills
the
Law
of the
mands
To
all
mankind.
Adoration
is
first
painted
is
actually concave.
who
see
on which the
It is
a kind of
if
the
which
equidistant from
him
is
an
easily
up the road
tries to lead
into the
us across the
They
still
stands on
its
in the
the
background
is
The
architecture in
its
under-
reason.
will
Mantegna always
as black.
star,
and he
and
distance.
Magus
shape of the
move
will
be able to
its
the
419.
Andrea Mantegna.
Agony
c.
in the
Garden.
IN
NORTH ITALY
353
Andrea Mantegna.
right: 420.
of the Magi;
left.
Ascension;
Panel
521/2
entire dimensions
X 863^".
Uffizi Gallery,
Florence
below: 421.
Andrea Mantegna.
triptych (see
Panel, 30
'4
fig.
420).
x 29 1/2"
ing
Him
upon
merely standing
as
He
solid cloud
mass
in thin air as in
Jacopo's draw-
blue sky.
Mantegna made two trips to Florwas probably the great painter's initial contact
with large numbers of Florentine works of art. He must
have been profoundly impressed by the art of Castagno
(whose earlier works he had been able to study in
Venice), especially the Vision of St. Jerome in the Santissima Annunziata (colorplate 27) and the Death of the
In 1466 and 1467
ence. This
but in Sant'
is
itself
drawn simulated
at
which Christ's
reliefs in the
On
The
lunettes make
shown Moses
in the Flagellation.
one side
is
is
his finger.
Imitation of Christ
readers to
354
ll
IN
NORTH ITALY
Thomas
His sculptural
i\
left:
423.
Andrea Mantegna.
Circumcision, Uffizi
triptych (see
Panel,
far
left:
420).
fig.
34X
17"
422.
Andrea Mantegna.
Ascension, UflRzi
triptych (see
Panel,
fig.
420).
34x17'
below: 424.
Andrea Mantegna.
Dead Christ. After 1466.
Canvas, 26^4 x 31 yg".
Brera Gallery, Milan
The
all,
life.
past the
Nor can he
him wherever
room, and the wounds always lie open
he stands
in the
to his gaze
and seemingly to
A copy of this picture exists, without the somewhat unconvincing mourners at the left, who in the
original look as if they had been inserted as an afterthought, possibly by a pupil. The reader would do well
to cover these faces for a moment. He can then look into
Christi.
Thomas.
It
large
and the
feet
appearance
is
is
too
caused by
we
life
is
not
IN
NORTH ITALY
355
tion,
and
majesty.
form and
The
the painted
relationships of
the towers of their castle, looking out over the lakes which
softer,
marchioness (Barbara
von Hohenzollern), together with their children, courtiers and their favorite dwarf (fig. 425), gathered on
a terrace enclosed by a high parapet; this is formed by
linked circles of white marble filled with discs of veined
marble and crowned with a handsome row of palmettes.
The mantelpiece seen at the bottom of our illustration is
real, but it is used as a pedestal by a nonchalant painted
courtier with one hand on his hip. At the left a messenger,
who has just brought the marquis a letter, listens intently
to his instructions. The group portrait has often been
compared to that of Sixtus IV Appointing Platina (see fig.
390), painted only a year or two later by Melozzo da
Forli in the Vatican Library. Given the distance between
Rome and Mantua, it is unlikely that there is any real
relationship between the two.
425.
Camera
portraits,
is
few of
gentler
and
Zeno altarpiece.
continuous on two of the four
ceiling.
On
walls
we
return
of the
thirteen-year-old
Cardinal
Francesco
to
Mantua and
other dignitaries.
with
Roman ruins
series
of
surface.
Mantua
426.
Andrea Mantegna.
Ceiling Fresco.
Completed
Camera
1474.
degli Sposi,
\V
loss
made up by
repaint that
is
recent
is
delights of
mosaic
parapet
which
marble and
we look
edly,
ceiling,
in
straight
also painted,
group portrait
into the
sky above.
poke
their
turn out to be empty circles, and laughing ladies-in-waiting look over the parapet at us.
As
a final prank,
Man-
away
at
any moment.
In 1488
Mantegna
at last
way
for a
new wing of
its
destruction in
the Vatican
780 to make
Museums. On
his
ably the
work of a
and brilliance of his youthand mature styles. The grandeur of form, the depth
of feeling, and the power of color are no longer there.
The finest painting from Mantegna's later years is
intellectuality for the force
ful
all
probability
of Isabella.
is
the Temptation of
still
recogniz-
IN
NORTH ITALY
us.
The
357
on its pedestal,
must extend her hand
to
downward
to
of linear accuracy
refinement
than
Mantegna's
in
No
by
1495
color
muted.
is
painting
that
brother-in-law
his
Giovanni
in the
bly
if brilliantly
Mantegna's
reactionary.
proclivities
classical
endeared him to
(fig.
is
much
disputed by scholars).
Mars embraces
shy creature
like
a bean-blower at Vulcan,
who menaces
the
happy
from
427-
1493-96. Canvas,
9'
2"xs'
10".
Victory.
The Louvre,
Paris
nymphs
(they possess
Muses, so therefore
it is
none of the
attributes of
winged
fantasy, surely done
horse.
figures are
on
From
and a
fine
profusion of gourds
colored coral
efficacious in
The
wind
rose,
a sixteen-pointed
358
IN
NORTH ITALY
It
is
a delightful classical
to Isabella's specifications
(still
full
of
The smooth
surface
jewel-like treasure
m
Colorplate 48.
Andrea Mantegna.
Fresco.
Camera
Mantua
Completed 1474.
Colorplate 49.
Antonelld da Messina.
St.
Jerome
in
His Study,
London
c.
1450-55.
O
M
(U
PQ
X
CO
C
CM
oo
'2
0^
z
z
<
>
o
6
d
<o
D,
_o
"o
Museo
di
Capodimonte, Naples
428.
Andrea Mantegna.
Parnassus.
1497. Canvas,
63 '/2X 75 5/8".
The Louvre,
Paris
was
busily creating a
the
name
est
masters of Italian
Bellini,
we
new
style.
Bellini
fam-
Yet
in the
who
Quattrocento
first
won
it
was
large, official
and
it
would
him the
the same
Bellini
resented
Florence.
He was
means equally
equally conventional,
skillful
or sensitive.
A case in
but by no
point
is
the
now in
nities,
in
Florence, dedi-
modern fraterwas always a large hall, used as a combined hospice for the poor and hospital ward, often a
meeting room as well of necessity there was a chapel. In a
climate inimical to frescoes, paintings on canvas formed
suitable decorations for these public rooms, and the huge
framed scenes comprise a large part of the production
work
as
The
effigies,
ranged
life and
San Marco and the Doges' Palace are now
much as they were then, although the original Byzantine
mosaics of San Marco and Uccello's St. Peter, under
the first pinnacle at the left, have long since been replaced. We can gain an idea oftheir original appearance
only from Gentile's painting.
The one colorful episode in the artist's otherwise
is
itsdescriptionofcontemporary Venetian
buildings.
routine
hammed
of the
relic
was
life
II in
Constantinople
in
1479-80.
lost.
Mo-
Most of
the
Especially sad
is
harem
med
in the
(fig.
Despite
430)
its
Topkapi.
is
now
in
One
of his portraits of
Moham-
363
its
more winning
in the
in
Even
delightful.
is
Gardner Museum
at least for a
is
combination of
Boy
Canvas,
(fig.
Western
dotes, of
life
many anechow he
is
soon
ANTONELLO DA MESSINA.
progress of Venetian art
life
left
At
is
might be longer
for
now and
then as
if
if less
home.
this
to refute theorists
from stage
to stage. Real life seems able to provide an infinity
of surprises for us like the peripatetic Gentile da
Fabriano early in the Quattrocento, or El Greco in the
late Cinquecento. As his name suggests, Antonello da
Messina (c. 1430-79) came from the Sicilian city of
Messina, where there had been no artistic tradition since
history in terms of necessary developments
364
IN
10'
7"x
14'.
Accademia, Venice
431),
NORTH ITALY
Canvas,
27%
Mohammed II.
1480.
London
artists'
fellow coun-
once
OlTner suggested
The
that
late authority
Antonello
Richard
had studied
in
Sicily.
shadow with a
quintes-
clarity of form.
But
combination
for the
in a single artistic
phenomenon of Antonello,
if
One of
as 1450-55,
is
the
little St.
Jerome
in
London, a work
who saw it in
1529 thought it might have been painted by Hans
Memling or even by Jan van Eyck himself. St. Jerome
We are admitted
those
number of
altar-
Weyden
in a
their
with
it),
how
oil
could be
unknown atmospheric,
lumi-
sibility for
the change.
Where did he
Flemish-trained
from
in Sicily;
still
life,
including the
characteristic
The
Netherlandish
on
and
the brilliant landscape visible through the windows
are balanced and controlled in a manner beyond the
abilities of any Italian master of the period, and probably beyond the possibilities of the tempera medium.
Such effects of diffused light and shade and muted color
suggest the Van Eyck technique of oil painting and oil
motif of the towel hanging on a
nail.
light effects
glazes.
More
important, the
is
little
side world.
Nazionale
in
Palermo,
Quattrocento painting.
is
Its
(fig.
432), in the
Museo
365
cany.
on a
little
common
Isaiah (probably)
hand
in
Tus-
traitists in history.
is
open
and
lifted
Man
is
is
The
laid, so to
its
grave,
common among
girl,
Sicilians.
composed
features,
is
Under
insight in this
An
arresting
demanding
example of
art
self-portrait,
It is
but
of a
a signature.
fully exemplified
No Netherlandish painter
style.
movement of
light
to the
his Portrait
in
prowess
London. The
picture was once somewhat longer but was cut down
in the eighteenth century. The portion removed had an
inscription that is believed to have identified it as a
is
his
(fig.
speak, in nowhere.
com-
The
clear eyes.
forms
in the sculp-
is
we
in
The small
London
cartellino
Crucifixion
(fig.
is
tempting
human
it
condition. If
was
The composition, with
Venice.
above: 432.
c.
right: 433.
c.
366
1465. Panel,
Antonello da Messina.
1465. Panel, 14
10".
Portrait of a
Man.
all
and
St.
John
434.
left:
Antonello da Messina.
Panel, i6'/2
below: 435.
c.
is
10".
Crucifixion. 1475.
Antonello da Messina.
St. Sebastian.
14
xiiVi"-
Crucifixion
Florence (see
scape there
in the
is
is
the shape
(fig.
only
is
Adam's
Cross, but, as
is
skull visible in
we watch,
its
before the
on
fill
this detail.
One
is
notices
it
it
same
process, a reconciliation to
life
that grief
is
superfluous.
no events
in
human
destroy
the
it,
and we
web of
will
shortly
A final
367
different as
possible within
One
also
the
chosen a
Mantegna
The attack
is
in
requirements of the
later
moment
in
three separate
the
rep-
Mantegna
warms
A dreamy
chimneys.
cylindrical
sunlight
in
window
the
from
boxes,
Greek
the
who brought
style,
afternoon
Antonello's
art.
distance.
Now
GIOVANNI BELLINI.
of the
Giovanni
it is
possiblc to
Bellini or, in
new
Bellini family,
is
Bellini's character,
which was
incomprehensible
whom,
last
in fact, Bellini
whom
It is in
he learned
keeping with
that
We
entirely undated.
living
1506,
when Albrecht
would seem to
somewhere in the early
facts
Andrea
a painter before 1460, and
Mantegna. He
recorded as
is
in 1516, so
two generations,
Most
striking of all
is
felt
in all Bellini's
the latest
is
so great as to
make
it
hard at
first
and
to believe
to
Mantegna's
style,
stronger disparity.
affinity
the
Forms
by community of
Madonna and Child {f[%. 436)
436.
368
Art,
Child.
New York
the
The
grave, pensive
Metropolitan
Museum
is
typical
of Bellini's
this
kind of
mood
to
437-
the picture
in the
Garden,
c.
1465-70. Panel, 32 x 50
".
The
Bellini's
Agony
in the
Garden
(fig.
Good
No
lifts
dawn
as
He contemplates
Roman
sleepy soldiers,
and
foreground Bellini
in the
who have
experience.
too easily
left.
The
What he lacks in
than makes up
Of all
is
less
experienced more
itself almost
first
is
a sympathetic
human and
intellectual
divine
acumen he more
in poetic intuition
Him up
that
tilts
we may
see.
His head,
who brings her cheek almost to His, and searches the pale
369
rrniiiKitMinrrifffrniTiTiftiT.iptr.rTTTriii
\t\Ml>>'C^
u"i""*iinjiiiiiiinimm'iiiiiimm|iiniiiMi
^^^^^^^l^1S^
'JJV'TT.rW ':.rfT-ffS01^Hf.1!1f1f,!|W^k5H11flf!
right: 438.
Giovanni Bellini.
8'
t'x?'
10".
Pinacoteca, Pesaro
16% x
14".
Pinacoteca, Pesaro
face
eyes.
Mary's blue mantle is dark her rose tunic and the blue
cloak of St. John are grayed down. The warm colors of
;
their flesh
gently illuminated body, and they and the tan and olive
landscape are locked between the upper and lower bluegray horizontals of marble and of cloud. Bellini does not
accompHshes this,
beyond our capacity to forget.
Never again are Giovanni's dramas so intense or his
appeal to emotion so explicit. As his style matures, the
content of his pictures becomes warmer and richer along
with his sun-drenched color. His first real triumph in
the new style is the huge altarpiece representing the
Coronation of the Virgin (fig. 438), commissioned by
Costanzo Sforza, Lord of Pesaro, for the Church of San
Francesco in that Adriatic city, and now in its Pinacoteca.
The altarpiece, with its carved and gilded frame of
into the observer's heart. His intuition
Renaissance
370
architectural
design
enclosing
smaller
its
culminating Pieta,
now
in the
was
in all probability
painted
the
in
central panel
in
is
largely occupied by
white marble,
it
an
encloses a
it
may
still
be seen, only a
is
in
reminiscent of
startlingly
new
is
upon
the scene, sparing only the face of the Virgin, and even
that
is
pedestal.
matte
Reds and
great intensity, and pas-
that he
of color
effect
in
sculpturally convincing
The
and
less linear
work.
in Bellini's
little
all
Agony
in the
Garden
(fig.
437)
and other early works but even, along with trees and
castles, merge their contours in the surrounding atmosphere. The real subject of Bellini's picture seems to be
the light of early evening in an enchanted valley, and we
moment
we
look for a
before
on the
ground before the kneeling Virgin, or the three tiny
cherub heads, symbol of the Trinity, from which emerge
The greens of
the
the sunlight.
appear
in
in
in a
to
difficult to see
in
how
oil;
it
is
it
440.
Giovanni Bellini.
Maria Gloriosa
Venice
dei Frari,
nature
is
in the
back-
is still
more so because
artist to
shadows
light
is
dissolved.
the picture
tritons,
painted in
It is
as
if
and winged
is
maintain, as Antonello
its
dolphins
recesses of
The forms
filling
merge
in full light,
and
oil
Only
medium
oil
certainly
at
wonder recorded
Antonello's work. By now he has
was prompted by
it
by the sources
Bellini's
how
to present
new
observers
may
Bellini's early
some
lost.
no place
in the
faced,
are full-
large-eyed creatures,
Madonnas
have
Bellini
And
Virgin's
predecessors.
Giovanni's altarpieces
One
is
the Enthroned
scale.
Madonna
from the
church,
Moses
now
is
St.
a saint in Venice,
Madonna enthroned
in a
been their
real
architecture
Piero
of before
it.
As
but
also
church instead
is
Bellini
was accustomed
almost
all
to
in vast
were destroyed
many
other
(left
Constantinople
were
in 1479)
still
extant,
we would have
any
On
composition.
Mary's
more
Sebastian,
left,
classical
feeling than
in
saint
his
Antonello's
(fig.
sick.
435),
The
old
is
we would
as
is,
on account of
The
in
man
many
his
and the details show not only the sweetness of texture and expression we expect after the Frari
altarpiece, but a new freedom and sketchiness in the
mature
style,
Two
sublime examples of
Bellini's
pantheism seem to
442.
discussed.
Mount Tabor,
eminence,
represented as quite an
traditionally
reduced to a slight
is
rise.
Broad, brown,
The afternoon
projecting escarpments.
low,
advanced. At the
left
is
well
Giovanni Bellini.
The Prick
Colfection,
New York
God
in nature.
He
his
With hands outstretched, he looks upward in the direction of a young olive tree which bends toward him, as
water flows from a stone spout attached to a little spring
below. Both are references to Moses the burning bush
and the water struck from the rock in line with the
attempts of St. Francis' followers to depict him as a
second Moses. Beyond a standing crane and a motion-
walls
still
catch the
light,
sides,
less ass,
his flock.
On
humans,
that
grows out of the land and unites it with the sky, for
the shadows are tinged with tan and green, and the whites
meadows and
all
the
than below
it,
Bellini's Transfiguration
Bellini
any
this revelation
averted gaze.
sapling fence
rocky chasm
suggestions,
opens a
it
lie
between us and
understanding.
Even more
explicit
is
city,
the
ani-
represented with a
fidelity to fact
the
and stronger.
Sharing only with Leonardo da Vinci the honor of being
the greatest European painter of his day, the aged Bellini
seems to have experienced no slackening of observation
or imagination, no dulling of sensitivity, no loss of skill.
His sun-filled altarpieces and Madonna htiages, such as
the Virgin and Child Between St. John the Baptist and St.
the tide of Bellini's art grew ever deeper
Catherine
(fig.
373
into a
light of
moment when
retreated into
Florentine
itself, Bellini
art,
the
Madonna
late
altarpieces
with Saints
(fig.
such
as
444), signed
in
the Enthroned
and dated 1505,
Raphael
in turn derived
from him. At
and
sight the
first
not at
all
angle of vision.
The viewpoint
is
ideal, as in
it is
nor to his
Leonardo's
feet
above the
444.
(S.
with Saints
from panel,
16'
sVi''^!' 9".
S.
Zaccaria, Venice
And
443.
St.
374
and
its
who
looks at us
is
the
Bellini's
life
whom
cylindrical
Giovanni had
who
many
Madonna
ceeded
in so
cities that
it
Venice
in
style.
moment
at the
of his
Vivarini family.
handsome
flagpole set in a
big,
harbor, in
tion.
is
viTTORE CARPACCio.
tance only to
Sccond
Giovanni Bellini
in
in
quality and
impor-
is
the fasci-
then Carpathius,
by
all
c.
to
of figures
The
in
an architectural
narrative
setting.
left
in
we
are of
between. First
the
commis-
Hans Memling
especially well by
how
tells
the pagan
who
exacted as
way back,
the
down
eight
scuola,
One
Accademia
in
Venice.
canvas painted
in
at the left
Rome (fig.
and Brittany
and
445).
first
contingent of virgins
will
move
in
the distance
subdued by a rich,
all-over golden tonality, doubtless produced by glazes, so
that even the occasional strong reds, blues, and greens
ships. Carpaccio's colors are generally
The shapes
are
people,
costumes, drapery
The result
web of space and tone in which the
triangles are embedded like fragments of glass in a
kaleidoscope. The subtly observed, delicately lighted,
passages,
is
sails,
a fully Venetian
Many
the long
Although Britain
is
the
contemporary
perhaps
the
who
doubtless
artist
throng
his
rendered
portraits;
in
contemporary
setting are
owe
375
above: 445. Vittore Carpaccio. Departure of the Prince from Britain, His Arrival in Brittany,
and Departure of the Betrothed Couple for Rome. 1495. Canvas, 9' 2" X2o'. Accademia, Venice
Dream of St.
The
9'x8'
9".
Accademia, Venice
brushwork.
lors.
On
in
listens
what more
(fig.
and
more
tightly knit
architectural
masses,
is
some-
strongly
bits,
projected.
The
its
Dream of St.
Ursula
(fig.
446).
With one hand under her cheek, the saint sleeps "at
attention" in a high-ceilinged bedroom, which a golden-
376
the Metropolitan
of the
down
room
is
fidelity,
and
pestle that
Someday perhaps
why
Christ
is
Museum
in
the Passion
New
(fig.
447), in
left,
is
St.
ment
his rosary
is
a set of
human
vertebrae, threaded to
make
A warm
and
is
The
left side,
reflected
dominated by a withered
fig.
280),
a wildly rocky
of a water
tive
carrier,
is
mouth of
its
den.
lonely bed.
Probably
who
in the late
orchards,
and a
castles,
447-
ViTTORE Carpaccio.
Meditation on
the Passion.
Late
490s. Panel,
273/4
X 34 '/s'.
The Metropolitan
Museum
of Art,
New York
377
is
symbolic.
The
stag,
always the
thee,
God."),
is
my soul after
it
work
represents a sharp
448.
Carlo
18I/2'
Like
Botticelli, Filippino,
and the atmodeled in gesso before being painted. His color as well as his form is always dominated by
metal and stone, which appear in profusion. In 1492 he
was still using a gold background. Yet, paradoxically
Christ's blood, the tears of His mourners,
CARLO CRiVELLi. The last Venetian Quattrocento maswe shall consider. Carlo Crivelli (c. 1435-c. 1495), is
ter
even harder to place than Carpaccio. Although a Venetian by birth, he spent almost all of
from Venetian territory. He might
if it
logically be con-
hard.
fact
proudly "Carolus
The stone
is
effect
of a Crivelli painting
The
result
is
is
not
something
is
like
gold or
silver
sumptuous,
is
or both.
cloth-of-gold, or like a
Crivelli's
russet, deeply
Venetian web.
where
had considerable
in-
little.
activity of
about thirty
He left Venice
Every
378
own
hair, vein,
and muscle
is
fluence
before the
art,
taking
Paduan manner.
relentlessly contoured,
hangs open.
is
gigantic spear
nail
painting the
wound yawns
in
His
side,
depth
Colorplate 52. Vittore Carpaccio. Arrival of the Ambassadors of Britain at the Court of Brittany.
c. 1495. Canvas, 9'x 19' 4". Accademia, Venice
111
works
In his latest
this strange
achieve an unexpected
and
color,
surface.
entities in depth.
and
leaves,
little
bower,
in the
and above
all
dominate the entire picture with a kind of magic intensity. Even Mary's exceptionally beautiful face, with its
downcast eyes and solemn symmetry, is deliberately
likened in shape to the apples and the pears, and shines as
softly as they do. Again Crivelli projects his forms
sharply and lets the light cast shadows of these shapes on
the marble, and again the total effect is that of a precious
fabric,
stud a Renaissance
in its
web
Crivelli's
textile.
was a strongly
whom
Carlo
Crivelli.
Madonna
brief,
nello, or
Giovanni
Bellini, collectively
them can
sense of pattern
Ferrara
is
produce
numerous Ferrarese
is
at least be discussed
flat city
skill,
they maintained
Crivelli.
IN
NORTH ITALY
thir-
381
450.
CosiMO TuRA.
Pieta,
c.
came under
the
power of the
During
this period
of
first
its
rear
pilasters are visible the others are cut off by the frame, so
;
is
another
shell
gelists'
and from
Why
be so gaudily dressed?
382
bunches of grapes.
Ten Commandments
Hebrew
in
(abbreviated).
On
the
liberately exaggerated
the
movement of
incisive line,
produce
and the play of
that aim at sculptural hardness but turn soft as
the modeling,
effects
reflected lights to
It is,
style, for
perhaps, the
mysterious grace.
North
Italian painters
Madonna
is
it,
but
spread
body of
the contorted
Christ, His
gesticulating, wildly
and coarse features make Castagno's mountaineers look patrician. Yet however exaggerated, the
emotion demands respect on account of its directness
and sincerity, and the tortured shapes achieve a certain
boned
faces
of the
(c.
leading
Ferrarese
1435-c.
by Cossa
in
1477).
1473 for
London. The
5/.
the Brera
451).
this
(fig.
is
in the
Griffoni
who shows
built.
at
in the Brera,
in
this altarpiece, in
son of a stonemason,
otherwise, of which
The
is
National Gallery
painters
San Petronio
style
of
Handsome
fallait rinventer.
il
the eye
is,
is
on Ossas,
piled
The second
his
vast,
domed churches
in
brilliant light
all
Po Valley towns,
much of
foggy
this
is
all
reveal
fantasy.
some of Cossa's
rosaries hanging
at all times
and
the objects in
human
by natural or by
intensity of
humid
notoriously
the year
like
it,
whether carved
Such
is
projections
the magical
notably
the
St.
for
is
project
Months)
in the
Palazzo
Borso d'Este
in
When
succeeding years.
now been
lost),
Duke
immediately
in the
in
northern
European manuscripts. Each section showed the triumphal car of the deity who presided over that month,
below it the pertinent signs of the zodiac, and in the
lowest row a number of the activities and labors appropriate to the month. As now cleaned and consolidated,
the frescoes show all the freshness and brilliance of
Ferrarese coloring as well as the charm of Ferrarese
imagination. There is as yet no complete agreement
regarding the attribution of all of the scenes. Tura may
have been involved
in the
(see
Cossa. April
inlet elegantly
ous tapestry
in
is felt
as a continu-
One can
only imagine
made
dei
for
all
451.
1473.
For example Ercole de' Roberti (1456 96), the youngof the three major painters of Quattrocento Ferrara,
est
some of the
IN
finest qualities
of his era,
NORTH ITALY
383
Ercole
yet he
was able
Dahlem Museum,
to sustain
them only
14
x I2|4"-
Berlin
briefly. If
level
he had
of inspiration
453) in Berlin so
impressive, he would have been a great master. This
(fig.
saint(fig. 451)
later.
The rocks
been
St.
the saint
ambiguity
is
leaves us in constant
384
IN
-^%
NORTH ITALY
PART THREE
THE
CINQUECENTO
1 6.
LEONARDO DA
in Florence
VINCI.
of Leonardo's greatest
artistic
first
of the three to
die, in
504.
The
all
we
be permitted
to
block
the
evidence of sight
or to
Now
has found
stay in
the
is
which
or
has meas-
it
has generated
This
it
perspective
and
together
with
Michelangelo,
born
in
speak
of
him
to
1475, or with Raphael, born in 1487, is a striking indicaartist,
first,
the prince of
Filip-
fact that
its
mathematics,
it is
it
its
human
prison
is
content to
authors or
artists.
who
in
contrast to Alberti or
Infrequently
do we
find references to
comments
God, and occasionally we
on organized Christianity (e.g., why are we supposed to
worship the Son when all the churches are dedicated to
the Mother?), but Nature is mentioned reverently on
almost every page. If Leonardo had a religion, it was a
kind of nature-mysticism, accessible through sight, and
it was this only partly expressed conviction that united
his art and his science.
The reverse of the coin is Leonardo's detachment from
human beings and their ways. Greatly though he admired
the human body as a work of Nature, he felt that man
meet with caustic
He
called
men
manner and
all
show
is
not in
that he ever
387
work
cheerfully
evil
doomed
to preserve their
liberties.
first
capable of plotting
human
ance of humanity
in
a universal deluge
final
(fig.
disappear-
his
Olympian
He
child
about
whom we know
his peasant
and
notary in Italy
both contracting parties, and can make himself prosperous. This Piero seems to have done. But Leonardo's
was clouded by
life
his illegitimacy,
may
this
is
be because "left"
comprised
the mild
the Renaissance as
in
word mancino,
which
in Italian is smistra,
it
or,
as a
made no attempt to
hand
own
left
from
To
benefit exclusively.
right
left,
for his
and paleographic
training, the
mortals.
his father
476).
by
mother, Caterina,
in
"Who
the lament,
tell
and
elusive
quite a
me
own
if
pursuit of mysterious
were
so Leonardo's
complained his scientific and mechanical interests impeded his painting. A fuller picture
of his interests and his style can be gained from his in-
contemporaries
Not
drawings.
cat,
an
is
neglected in these
Windsor
(fig.
is
also
life
seem to unfold before us like those in the slowmotion films which form a part of ordinary classroom
instruction in botany. The organisms grow and unfold,
swirl, open, and blossom before us. At the same
time Leonardo can move from the microcosm to the
leaves
macrocosm with
may
well have
in
454.
over a Valley.
8
x6".
388
B.C.
as theologians maintained.
still
power
to reproduce this:
If the painter
him
lies in his
it
power
to create them,
and
if
he
in his
in his
in
it
first
This
is
the
in
Windsor
(fig.
summits.
they served a distinct purpose in assisting Leonardo to
advance one of
God
the
superiority of the
artist
and the
The
deity
artist's crea-
functions in such a
is
way
that the
it
animals, plants,
fruits,
and awe-inspiring
many
among the
Liberal Arts
be played again to
exist,
if
many
After
sculpture,
chisel,
hammer and
He
asked
He
landscapes, countrysides,
places.
Arts, which included music but not painting, still prevailed, and in the material that was to go into his Treatise
on Painting (compiled only after the master's death by his
pupil Francesco Melzi), Leonardo argued at length not
its
x6'4''.
c.
but for
7%
Plants,
kinds of
ruins
and Other
stantly there.
painter.
Leonardo da
455.
is
when
the last
chisel
on
stone.
that of practical
utility for
still
another
drainage, irrigation,
He
number of
bird's-eye views
from Arezzo
right,
showing a consider-
One map
(fig.
456) stretches
extreme upper
made
left
of diverting
it
in
might
had some purpose in Cesare Borgia's campaigns. Leonardo also drew genuine relief maps in the
also have
389
modern
sense,
shaded according to
altitude,
without
as
it
such as
come almost
time he embarked
his
little
on Leo-
to a stop at the
it.
In his writings he
quite late in
is
life,
around 1508
women, and
tell
in fact, in
Milan, where he
ings,
less to
scientific
analysis of the
456.
Leonardo da
Vinci.
Bircfs-eye View
of Chiana Valley,
Showing Arezzo,
Cortona, Perugia,
and
but
c.
Siena.
103/4x15%".
Royal Library,
Windsor
"'1/^N.>''7^
390
'll
**
human
combined scientific
he could make a machine that
if,
his
in
ac-
number of
Tokyo
War
rebuilt
known mechanical
principles,
\mm/tm
>
far
left:
457.
Leonardo da Vinci.
Male Nude.
c. 1503-7. Red chalk,
10% x614".
Royal Library,
Windsor
lefr:
458.
Leonardo da
Vinci.
Studies of a Left
...^^>
c.
and Tendons.
1508. Pen and
ink, 81/2x41/4".
^'**^
is
centralized.
in
What
is
circles,
and so
forth.
many
A number of beautiful
architectural drawings by
perspective
upon
i.v
the plans.
Royal Library,
'*'
Windsor
drawing
in the Institut
de
France (fig. 459) shows first an octagonal church surrounded by eight domed circular chapels, each with
eight niches, then a diamond plan with apses on the sides
and towers on the points, then sketches for two more
plans below. But if the plans are Albertian, the details of
the architecture strongly recall Brunelleschi's
dome
for
Santa Maria del Fiore and his plan for Santo Spirito
entirely new.
flat
is
any
case,
at individual buildings
39I
:>*.;
Leonardo da
459.
of Domed
Pen and
Churches,
c.
domed
turret
order
in the
What
apparent disorder of
fascinated
(fig.
461), penetrating
it
in spi'-al eddies,
392
circles,
Vinci.
figurations
9%
ink,
emerging
or the con-
c.
Last Supper;
1495.
Red
chalk;
first
at
an
rushing stream.
He
462), and he shows clearly how pringrowth which appear in the leaves of his
plants are to be found in water as well.
Since most of the problems connected with the interrelationship of the phenomenally gifted youth and his
master, Andrea del Verrocchio, with whom Leonardo
worked for several years after about 1470 in Florence,
are of a subtlety which has thus far placed them beyond
curls of hair
(fig.
ciples of spiral
life.
Leonardo da
pen and
at the
460.
1490.
we
in a single
fig.
right,
who
still
is
whose
masked by
mists,
whose very
by the
is
is
rendered
with
Ghirlandaio
in
fidelity
in his
that
may have
influenced
461.
Leonardo da
c.
left
hand
in
a gesture of patrician
Not
surprise.
a trace of
Salvation."
The
earlier.
Neither
which Leonardo interposes between the object and our eye (and
about which he discourses at length and with great accuracy in his writings). The blue air becomes denser as
capable of painting the atmospheric
we look toward
the shimmering
mountains on the
in the
veil
afternoon
light,
seen from
464), occupying
462.
Leonardo da
1505.
-!>?
fe
,j
,.v
^"''..''""(-i'M
< ""
i^
IN
FLORENCE
393
reveals Leonardo's
method
it
in
to harden,
move
it
Uffizi Gallery,
prepared paper,
The two
faces
Leonardo da
show an unearthly
softness
and
Florence
ness, without
draw
Leonardo da
above: 463.
by Vasari. He
gesso and arrange
as recorded
10x7%". National
Gallery,
Rome
light-
light
has
shadow on
shape
and
beautiful.
Leonardo
He warns
morning
when
Annunciation.
the
cloth-and-gesso
drapery).
Light
it.
penetrates
this
In Leonardo's
paintings, therefore,
their
res-
394
world inhabited by
most of Leonardo's Florentine contemporaries, Botticelli or Ghirlandaio let us say, form is a shell and color an
enamel.
Leonardo's
first
Florentine masterpiece
is
the Adora-
(fig.
now
in the Uffizi.
465.
Leonardo da
Vinci.
Begun
48 1. Panel, 8'x8'
Uffizi Gallery,
466.
i".
Florence
Leonardo da
Vinci.
Architectural Perspective
>.i.'<
Porta
Romana
finished
when
late in 1481
is
left
un-
is
to the
it,
not
same
is
see
complete!
is
To understand
the paint-
ing properly
hardly the
What we
some time
even underpaint.
IN
in
themselves but
FLORENCE
395
proof of
toward light,
we obtain from his
his attitude
Again
it
is
difficult to
make
in
Chapter
13.
Out of
345).
the considerable
number of surviving
(fig.
466)
on the squares
tion
the
at the
left
is,
method
of the construc-
apparently induced
in
still
in flawless perspective
but
relegated to a back-
palm
neath
396
its
tree,
life,
grows be-
branches).
it
is
is
The yearning
all
composed of psychological
we
find that
of shadow so apparent
areas
in the Annunciation.
The
light
universal
left-hand tree
power, the
fluid
figures, horses,
un-
of application to
Duke Ludovico
and about
all his
He
civil
and military
and
to render
life
more
agree-
celebrated
versions of this
468.
467.
detail
Begun
54).
The Louvre,
Angel,
7 14 X 6 V4
Paris
One
(possibly
Immacu-
Child, before
late
Grande
in
in
San Francesco
Leonardo, two of
sculptor, according to a
that,
whatever the
facts
may
moment
of a controversy be-
tween the
artists
infiltrated its
meaning. The
artist
John the
in prayer.
left
The
in the half-light
of misty distances.
rocks are
Maiano, from which came the pietra serena for the buildings of Florence. Even if this were true (and there is no
resemblance), we would still be left wondering what
possessed Leonardo to paint Florentine quarries in the
background of a Milanese altarpiece. The cave of the
Nativity and the cave of the Sepulcher were mystically
identified according to tradition. St. Antonine claimed
that both are foretold in the words of the Song of
Songs (2:14): "My dove, in the clefts of the rock, in the
hollow places \_caverna^ of the wall, show
The dove
in
is
me
thy face."
IN
FLORENCE
397
saw
it
is
new kind of
light
richly
chanical devices.
me-
delightful
too
little
is
reining
in,
while
its
tive
a female
make
this
od recommended
in a
in his
notebooks
seating a model
and he has
reproduced the
effect
The
light
truly the
to speak,
life.
them
as accessible to
della Francesca
historical
in
Leonardo
in the
reliefs,
many of
us. Piero
in the Battle
285), but
it
of
remained for
by any sculptor
commission for
and even that was rejected by the
king, transformed into a Marcus Curtius, and relegated
to a remote portion of the park at Versailles. We have
no way of telling why Leonardo renounced the dramatic
idea
imagine how wonderful it would have been in
a great square in Milan! in favor of an accepted
Louis
XIV
in 1669,
figs.
246, 339).
possibly
it
posed insoluble
draw-
monument. The
mili-
Leonardo
invaders
it
impossible for
who
The French
in
1499 used
of
in
drawings.
Leonardo da
c.
398
1485. Silverpoint
IN
FLORENCE
its
usually
through
prettified
is
due
A man
throb of
as sensitive as
light in
When
completed, the
was
still
alive,
it
bombs
it,
in 1943
but the
on a scaffolding of
well.
II
steel
disclosed that
is
War
horrible
As
if
number twelve
is
number of
the
make
seven, the
New
in the picture,
but
window of
from the
left
Windows
is
read
we have
and Christ is
are, as
effect
of the
year, the hours of the day, the hours of the night. Christ,
number
exploited by Leonardo to
is
Leonardo was aware of the symbolic meaning of these numbers in Christian tradition.
Three, the number of the Trinity, is the most sacred of
all. It is also the number of the Theological Virtues. Four
three each. Certainly
ence,
(fig.
all life.
and
the divisions
up the instant
of the divisive revelation of betrayal on the inner
of the Apostles, by identifying their automatic
make
finally to point
number
system.
In preliminary composition sketches
made
before he
Thomas
the
time
first
moment
in
mystery of
ticipate
sacrificial
death
in
is it
will separately
succumb, but
the speculation
re-
had
and
hit
in
in
whose love
for his
Milan.) In
St. Philip,
his eyes,
his
who
who
recoils
399
470.
Leonardo da
Vinci.
Study of Composition of
Last Supper (see
colorplate 55).
Red
c.
1495.
Accademia, Venice
471.
Leonardo da
Vinci.
Fresco. Refectory,
Sta.
bulk
is
whose
face
is
not
in the light.
And
his
dark
profile of Peter
whom,
in
upon the
table,
wine
glasses,
we can
and
catch an
not
its
depth.
masterpiece
definitive
in the St.
original painting.
400
We
The psychological
still
its
effect
precision but
of the ruined
at Christ's right.
Here and
layers of dirt
He
has broken, in
fact,
In
that
room
tension of the
in
is
consistent, there
is
tion, that to
now
We
And
is
all
either seated, or
left,
and
this
study
is
not yet
finished.
it
at the Santissima
Annunziata,
excited
but has
are
is
later
truly in the
and Andrea
It is
ideal reality
came
haustively by the
del Sarto.
noteworthy that
the
this
into the
still
to be imitated ex-
in
figures
human
have claimed
probability that by
victory
that
in
encounter,
disastrous
and
others,
states,
was only a
it
those images of
Italians
knew were
in real life
about even
its
is
doomed.
It is
the
a valiant but
noblest productions, as
compared
tion
fits
artist to
(colorplate 56)
now
in
pack three
Madonna and
lifesize
Anne
St.
"moving toward
meant
toward the picture's, not the spectator's left. We have
no exact information regarding the date of the picture,
but the most reasonable suggestion is that it was not
done until much later, perhaps during the artist's stay
in Milan from 1508 to 1513. It was one of three paintings
the left" he
the others were the Mona Lisa and the John the
Baptist that Leonardo took to France and kept with
St.
him
till
We
his death.
its
composition and
is
the
first
St.
In the Last Supper the four figural groups are the product
cento images.
Rome
Borgia.
From
in
date
many
St.
its
in
the
climax.
4OI
472.
Leonardo da Vinci.
Madonna and
Detail of
St.
Anne
c.
The Louvre,
Paris
mund
more
recently
shown by Meyer
said
when
from Freud's
Leonardo's
personality.
The
understand the
it
would be hard
to
More
rivers,
lost,
cascades
recovered,
and
due to past
artist's
overcleaning.
We
is
it.
veils
of
figural
402
in conflict with
as
if
is
recalling the
right,
Magi
(fig.
similarly
465),
and
it is
directly
full
The
prominent Florentine
citizen
Francesco
The
painting, universally
known
as the
Mona Lisa
(fig.
473),
two paintings
and
Medal
therefore,
in
both.
together. In the
was done,
St.
fig.
351) and
Young
Man
with a
473.
Leonardo da
Mona
Vinci.
Lisa. 1503.
Panel, 38
'/i
X2i".
The Louvre,
Paris
Opere
(see
fig.
388), concentrate
body
at mid-chest,
in Italian
European as
well
from
The
nineteenth century.
is
portraiture
and
that
result,
Quattrocento portraits,
nity
in
indeed northern
moment through
the
Leonardo's invention,
in
ideal of
human
appearance.
The calm hint of a smile, about which so much (perhaps too much) has been written, and the complete composure of the
idle
whose standards are summed up in the untranslatable phrase sprezzatura, from disprezzo (disdain), one of
the norms of aristocratic behavior which Baldassare
Castiglione attempted to establish in his book of diation
logues called
libro
//
mean
or
realities
But there
is
was correct
in all details
is
fig.
farms,
fields,
or even trees.
to be
seen are the roads and the bridge, and they lead only
to
futility
rocks.
As
fastnesses
whether
in
his
indistinguishable
the levels rise
from
this
is
fifties.
to right,
left
not what
Most
unscalable
more
inaccessible
one
is
tempted to ask
"woman" meant
subtle of
in
waters and
into ever
all is
to
Leonardo
it
accentuates
The hands
and garments still retain their musical veil of shadowy
atmosphere; the face, alas, has been stripped by overthe expression of the slightly narrowed eyes.
not
is
battle painting,
of the Napoleonic painters and even the battle compositions of Delacroix. Leonardo's picture
commemorate
was intended to
Visconti,
women
(see
stitutes
in the
Madonna of
who
the Rocks;
fig.
it
is
artist,
even
if
it
picture
was abandoned
make way
for his
grief.
new (and
away
in 1557
The
and
its
by Vasari to
room and
decorations.
tine
poetic and
more
threatening.
404
its
(see
fig.
489),
Colorplate 54.
Leonardo da
Vinci.
1483.
*^*f^ J-~'^*^
''t
'^^vj
,;s-;*i3iR,.;
i^f^.--
-il^
Colorplate 55.
Leonardo da
Vinci. Last Supper. 1495-97/98. Fresco. Refectory, Sta. Maria delle Grazie, Milan
Colorplate 56.
Leonardo da
Vinci.
c.
I508-I3(?).
left:
474-
Leonardo da
Vinci.
Battle of Anghiari.
1503-6. (destroyed).
Copy of
central
section by Peter
Paul Rubens
(c.
1615).
mV.^isV^".
The Louvre, Paris
below: 475.
Leonardo da Vinci.
Two Sheeis of
Battle Studies.
c.
1503.
mism through
the
power of
his
own
imagination.
The
horsemen for
Among
smoke
rising
from the
battlefield, the
dust
mud
victors distorted
far cry
from the
we
the streaming
in fear
in hatred.
swords
and the whole quadruple contrivance of
horses and riders crushes other fallen warriors below it.
Still more encounters must have filled the remaining
clash in mid-air,
many
409
books (fig.
One
ill-advised recent
we can be
sure of
is
the back-
of lizard-skin wings mounted on golden wires and attached to a tiny corset around the waist of a live lizard,
displaying
struggle
we know took
place
call for
among
them, and
this
its
wings
going on
To
infinite regret
not at
to
all
Milan
and the
during the
in 1506,
last ten
years of his
life.
little
or
He returned
in
monu-
have held
little
little
Tomb of Julius
all
dragon,
The grandiosity of
in
was
the flat plain between Anghiari and Sansepolcro, which
is dominated by the kind of hills that appear in the picheights. Unfortunately for the theory, the battlefield
like a
in the sunlight.
is
II,
can
there any
the
so-called
commissions.
of France to
spend
scientific, especially
his
his conversation
learning and
Among
little
chateau of Cloux
imagination.
But
his
his
artistic
immense
activity?
drawings of water
476), whose limitpowers Leonardo had spent much of his life study(fig.
less
and the
Stanze
Raphael.
Leonardo
first two of the Vatican
by
must have seemed like an apparition from another era.
He had a suite of rooms placed at his disposal in the
151 3,
476.
Leonardo da
Deluge,
c.
taming;
now
it,
fire,
it
Vinci.
15 11-12.
t.-
<e*-'i-r>**>'
all
consumes
it
410
its
But
in
and
am
what terms
awful
to describe the
against
evils
source avails?
Which
abominable
human
which no
down
tillers
of the
...
familiar these
mountains
How
in his old
soil.
which only
re-
for others
to the survivors
human
of which the
moving
spiritual radiance
itself
was
human
terrible spiral
had been
raised
in
to
these final
constructions,
shapes, as pro-
in his
eff'ect
well.
known
in
one only
the
in
human
of the
life
of the
Through-
soul as expressed
intention.
ence.
Mourn
as
we
sci-
all
rediscovered centuries
later,
we can
at least console
ourselves with the brief bursts of light which the drawings give us
to history,
ings,
still
of matchless beauty.
in
even
in his old
age the
artist
to having
it
first
world of stone.
his
in
1500, the
to
directly predestined
Republic to act as
by
its
In 1549,
subjected
to
the artist
Benedetto Varchi,
questionnaire
to re-
and
circulated
old, he
was
among
the
We
the
relative
every conceivable
way Michelangelo's
character and
stylistic
lo
little
taciturn,
and
irascible, yet
was spare,
consumed with a deep love
of
merits
already
still
alive.
is
Therefore
it
it
it is,
and that
approaches painting.
me
that sculpture
was
and the moon." By sculpture Michelangelo explained that he meant that which is
produced "by force of taking away [i.e., by carving off"]
sculpture that is done by adding on [i.e., by putting on
pieces of clay one after another] resembles painting."
them
He
like
is
whether
in
who
Vasari,
who worked
and
in
pictorial effects.
4II
daio's
form and
spatial structure,
and even
fifty
years
the Last
still
contemptuous of the
does he accept the shadows and atmosphere of Leonardo, for example, but always insists, where the subject
permits, on the clarity and brilliance of the Florentine
tradition.
He may
in
the execu-
figs.
foredoomed
to futility.
He
emergence
eventual
in
forefront
the
his
of the highest
sculptor
477- Michelangelo. Madonna of the Stairs. 1489-92.
Marble, 213^ x 15%". Casa Buonarroti, Florence
much
of
frescoes of Giotto
to Michelangelo, utilized
artist's
gelo
ing
This procedure,
compared
man from
The boy's
in
one of
his
poems, Michelan-
matter.
intense desire to
become an
artist
was, as so
Latin, he did
ful influences,
themselves, as
for he
and
drew an annual
uncle.
salary, instead of
having his
412
although Michelangelo
Lorenzo's
come
circle.
in
Much in
much
in all
which
it
marble
fig.
478.
left:
Michelangelo.
Battle of Lapiths and
Centaurs,
c.
1492. Marble,
33'/4X35i/8".
Casa Buonarroti,
Florence
below: 479.
Lapiths and Centaurs,
detail of
*>
iiii
'^'*':*^
ii.iriji
by some ancient
sibly,
relief
or even
all
likelihood fortuitously,
For the
we
what forms
sure
fig.
exist
first
and only
are extraordinary, already surpassing the greatest sculpture of the Early Renaissance in fullness of muscular
many
Day of
noted that
nursing
in this
very
first
Madonna, which
dimensions
mood
in
the Medici
work
fig.
the
will also
years later in
591). It will be
reappear
Madonna
(see
is
fig.
in
grander
586).
The
probably due
moment
The
Virgin (see
foretell
fig.
figures,
in
in
less like
IN
FLORENCE
413
478
more than
scarcely
tor's adolescence
is
paintings.
Another splendid
What
is
more
to the point
mayhem
a Lapith
wedding
feast in
with
human
and
aesthetic terms.
No
its
two actually
is
human
beings represents, as
the artist's
And
liiht
human
subject!).
much
spirit,
The
struggle of
Madonna, the
herculean nudes
in the Battle
who
carry out a
difficult to
make
out even in the original. The Battle of Lapiths and Centaurs may fairly be characterized as the most advanced
figural
composition of
its
both
putting to
shame the
in
Florence or anywhere
relatively stiff
arrangements
in quality
And
and
in
depth of feeling.
over,
house of
Roman
him than a
wooden
statue in snow.
of Santo Spirito
time.
It is
(fig.
figure
is
Botticellian grace.
intention, never
more completely
and
in
326).
It
is
Leonardo, add or
than
prior
at this
contains
fig.
was all
modest
worth
it
in the
in the Incarnation.
veil
The
artist's
of divine
manifest, of course,
among
relatively
414
to
and such
him that
nude as any
Dying Slave
curiously schematic
face recalls
Michelangelo
is
fig.
(see
some
Although
his
an-
subject.
Michelangelo
still
survives.
seems to
have had
little
effect
on
in
dignity of the
human
its
481.
an important
recalled the
sound of his
Although the
Rome
still
voice.
evil
little
year-old
artist, it
first
ness of Noah,
was
deliberately
compared
Drunken-
to the death of
But
block,
still
it
maintained
his
most famous
ordered by a
French cardinal who did not survive to see the masterpiece completed.
Carrara, the
first
was
415
right: 482.
Michelangelo.
Pieta. 1498-99/1500.
below: 483.
detail
Rome
Head
oj Christ,
of
482
fig.
apparently
contrasting
veins
and
life
others
of an
besides
artist
too
it is
see
416
tilted
forward by
at the back.
The
(fig.
was some
about
speculation
the
pointless
between
discrepancy
Mary's
Who
was
thirty-three
power
is
at the
has
made
smoothly polished surfaces and brilliantly exact contours of the foreground figures, Michelangelo carves the
muscular structure of the masses as if he were working
if
anything the
artist
woman. Michelangelo's
friend
shown according
is
on man's
Any
flesh.
thus irrelevant.
is
not in the
this artist
life
meaning conveyed by
literal illustration
when
arrives
reality
literal
his
at
was
works,
of anecdotes.
the group
was
first
exhibited
human
flesh as a
diff"erent
the Doni
milk,
it is
this
such a
fact,
picture
is
Michelangelo
incomplete here
Doni Madonna
was painted, probably in 1503, to celebrate the wedding of Angelo Doni,
a prosperous weaver, to Maddalena Strozzi of the
famous banking family. Both were immortalized a few
and there
in the
background)
the
is
it
(figs.
494, 495).
art,
the composition
and
Anne
is
Madonna
(see p. 401),
c.
417
in the
look
down
in
we
last
offer "that
is
the Italian
and
in the
new moon
preceding chapter
St.
on instead, "mercy, benignity, humility, modThe five youths have partly or entirely
esty, patience."
removed
white cloths.
them from
to dissuade
Some symbols
height 48".
as
485.
man
and put on the new, and it lists two groups of five vices,
each of which must be renounced. There are five nude
youths (and five sculptured medallions in the frame
toward those
at the right,
their quarrel.
are traditional.
conspicuous flower
Isaiah's
shall
grow
Mary's
recalls
title
as "Port of
Our
Salva-
may
Joseph,
refer to the
may be later.
The Doni Madonna is inseparable from the Bruges
Madonna (fig. 485), probably carved at about the same
the painting
Vrouwe
in Bruges.
The
Child,
upon
the Child,
one
foot.
lifesize.
The Virgin
is
still
The head of
is
from
in proportion,
emerge from
in
slits
her mantle,
As compared with
is
more
far
is
Only occasionally
will
we re-encounter
in
in
every
In sharp contrast
is
the
dynamism of
the Taddei
Ma-
clearly visible,
is
from
sin
intents
out. It
486.
1500-2. Marble,
c.
Academy of Fine
Arts,
would be a mistake
work
to look as
it
chisel,
used also as a
all
in all essentials
missing
is
who was
file
is
is
David
marble
in
drill to profile
does. It
now
it
London
had been
statue
is
more
tall)
in the
Duomo
in position
419
as well as artisans
and other
citizens.
Many
of the
to be in the
in-
sisted that
it
was
soft
Cosimo suggested
Piero di
night
it
Duomo,
religious
planned
importance (see
p.
14).
.'^N^*
501-4. Marble,
reluctant to have
it
of David,
detail
of
fig.
487
420
489.
Michelangelo.
by Aristotile de Sangallo
its
many
(?). Grisaille
first
of
all
by
its
and triumphant nudity, in keeping with Michelangelo's views on the divinity of the human body, but also
by its great muscularity. Michelangelo's hero is a boy of
perhaps sixteen, not fully grown, but with the powerful
total
Holkham
Hall
the finish
of the shoulders
is
immediately accessible to
like
fig.
338).
As
in the
new realm of
the colossal,
is
intended
At
new power
a
us.
from
window
David's left arm
places
make
angelo's desire to
and hand. The pieces were rescued by Vasari and Francesco Salviati, in their teens at the time, and kept until
they could be reattached
many
Many
and heaving
rib
cage
(fig.
street.
488), the
IN
FLORENCE
42I
mass and
line
it
for ei-
alti-
ly after the
his first
devoid of excitement.
on a plane of
stresses of his
own
his unchallenged
Working
human
body.
web of interlocking
levels,
he
a marvelous
life,
is
He seldom attempted
generally
to push his
poraries,
noble individuals
natural dignity
intelligible,
and ordered
synthesizing the
figures
Raphael's order
is
not
in
smooth
spirals,
unfinished
The
human
latter,
from a
harmonious the
springs
It
So easy
is
this
motion, so
calm.
information
during
series
its
brief existence,
is
a splendid
in the background at
copy (fig. 489), probably by Aristotile da
Sangallo, shows only the central part of the composition,
which must have been an awesome thing, bursting not
either side.
422
to be
the
reputation
of Quattrocento
with austerely
'
artistic dictator
to Leonardo.
of Perugia "equal
At any
in
rate, the
from that of
his master.
have been
work
in
even
in
missions.
plate 58),
at
And
The young
many
artist's
hand must
his debt
1504,
St.
Peter (colorplate
second glance
will disclose
how
The un-
in
490.
Raphael.
Panel,
the
Priest, and
Mary's hand was to be granted to him whose rod
bloomed. The fortunate Joseph is shown with his flower-
is
the
Bramante,
who two
true
of San Pietro
resilient
The
figures,
and
its
its
in the
of the structure.
steps
One
of
hills
ing,
whose dome
it
Temple
The same
apex of the
gentle
motion
Heaven guides
(through the agency of the High Priest) the hand of
Joseph, as if the bridal of the earth and sky were being
celebrated in the act of matrimony, as it is throughout
to the heights of
The
architecture of the
reflects
older
first
radial character,
Leonardo
(fig.
sides
is
reflecting the
still
belongs
(on the
more than
site
its
architectural ideas of
Raphael's design
whose
Despite
teristic
a hint of the
Dome
of the
mys-
Rock
it
by
travelers),
some knowledge of
inquiring mind.
In gratitude for the
Temple undoubtedly
much
St.
1 1 "/s
423
commissioned Raphael
seems reason-
of England's patron,
in
St.
to the king
fig.
559).
The combat
George and the dragon had been represented by Raphael earlier in another small picture. But
between
St.
of Florentine
fluence
art,
especially
It is
series
of Leonardo's
it
work
is
lance
into
downward
monster's
the
thrust of the
breast
From
all
the
the painter's
at
some time
in
and altarpieces. He
fell into an avid market. Appetites that had been excited
by the unattainable Leonardo and Michelangelo could
be satisfied rapidly by the facile Raphael. In three short
years, in addition to other major works, he painted no
less than seventeen still-extant Madonnas and Holy
Families for Florentine patrons. Unaff'ected by the conflicts and insoluble problems that tormented the great
Florentine artists, the newcomer glided from one harmonious creation to another as serenely as a perfect
figure skater. The energy that courses through Raphael's
Florentine Madonnas comes from within. A great many
beautiful pen drawings (fig. 491) survive to show exactly how he worked. Even before he had decided just
where the features were to go, Raphael let his hand
time and painted so
many
frescoes
the
flourishes
of old-fashioned,
copperplate
moment
com-
pleted paintings.
424
and
the
built
hills.
is
fig.
215).
The
halo,
now reduced
to
To
in the water.
St.
were all-important to
complete once
relationship
and
easily.
these Florentine
sents
pre-
away
as His
^,..
above
left:
Studies of
c.
the
491.
Raphael.
Madonna and
10x714".
British
left:
492.
Child.
ink,
Museum, London
Raphael.
173/8".
Washington, D. C.
495.
494-
And
shoulder
veils.
echoed
the
in the
It is
and accurate
portraitists
trees at the
lower
right, the
As
in Perugino's
fig.
is
left.
388), a
obtained
ancestor.
the
character
is
portraiture
summed up
and
as
rarely since.
row
Mona
by
Lisa
(fig.
473).
commonplace
cealed
Even
here,
it
should be
this
many in
Raphael's
art,
sonalities.
the
manner of
He
set
Madonnas, against a
(fig.
494),
who had
only
426
arm on a
Madonnas, devoted some overtime to the careful modeling of the features and hands
of husband and wife, even to their rings, to the damask
and moire of Maddalena's dress, and to the careful
hangs
Like
Michelangelo,
activities
in
also imparted
much
a generally under-
to,
an obvious attempt to update Filippino Lippi's masterpiece on the same subject (colorplate 37) in terms of the
High Renaissance
style.
we
He
is,
where he is for
is backed up
by two other saints (apparently Anthony Abbot and
John the Evangelist) from other eras. The steps in the
middle ground are there only to lead us to the distant
landscape, to the architecture, and above all to the enteras in Filippino, his outdoor study.
is
ing Virgin.
and introspective, and all references to daily existence, have been discarded by the new idealism. The
monk kneels before a classical pedestal on which books
sonal,
Again
Mary
is
hands, and
is
open book
at
reality.
The
surface
is
picture
lost
is
lost
is
in
is
intact,
broad
curvilinear
movement.
Although
kind of
forms
his
496.
Fra Bartolommeo.
Vision
of St. Bernard.
1504-7. Panel,
Accademia, Florence
427
possess
the gravity
all
had
aissance, he
sweep of
his great
certainly been
And
intended.
Crucifixion
is
the
little
picture-within-a-picture of the
to strain a point to
imitators.
Signorelli, often erroneously listed as
in
an Umbrian,
141 1)
initially,
He
later
probably the
an attempt to achieve a
total spatial
harmony. His
is
first
painting
is
Madonna
Bartolommeo's
lines
fig.
557).
Roman
period.
He
Pope Sixtus
early 1490s,
and
Pan
(fig.
497),
was doubtless
The destruction of the picture in the mysterious fire of 1945, which consumed so many works of art
from the Berlin museums, was one of the most tragic
artistic losses of World War II. The School of Pan has
francesco.
497-
Luca
Signorelli.
School of Pan.
1490. Canvas,
c.
6'4!/2"x8'5".
Kaiser Friedrich
Museum,
Berlin
(destroyed 1945)
428
it
rep-
H
|H
^i
m
art
of music, by means of
mythological picture,
crescent
moon hangs
flutes cut
poetry
its
is
As a
unsurpassed. The
from
reeds.
many
like so
work
Early
is
moment, the
at the left
and
At
the
same
either to Michelangelo's
Bacchus
(fig.
first
colossal dramatic
of Orvieto,
for a
Rome after
the observer
well-nigh
stand people of
(Dante
in
Cathedral, Orvieto
it
Brixio Chapel,
S.
Botticelli's
481) in
Venus
it
time, Signorelli
had access
re-
Although her
cause us to forget
feet
(colorplate 36).
so idyllically
his prototypes.
may
hips, legs,
it,
^5
H|
Preaching of
the Antichrist.
Renaissance dreamed of
created.
no other
Ml
^y
^D
498.
LUCA SiGNORELLI.
is
all
his ear
ages, of
whom many
are portraits
structure
in
down
to
Signorelli was
movement, and he
showed his interest in spectacular fashion and on a
grand scale in a series of frescoes painted from 1499
to 1504 in the San Brixio Chapel off" the right transept
of the Cathedral of Orvieto. Fra Angelico had commenced in 1447 a fresco cycle illustrating the Last Judgment but had finished only two of the vaulting compartments of the two-bay chapel before he was called to
Rome by Pope Nicholas V. Signorelli was originally
employed only to finish Fra Angelico's paintings in the
fascinated
in
porches
vessels,
filled
now
carefully articulated,
who have
with soldiers
stripped
it
of
its
its
and who
at the
left.
The
Antichrist
is
rep-
and
shower of golden rays by an angel
The foreshortened figures tumble even into
at the left.
down
in a
who
has de-
is
at his side.
The somewhat
429
499-
LUCA
SiGNORELLI.
Brixio Chapel,
Cathedral, Orvieto
LuCA SiGNORELLI.
Damned Consigned to Hell.
500.
Brixio Chapel,
Cathedral, Orvieto
430
(fig.
(fig.
478),
and
in
almost no time
sometimes embracing amiably, sometimes in conversation with jealous skeletons who have not got their flesh
back. This
is,
when he painted
his own Last Judgment (see fig. 696). The gold of Heaven
has descended to the springing point of the arch, pitted
with little cup-shaped depressions to produce a glittering
reflection (this device will be adopted immediately by
Raphael
in the
Disputa; see
fig.
544).
Two
colossal
The
to
wildest scene
Hell
(fig.
500).
is,
of course, the
Damned Consigned
to the apex
The foreground
off"
is filled
One poor
while a demon lifts one
apart. Other demons rip
are inflicted.
demons
portions orange,
off"
like the
portions lavender,
portions green.
and as a
c.
1477. Panel, 22 V2
c.
15 10. Panel,
161/2".
25% x 7214".
Mus6e Condd,
Chantilly
43I
and
151 6
telling
Michelangelo he
is
New York
something
Tomb
II.
He
inspired altarpieces
series
of un-
wooden
population.
Piero di Cosimo was, if anything, overendowed with that precious quality in which Signorelli
was so woefully deficient, humor not only in his art
but in his way of life. He hated thunderstorms and fire,
the latter to such an extent that he was afraid to cook,
PIERO DI COSIMO.
and
(Gift of Robert
cumb
charms
to her
mortal.
x66%'.
Gordon, 1875)
The
jealous
goddess
consequently
turned
nymph
Procris.
The
is
who commissioned
Filippino Lippi's
Vision of St. Bernard and is portrayed in the lower righthand corner of that painting, engaged Piero to paint at
some time in the 1490s a series of small panels representing the early history of man, which have been
shown to illustrate an account preserved in Lucretius.
One
of these
(fig.
an especial delight. Perhaps some etymologrelationship between wasps and asps {yespe and
pucci
her
ical
(fig.
bosom
setting
Ves-
is
lady's
432
in his
repugnant to Michelangelo
humanity
in a
subhuman
stage
creatures
divine level.
The
7-
is
dominated,
sical city
Pope
As Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, this forceLigurian exercised great power during the pontificate
at
II.
When Roderigo
left
Rome,
eventually
Rome,
III,
II
loathed the
memory and
Peter's with a
French
in the
papal leadership
if
II
vitality in
Renaissance
Catholicism.
In any event this single last decade of the pope's
his sixties
treated
Europe
armor beside
in
canons,
enemies
excoriating
his
life
spectacle of the
to the
in
his blazing
language
both
coarse and violent, beating his cardinals over the shoulders with his cane
in
following him
and acting
in general like
all
custom and
tradi-
Rome was
tions,
ideals.
new
once the
an exciting place to
at
less
Rome
in
him
He had
calling
upon
would
choice.
little
Botticelli or
new
High Renaissance
was a
perfect instrument for him, and Michelangelo an ideal
artist; so, unpredictably, Raphael also was to become;
and so was the greatest of High Renaissance architects,
older than either but a contemporary and eventually a
close friend and confidant of the pope, Donato Bramante of Urbino (1444-1514). The painters summoned
by Sixtus for his first program in the Sistine Chapel revisual
style,
symbols for
forged
in
turned to their
his
militancy.
cities
common
they
knew
it
and the inspiration of their incredible patron. The Roman period of the High Renaissance is
sharply distinct from its Florentine predecessor, grander
in scope, freer in its dynamism, and it developed with
lightning rapidity from phase to always more majestic
phase. In the sense that he determined what was to be
built, carved, or painted, and by whom; what were to be
the subjects; how they were to be treated; which among
several alternate projects was to be executed; how the
the example
finished
work should
indeed exercise a
style
and
should be considered as
Rome
into a clas-
much one
of
its
creators as, in
in
France.
435
Ital-
its
there
is
stucco relief on a
created by
is
self.
DONATO BRAMANTE.
Bramante,
the
if
papal architect,
not overwhelming
actual depth
is
22).
The
is
an indication
gifts
Albertian in
its
(fig.
504).
Basically
whose
round arches are supported by piers divided by Corinthian pilasters, the church culminates in a grand crossing
crowned by a Pantheon-like dome that gives us a hint
of
how
fig.
Alberti's
domes
peared.
The most
Temple
(see
ap-
startling
remarkable premonition,
miniature, of
in
in
Milan, ordered by
universally attributed to
grand scale
505).
Where we think we
see a choir.
Duke
(fig.
could have
ever,
if it
the in-
choir,
umph
how
all its
surface decora-
Bramante himself,
is
composed,
fig.
459),
507).
506,
(figs.
membranes of
outward
like the
(fig.
wheel.
Lombard capital
for
in the
Rome in
papal
1499.
city, in fact
circular structure
ple"
fig.
known
left
is
the
little
.1
Peter was erroneously supposed to have been crucified, in the courtyard alongside the Church of San Pietro
St.
in
generally preferred
above: 504.
Donato Bramante.
Sta.
right: 505.
Maria presso
S.
Interior view
toward choir,
Donato Bramante.
436
left:
Sta.
below: 507.
Donato Bramante.
bottom: 508.
Donato Bramante.
toward choir,
Maria delle Grazie, Milan.
Begun 1492
Interior view
Sta.
30 FEET
10
doomed by Leonardo's
radial
many
individual elements.
elevation.
sculpture,
The
The
resultant perfect
METERS
509.
DONATO BrAMANTE.
Tempietto,
S. Pietro in
Montorio,
Rome. 1502
Anne (see p. 401), and fully entitles it to its tradihonor of being the first true High Renaissance
structure. Through the work of his somewhat older
friend Bramante, it may be said that Leonardo's new
ideas founded not only the Florentine but the Roman
phase of the High Renaissance. Not only the intellectual
perfection and spiritual poise, but the inherent majesty
of this building, all of whose solids and spaces are so
perfectly harmonized, must have been the dominating
factor in the choice of Bramante as the chief papal
architect by Julius II when he came to the throne in the
High Baroque.
The very grandiosity of the Julius-Bramante project is
perhaps a symptom of the weaknesses of the High Renaissance, as well as a symbol of its ideals and aspirations. The immense structure could not have been successfully carried out
medal
into a
sum of
interrelationship of forms
parts,
lent of
and
is
St.
tional
In
church architecture
in the
ritual, filled
with
monu-
columns which
down
with such
violence
438
that
they
shattered
Although there
left in
is
we can
recognize,
reconstruct
its
exterior appearance
for architectural
plan
(fig.
includes
ornament
in
crosses built
its
reentrant
arms ending
in apses,
loggia
more
and
on such a
scale,
could never
The
vast, single-story,
cruciform
hall,
barrel-vaulted
its
on a
peristyle of Corinthian
outline.
level
Bramante planned it
(fig. 516), although long after his death. By 15 14 the
architect, then seventy years old, was able to see the
four arches of the dome and the four pendentives in
place, as well as the new foundations ofthreeofthearms
of the cross and of some of the chapels. The four arches
interior
was
510.
built substantially as
DoNATO Bramante.
S. Pietro in
Montorio,
Rome
Plan of Tempietto,
Venice, 1551)
Much
still
stood.
of
A temporary con-
at his accession in
St.
Peter's, left
was
hill,
enclosing garden
feet
away
at
Bramante devised a
staircases,
hill (fig.
517).
and fountains
For this purpose
flexible
and
flanking arches which are let into the rusticated masonry
of the intervening wall masses (fig. 5 8). The huge barrel
vaults of St. Peter's echo Alberti's Sant'Andrea (see fig.
coupled
Corinthian
pilasters
enclosing
niches,
511.
DoNATO Bramante.
S. Pietro in
//
Montorio,
and the
Elevation of Tempietto,
Rome
(from Sebastiano
Serlio,
439
left:
512.
Rome.
by Caradosso.
below
of exterior,
St. Peter's,
British
Museum, London)
Donato Bramante.
513.
1506.
right: 514.
DONATO BrAMANTE
( ?).
Perspective study,
with section
and
Uffizi,
Florence
DONATO BrAMANTE.
Elevation and section
of
Dome,
St. Peter's
(from Sebastiano
Serlio, // terzo
libro d'architettura,
Venice, 1551)
Vatican,
Rome
BB^HMttiiSi^
above: 517.
right: 518.
Donato Bramante.
figs.
made
following: Michelangelo
who
the architect
both in their
man between
the days
of
I505-I6.
In
I505,
the
St. Peter's,
the
but
basilica,
engaged
it
is
possible
in rejuvenating
intended his
tomb
that
the
warrior pope,
many
prelimi-
We
number of
sixties,
pope
undertakings
in
To
Michelangelo abandoned
Florence,
including
the
burial
bound
and struggling male Captives. There were to be at least
eight Victories and sixteen Captives, but one recent
theory calls for ten Victories and twenty Captives. On
the second story were to be placed statues of Moses
and St. Paul, and of the Active Life and the Contemflanked by herms, to which were to be attached
plative Life.
The
"The work
who
according to Vasari,
is
given here
(fig.
519).
519.
Tomb
442
for
new
of the Tomb.
How much
before he
in
left
There
is
(figs.
the Pitti
Madonna,
it is
of Julius
II.
520.
Bologna
in
Michelangelo.
Marble, diameter
Pitti
33^/2
"
Madonna,
c.
1506.
Bargello, Florence
The
work
finished
pushed from
its
to destruction
The
it
life
La
it
down, and
Giulia, to
fire
reliable evidence,
come down
to us.
grandeur
is
embodied
in the
its
vanished
gelo.
And
then,
version (written
still
much
according to the
later at
a time
artist's
own
when he was
Tomb),
liked.
the
There
is
that so determined a
Sistine Ceiling.
Hardly back
network of painted ornamental motifs and geometrical fields. Michelangelo objected that the design would
be "a poor thing." "Why?" asked the pope. "Because
they [the Apostles] were poor too," replied Michelanrate
in
is
believed by
theological adviser,
author that
according to Michelangelo's
own
stars.
Here,
pope
many
and
that
Michelangelo had a
this adviser
many
IN
indications that
ROME
443
444
toward
altar, Sistine
Chapel, Vatican,
Rome
vision.
the
first.
way
to
around the
ceiling,
ceiling
(fig.
521).
in
is
en-
sibyls
in
is,
above
a colossal
all,
Old
sibyls see
as under-
as physical carriers of
in spirit.
verticals are
(Two
is
tally
with the
oak
name
tree
Life,
which also
ceiling
interpreted, scene
by Michelangelo
Judgment that fills the
end wall of the Chapel.) The prophets, sibyls, nudes, and
scenes are painted in naturalistic colors, and the nudes
and their accessories are often permitted to overlap the
scenes. The bands simulate marble architecture; some
complex structure of interlocking allusions, but he provided it with an appropriate visual equivalent in the
intricate design relationships of the ceiling. Moreover,
he was able to find in each of the scenes and each of the
figures a content so deep and a formal grandeur so
lunettes
himself to
The
were
later destroyed
make way
figures,
compelling that
it is
new
vision of
human
and
beauty, Michel-
among
all
Renaissance
Noah overhead
The
verging and
upright.
though
at
ceiling
is
sibyls will
it is
it is
appear
key points
the Chapel,
therefore
And
al-
is
is
artists,
to face.
drawings survive
(fig.
522) to
They were
show
detail,
laid
Many
of the
must
coat of intonaco applied freshly each day, and the outlines traced
in
photographs. Michel-
445
dramatic events
in
Julius
panoramic view
filled
(portion of sheet),
Museum, London
(fig.
new kind of
from the
By January,
he did not
level,
1509, he
difficulties.
was
Apparently
re-
523), first of
angelo designed a
its
fig.
somewhat
scattered as
The Deluge
is
depicted at a
moment when
On
only two
one stands a
withered
redone.
tree
The course of
his
work ran
523.
Michelangelo. Deluge.
most
what
tree,
will
The implied
reference
Rome
(see the
True Cross
from the waters. In the center the Ark, which prefigures the Cross as an instrument of salvation, moves
rapidly into the distance. The scene is filled with
beautiful bits of observation, none more moving than
the father who holds in his arms the body of his drowned
son
(fig.
One of the
of the ceiling
finest
is
cosmic
(fig.
carried even
disaster.
Isaiah
is
Wrapped
in bitter
book and
hand on which
his
left
the prophets
one of
and
his
sibyls has
Michelangelo's color
still
525.
Michelangelo. Prophet
Sistine Ceiling.
fig.
523
Isaiah,
1509-10
526.
Head of Prophet
Isaiah, detail
of
fig.
525
Michelangelo.
Fall of Man,
right: 527.
Sistine Ceiling.
1509-10.
Cumaean
Sibyl,
Sistine Ceiling. 15 10
Head of Cumaean
detail
of
fig.
Sibyl,
528
and lavender (the sleeves and lower skirt), blue and green
and rose (the tunic), against the tanned face
and hands.
After the first section of the ceiling was completed in
September, 1509, the scaffolding was taken down and
Michelangelo had his first chance to see how the work
(the cloak),
448
floor.
his style
scaffolding,
expands
scale.
still
fills
side and echoes the shape of the Delia Rovere tree on the
marble
leads to
its
crime
is
fig tree;
on the
On
right
the
it
left
the Tree
appears to be
fresco.
For the
first
fill
the entire
in
(fig.
530),
Cumaean
Sibyl next
Christ.
is
so ample
omies
in a rich play
in
compositional
Cumaea (fig.
is
harmony and
logic.
The Lord,
530.
Michelangelo.
Creation of Eve,
Sistine Ceiling. 151
now
ceiling,
their thrones
fill
from
now
figures,
frames
from the
first
move
to hold them.
God
Himself, absent
now
tion
of Eve,
last
Of all
in the
floats
in the
Crea-
in all
of the
we with Him.
crowd the immense complex of
Adam
that has
(fig.
531)
is
the one
Here we are
posterity.
God and
and unrivaled
aloft in
man, unprecedented
history of visual art. Borne
us,
His calm
movement of
universality of this
right: 531.
Michelangelo.
Creation of Adam,
Sistine Ceiling.
1511
450
532.
God
fig.
531
Rome
St.
Museum, London
11'
3"x
14' 6".
533-
Michelangelo.
Creation of
Sun, Moon,
and
Plants,
Sistine Ceiling.
celestial
apparition
immense as
modern idea
to
imagined.
which
all
the body,
in
moment,
all
The
about to take
been
life
enough
surrounding the
of divine power
in
on the doctrine of the two Adams, and the position of the scene immediately after the barrier to the
dry ground.
Adam,
the
arm of
revealed,
naked as
And
below
directly
Adam's
is
coming
as close to touching
ation,
one
Who
recalls Isaiah's
arm of
whom
is
the
grow up
hand
polyphonic composition.
The
final large
sistence
511
account
in
moon
Genesis
figures, points
and
from the
back, stretching forth His hand on the third day to call'
plant fife from the earth. The wide-flung arms culminatMichelangelo has shown at the
left
the Lord,
IN
ROME
453
darkened
The
(fig.
is
presented as
if
human
capable of "yielding
falls
vading the
field at
fruit
the lower
left
in-
comes
as a shock.
And
new
it
is
so huge that,
if
brought
new
pictorial
expressive depth.
creating volume.
534.
Michelangelo.
Separation of Light
from Darkness,
Sistine Ceiling.
1511
Moses: In
the beginning
the earth.
Chapel)
is
St.
Moses (on
the
left
wall of the
The message of
ceiling
and
walls, culminates as
it
altar,
^;
,'
\
>
535.
Michelangelo.
a. ^^C*
536.
still
The Libyan
He
floats.
which
>
-''.,
?r/?-V
1511
His shapes
lie
Art,
New York
The youths
movement
book and replace it on its desk while she
looks downward at the altar, ready to step from her
to close her
of the
book or scroll; her whole being is absorbed in the ultimate reality on the altar. One of the finest surviving nude
studies for the Sistine Ceiling, the red chalk drawing in
the Metropolitan Museum (fig. 536) shows that, like all
the female figures on the ceiling, Libyca was done from
a male model. In the final painting Michelangelo has
softened the harsh rack of male bone and muscle with a
smooth veil of adipose tissue. At the lower left-hand
corner of the study, he repeated the face, apparently in
an
eff'ort
to transform the
commonplace
features of his
sibyl.
Michel-
mous weights.
all
in their
beauty and
chapel, the
more so
in that
five
who appeared
upholding
cloth,
now
spilling
57).
now wrapped
from cornucopias
and
their
symbolism of the
entire
in
the sacrificial
resented in Michelangelo's
transfigured humanity
in
John
said
light shining
on adolescent skin
reflect in
smaller scale
above Jeremiah
youth reclining
(visible at the
lower
One
of the
in serene strength
left
of
fig.
534), his
455
11
Michelangelo.
right: 537.
around the
that winds
much
as
Creator.
The
shapes.
scenes,
is
relatively
dominated by the
he were
Domine, non sum
dignus'' (Lord, I am not worthy), and while the broad
masses of his frame balance each other in perfect equilibrium, his wide-open eyes gaze calmly into the abyss
right
his breast as if
The spandrels
light
''
There
the
names of
456
lifted
translated
Moses
ful
violet.
Virgin, to
is,
first
On August
and
The
the ancestors, as
into
symbolic texts
Latin
Obed
in
Obed
("serving")
he holds. His
name means
"in
him
is
wood"
or "in
Rovere
Wood
If
Michel-
a form
robur
is
is
Israelites for
in Latin,
Law and
Moses holds
ticelli's
who on
man
anecdotal.
David
Sinai
(see
fig.
looks outward,
man
is
undeniably resembles. Apparently Michelangelo concealed here a caricature of his powerful patron. Michel-
and
often ironic
it
bitter content
comparisons to Daumier.
On Halloween
3,
Tomb, now
a necessity.
Many
all this
(Michelangelo's phrase).
Julius' heirs
sibly
pope
it
could
still
be placed
in St. Peter's.
One
of the
was
revived,
Above,
Virgin, floating as
in her
if in
in a lofty niche,
was
to stand the
Bernard
(see
fig.
the
light.
human
his
reduced to
was
would be
and the Captives to twelve, and the space
intended for the door to the burial chamber would be
filled
six
with a
he
was due
experience as a painter.
fig.
Mount
700),
is
told,
nor
is
he angry at the
Certainly the
is
very
relief.
left
in the
to his intervening
in-
tended for positions on either side of a corner culminating in the Moses on the second story, and have been so
(fig.
542) struggles
immense torso,
the powerful arm, and the heaving masses of bone and
muscle that comprise the back. Although in a sense
prefigured by some of the most massive nudes in the
latest section of the Sistine Ceiling, this being comes
from another race. He is crushed, tormented, anguished,
and his forms have lost the resiliency of youth. The face,
unfinished and also badly cracked, seems to have held
less interest for the artist than the body. With its backward twist and rolling eyes it suggests the agonized
against the slender bands tying back the
IN
ROME
457
is
The
closed.
employed almost
486).
fig.
The muscles
are
Madonna
no longer individually
It is
as
if
from
life,
but
(fig.
541)
is,
overcome by the
tall figure seems ready
to collapse, or rather to sink slowly downward. During
the period when this statue must have been worked on,
and during the ensuing decade or so, Michelangelo often
drew figures almost or even entirely without contours,
plucks
idly,
as if he were drowsy,
life.
belly
left
arm, in the
reaches a
delicately handled,
down
and the
faintest
change
tour
still
with the
in
in
Con-
legs
roll
artist
Madonna and
figs.
485, 487).
505
(fig.
succession of Neoplatonic realms to the ultimate perfection of the pope's translation to a heavenly existence at
would seem to
suffer if
no statue
worse blow
is
(fig.
and Child
we know,
showed much interest in either Neoplatonism or its advocates but was passionately concerned
about the papacy and his own messianic role. During
his thirty-two years as Cardinal of San Pietro in Vincoli
(St. Peter in Bonds), Julius had been known by the
name of his church, as contemporary panegyrics and
lampoons constantly remind us. The Tomb itself was
eventually erected in San Pietro in Vincoli, and, as we
will see, Raphael made St. Peter in his Liberation of St.
Peter (fig. 555) a recognizable portrait of Julius. The
Introit of the Mass of St. Peter in Bonds contains the
verse from the 138th Psalm,
sented by Michelangelo in 1505. Insofar as
Julius II never
known me:
Thou hast known my sitting down and my rising
Lord, thou hast proved me, and
says
"my
resurrection,"
up.
and that
is
Michelangelo.
Reconstruction Drawing of
Tomb
of Pope Julius
project of
II,
51
Michelangelo. Moses.
c.
right: 541.
Rome
Michelangelo.
The Louvre,
51 3.
7' 6".
Paris
Marble, height
The Louvre,
7'
%"
Paris
in
151 3:
the
the
has excited so
pope,
by
Michelangelo's Captives
in
much wonderment on
powerful
made of struggling
combine both
ideas.
of
St.
Peter in
still
in the future.
Actually the
Mass
Apostle Peter to go
bonds absolutely unharmed, absolve us,
we pray, from the bonds of our sins, and graciously
keep all evil from us.
from
The
figures,
transparently simple in
its
motifs
in its vertical
imposing
in its
presentation
in its suggestions
of
release,
message.
only
roughed in
and holdknee of the Dying
lightly
left
visible
his
subhuman
"ape of nature"), may both contain an element of truth. The Christian interpretation of
the Captives in the bonds of sin and death is not infigurative arts (art the
meant
the
seriously
for
Leo
RAPHAEL
the
first
apes
to
suggest
impishly
arts
really
rather
have
than
II,
moment no commissions.
IN ROME.
459
right: 543.
Raphael. Disputa
{Disputation over the Sacrament).
1509. Fresco. Stanza della
Segnatura, Vatican,
Rome
of
fig.
543
Raphael arrived
in
Rome,
exactly
when or why we
official
are
who
Sodoma and
his
The Sacrament
is
traced from
its
in
origin in
St.
monstrance.
460
fig.
543
all
groups
parts of Chris-
/('//;
546.
Raphael.
School of A thens. 5 o- 1 1
Fresco. Stanza della Segnatura,
1
Vatican,
Rome
and
Heraclitus,
detail
of
fig.
others,
546
tendom and from all ages and times to vie in learned discussions on the nature of the Sacrament. At the left St.
Jerome, his head bowed, contemplates the Vulgate, his
translation of the Bible, while St. Gregory, probably a
portrait of Julius II before he
upon
the altar
(fig.
made out
545).
Among
realm.
While Raphael was painting the Disputa, Michelangelo, only a few score yards away across an intervening
court, but behind locked doors, was at work on the
Sistine Ceiling. Raphael's
his
new monumental
figures are
dome
(fig.
544),
fig.
on substance along
them soar archangels,
their
hands linked,
and before
their
drapery
throughout his
spirals in
broad airy
The medallions
inserted by
serene.
in the ceiling
and
of
others,
fig.
547
of course,
is
Below
Disputa.
Disputa,
the
is
latter's
The
century.
picture,
universally
recognized as the
drawn from
all
ages with an
antiquity, likewise
Angelico
The
in the
The
old
man
is
left
Pythagoras demonstrates
his proportion
right
circle
and mysterious man sits in the foreground, his left elbow on a marble block, his head
propped on his hand (fig. 547). Oblivious of the others,
wrapped in his own thoughts, he writes on a piece of
single, lonely,
in Alberti's
At
and
left
(fig.
514).
more
For
it
end
philosophers of antiquity.
two greatest
Plato holds the Timaeus in
and
Aristotle, the
his left
observation of
embodiment
in
Nichomachean
reality.
engaging some o{
i\\t
At
the
left
549.
fingers as he goes.
Raphael.
and Temperance.
51
Fresco. Stanza
della Segnatura,
Vatican,
Rome
462
he
is
figures,
and
is
process of painting.
The
soft boots
experienced the
new
rest
style
of
Rome
in
August, 151
1,
fourth, Justice,
amplitude,
all
is
in the ceiling
last
phase of the
II
for a full
first
in 1506.
relic
original event.
mothers
the
at the
amazed
lifts
lower
priests,
left
in
is
altar.
Below, at
off-
who
Raphael has achieved superb portraits of forthmen, whose splendid uniforms of black
right military
fig.
549
nor
the tension.
his
own
Tomb. Prudence,
Urbino portrait
288), has
(see
fig.
two
as in Piero's
faces,
one young,
bridle,
whose
The
classic poise
thirteenth century.
Bohemian
priest,
who
could not
Eucharist,
to
his
blood
which
in the
it
was
(cloth)
on
still
the
Temple
in Jerusalem. In the
heavenly rider
in
and beautiful
in their glory."
in attacking the
Raphael's spirals
(fig.
right
The
fig.
School of Athens
(fig.
IN
ROME
and
463
right: 551.
Raphael.
Mass of Bolsena.
512
Rome
Vatican,
of
fig.
551
Men
(study for
School of Athens).
Red chalk over
1510-11.
leadpoint, 15x11".
room and he
:
women
464
behold, an
striking Peter
And
quickly.
And
the chains
fell
And
not that
it
Under
554.
Heaven,
in
detail
new
designed
papal
for
the
palaces
(still
today unfinished)
The grate
of the dungeon
administration.
drift in front
all,
fills
151
1,
foreground resolves
collision
555.
Raphael.
from Prison
1513. Fresco.
Stanza d'Eliodoro,
Vatican,
Rome
556.
Raphael.
Expulsion of Attila.
1513-14. Fresco.
Stanza d'Eliodoro,
Vatican,
Rome
and
Attila's horse,
terrified.
checked
in mid-career, turns
rear back
spirit
on
fly,
away
their steeds,
the trumpets
on matter has
stalled the
advance.
dynamic
battle
magnificently
Anghiari. Raphael
rearing
in
horses
in his
httle St.
master himself in
being painted.
It
Rome
after the
was
death of
Julius
;
557.
Canvas,
466
Raphael.
8'
8V2"x6'
Sistine
5".
Madonna.
151 3.
Gemaldegalerie, Dresden
(fig.
bier of Julius
II
to Piacenza
situated there.
St.
Sixtus
number of
is
days,
illness-ridden
of St. Peter.
is
in
strip
his last,
the Liberation
made up
brown
II in
moustache now
and
beard
his
largely
on a
tiara, laid
of
St.
was
putti
This
wood
as the
kneels
crown
today
still is
above
in royal funerals.
lid
of
his head,
At the
right
St.
earthly prison.
comes
straight
Come
thy
show unto us
womb.
and
well,
after
558.
painter.
imagined by Michelangelo,
that she
is
Tomb
of Julius
definitive version in
II in
513
(fig.
"
recorded by Vasari
the
woman";
sitter for
Velata ("veiled
mind and was comwas invented by Michelangelo in 1505, not long after the completion of Fra
Bartolommeo's closely related Vision of St. Bernard
(see fig. 496), and like so many of Michelangelo's ideas
reached Raphael later.
Very naturally this allegory of the pope's entry into
Paradise is universally revered as an image of ideal
motherhood. In its broad rising and descending curves
(so easy to analyze that they have received almost more
fig.
municated to both
and her
than their
or
it
balance of masses,
creations.
No
Madonna
its air
to
no Renaissance
rested
authorship. Yet
it
Giovanni Morelli
critic
is
the
much so as to suggest
still
the
born
one of
one could have
Donna
same dark-eyed
the so-called
is
of
is
558)
left
allusion to
its
Rome of Perugino's
15 13.
c.
Gallery, Florence
Velata.
Pitti
It
Raphael. Donna
Canvas, 33 V2 X23V2
trip to the
Rome in
1 1
lagoons
Piombo
is
(see
a repertory founded
is
it
drapery of
this
467
warmly
position,
and
on the
Rembrandt once
sleeves.
style
richly
painted
when
his
own
pose
self-portrait in the
tribute to the
painting that
coloristic richness of a
in the
midst
still
at
memories of the
young
man
new
only
had
him now that he
"
troppo ter-
Raphael and
Raphael. Baldassare
Canvas, 32 14 X26i/^".
Castiglione.
The Louvre,
1515.
c.
II
Paris
the papacy.
filled
artists,
depth of the dark eyes and chestnut hair, the brilliance of the pale flesh, the soft glow of the stones in
the necklace, and the luminous marvel of the pearl hanging from the
woman's
veil.
In
its
miraculously correct
all
the other
each other.
The
portrait
of Baldassare
is
Castiglione
(fig.
559),
moment of
had achieved
in
Rome.
harmony and
poise would
funerals
deities
As we have
pounded and
could
and
beatifications,
were extolled
at the
at
including
expense of Christianity.
15 17, the
pope
group portrait
in
typically,
The
468
black, white,
St.
for a
sat
affairs
He
still
superb
silver bell,
pre-
manu-
assignments.
using.
At the pope's
stands
left
The composition
X-shape, or would be
lower
right.
The
if it
is
an
also
right,
painting.
The
is
in-
As
in to aid in special
is
at times un-
even
evident.
somewhat
pressures exerted
is
upon Raphael
in
and
and mozzetta.
Just above the convergence of these conflicting forms and
is
who
life
then presuma-
studies,
facet
famous convex mirror in the background of the Arnolfini Wedding by Jan van Eyck, and
although one can clearly make out the window at the
right from which comes the illumination of the figures,
full-scale
cartoon
Raphael's
own
is
glare.
rose to a scale of
At Bramante's death
in
reduced to a
15 14,
power
artist.
He was showered
Madonnas,
portraits, frescoes,
St.
asked to paint
a.
'^?^^?5SS!^^
rooms
in the
f
'",\
Vatican
and bathroom
edifying cronies of
one of the
least
an imaginative
Superintendent of Antiquities we
papal dominions.
of ancient
Rome
full
power over
One of
with
his
all
all
know anything
excavation in the
of
its
To keep up
(fig.
564).
first
villa for
monuments
map
carefully
Raphael had to
employ a number of assistants, probably not the "army"
so often referred to, but including at least one gifted
manifold commitment, even the
artist,
and
Giulio
Romano
(c.
facile
560.
competent pupils.
On
occasion
Cardinals Giulio
c.
Rossi.
469
The grandest of
Raphael
all
in this hectic
for which he
was asked
to
produce ten
full-scale
cartoons
in
in
figs.
The
in Flanders.
finished
new
work of such
classicistic
tapestries,
the Life of
among
who
medium of
it is
when
how
differently his
tapestries
cartoons were
foretell the
master to
him
to devote
all his
any
essential,
it
did inspire
energies
figural
Chapel by
561.
all
size
of that painted
in
Healing of the
1515-16.
Cartoon, watercolor
Museum, London
470
Sistine
Raphael.
Lame Man.
the
were subsequently
lost,
by King Charles
works of
in
the convenience of
Victoria
and the
ing are
not
unforgettable,
to
based largely on
often-visible
charcoal
in a
Madonnas.
glue-based watercolor,
preparation
which was
it
essential to
and
images
dignity
in
first
figures large in
com-
and there
is
to allow us to see,
full
of a classical order.
diffuse
and
largely
search for the subjects, with the telling power of Michelangelo's colossal scenes on the ceiling, especially those
which
would be placed
comparison.
in instant
his tapestries
He
therefore set
at
feet,
new turn
but,
Male Heads,
detail of
fig.
who
is
no longer,
as in the
in
561
this
the street
562.
feet,
and
all,
of classical architecture.
In the Healing of the
Gate of the
Temple, the Porch of Solomon (Acts 3:1-1 1), to which
the group
all
fire
all
of his mature
and
come
in fact,
open-
moment even
to
its
this
own immersion
time,
in
lasting in
artist until
Roman
first-
century painting.
been noted
well.
It
has often
studied Masaccio's
frescoes in the
Carmine (colorplate
surrounding space.
It
has been
revisited
on
lame
man by
text,
the
left
the
lifts
unparalleled in
its
left.)
The
setting
is
surprising
St.
and
torical correctness.
Old
St. Peter's
spiral
is
The
Rome
in the
fourth
it
those obsessed by
effect a cure.
building.
were relocated
in
St.
new
47I
some with
listen,
turbed.
Paul, a
St.
commanding
figure,
derived im-
is
St.
Mon-
and woman
at the
lower
right,
all
and
blues,
in the universal
like the
two
Romano. The
above
however,
The man
brilliant color,
were of course
lost
Museum
563.
Rome.
c.
structures,
Vidoni-Caflfarelli,
in
1515-20
still
hands
may
about one-third
as
tall
is
and
pictorial excitement in
in
depth,
Paul's extended
St.
St.
Paul
in
speech
is
towers which
tells
us
The
cloak.
with wonder,
and shaggy hair and beards which the late Oskar Fischel
compared to landscape masses (fig. 562). They do
indeed remind us of crags and forests in their wildness,
yet the spiral
harmonies of Raphael's
youthful
St.
Castagno's
In
its
is
in
classic
It
is
was to be
all
mankind,
jutting
own
right. In 1517,
much
larger building
(fig.
563; later
greatly.
The
rustication,
is
in this building
domesticated so
"Whom
declare unto
bend to become archivolts. The effect is one of continuous and harmonious movement rather than the expected rude bulk. The windows are supported by huge
unknown God
(Acts 17:23),
472
on
his right
him
arm and
new
type
known
Upon
new phase of
he
this
alley alongside
this serene
set in pairs
founda-
upon
high,
floor
rise
function as balconies.
first
time,
was a
itself,
vast villa,
on which
little
known today
as the Villa
Medici
facing
St.
it
was intended
Peter's,
save
was accomplished
Madama,
(fig.
564).
domed and
a circular courtyard,
and many
and inventions.
While the
Raphael's death
in 1520, that
will return to
"This
is
my
beloved Son
in
Whom am
I
well pleased."
hill-
delightful fantasies
continued
project
of Pope Leo
after
in 1521
put
even
in recent
memory opened
before
it is
now
a barren
The
shanties.
its
powerful, single-story
and
central
dome,
all
part, gracefully
harmoniz-
The
form of stucco grotteschi and
little paintings, clothes Raphael's simple forms; it was
carried out after the master's death by his pupils Giulio
Romano and Giovanni da Udine, as well as by his
ing the architectural space with nature outside.
delicate decoration, in the
associate,
Peruzzi.
the
Sienese
painter-architect
Baldassare
religious convictions
may
be found
in his instructions to
he
did not care what the subjects were as long as they were
recognizable, so that one
who wrote
ex-
"this
564.
c.
Raphael.
Interior, Villa
Madama, Rome,
Romano,
/^473
whom He
heal immediately
on His
was able to
return.
known
to
Leonardo and
which proceed
in a
its
Apostles
an
in
Raphael's
unbearable intensity
characteristic
St.
of
revelation.
movement
spiral
James struck
sweeps
to the
ground
and St.
light.
Romano, who
did
all
his
wonderful
independent works
St.
Andrew
book
in
at the
amazement
group
Andrew, with
is
surely
will find
in
lower
which we
style,
turn-
his outstretched
hand and
St.
151 7.
474
Andrew,
detail
of
flg.
Rome
fig.
565
565
new
every
influence he absorbed
art,
but since
became rapidly
shift
his
through
radiance, transfiguring us as
we
it
man
vey
it
It
in his
known. By March, 1517, perhaps even earlier, the society had Leo's grudging approval; thus, at least seven
months before Martin Luther nailed his ninety-five
theses to the door of Wittenberg Cathedral, the Catholic
Reformation was quietly under way.
The goal of the new movement was the reform of the
Church from within, not by means of a new monastic
order, but through the parishes. The program was
simple: common prayer and preaching, frequent Communion (Communion was a rarity in those days), and
works of neighborly love. One of the founders, Giovanni
Carafa, eventually became Pope Paul IV. Together with
another cofounder, Gaetano da Thiene, later canonized
as St. Cajetan, Carafa spread the doctrines of the group
into North Italy. Although the Oratory was dissolved in
1524, its members expanded its original work in that of
the newly founded Theatine Order. It may well be that
is
we should look
in
(fig.
Rome connected,
in fact,
it
was bought
in
(see
in
fig.
Rome
the
who underwrote
empire, and
built
How was
Farnesina
X.
From
very purpose
its
11,
Imperia,
Rome down
traffic
the
on both
sides, there
is still
nothing
quietist
It is
trate in ecstasy
Mass
at
it,
568.
"greater
Rome.
509-11
and heat."
On Good
Friday, April
6,
569.
Villa Farnesina
harmony.
Or had it not already passed ? In the mind of Raphael,
it probably had, as early as 151 6 or 1517, although he
went on painting for the gilded society of the Golden
Age. He participated twice, in fact, in the most delightful
artistic undertaking of the Roman High Renaissance, an
enchanting
little
palace
known
50
475
r
arched loggia
^'^"TTf
(fig.
569). Its
two
whose slender
pilasters
in
No
flank
half
ornament
common
in
now
pre-
windows beat
It is
Roman
above
villas,
left:
known
in
ancient
five-
570.
c.
1 1
Sala di Galatea,
Villa Farnesina,
Rome
right: 571.
Baldassare Peruzzi.
Perseus and Medusa, ceiling of
Sala di Galatea (see
fig.
570)
Baldassare Peruzzi.
Aquarius, compartment of ceiling,
Sala di Galatea (see
fig.
570)
!cTJ^>vfWii?ii?ri^^
476
at the architrave
from below;
in
the
in
holding garlands.
In the frescoes that embellish the interior were em-
then working in
Michelwithdrawn
Rome, save only the increasingly
finest painters
Giulio
many
Romano. Imperia
villa,
573.
by
whom
(whom Leo X
baptized)
The
advanced achievements by
570),
is
lined, insofar as
it
was carried
We move
(fig.
out, by a cycle of
of their
his friend
Raphael
in the
its
pagan imagery.
mistress,
and
it
on the
Galatea pro-
architect,
detail,
1485-1547),
who brought
Rome.
early Cinquecento
produced
arch as
if
ably deliberate.
and
directly
modeled
in
suitable to oil
position
is
as linear
and shallow
The com-
as Peruzzi's archi-
on canvas than
him writing
it
(fig.
Ganymede, shows
572),
The
is
and
further
identified
its
as
best. Al-
why
we
find
bastiano's Polyphemus
clearly
and
sired. It
remains
was prob-
sharp, and
tecture,
is
float
(fig.
573)
the blue sky with drifting clouds, which runs through
in
(fig.
ingredient of colorism
new
(c.
To embody
Piombo
477
574-
Sodom A. Marriage
of Alexander and
Roxana. c. 15 12.
Fresco.
Bedroom,
Villa Farnesina,
Rome
575-
Baldassare Peruzzi.
Wall fresco.
c.
151
5.
Sala
delle Prospettive,
Villa Farnesina,
Rome
walked
off with
the
on any
single beautiful
own
nymph not
woman
that he utilized
478
left
of the seated
an idea
Raphael was to
retain
in
the Transfiguration.
Very
little
Raphael.
lover
illusionistic works
Church of Santi Apostoli were
in
in
and columns
composition
from
left
is
movement of the
centralized, the
to right
is
chariot
in
picture
is
The frescoed
is
standing
it
architecture
almost impossible to
in
illusion begins.
Through the
lofty
is
dis-
when
and the
country
Rome
facing
with
itself
confuse the
real
from
his sketches,
in the series
of
under
his direction,
and oc-
loggia of the
The whole
576-78).
Psiche
fruits,
(figs.
and flowers
flesh
in a
cool, clear,
and behind
The
her.
soft
(fig.
ing,
minor master,
Sodoma
Marriage of
Alexander and Roxana {fig.^-]4), despite shortcomings of
composition, perspective, and anatomy, was based on a
a shock. Yet
it is
in turn,
laxed
Roxana
sits
The
re-
swarms of supernumerary
ous
putti
The most
startling
delle Prospettive
it
was
Romano and
room on
(fig.
Yet
as nothing
Marcantonio.
575), in
is
the Sala
around 151 5, unexpectedly revived the illusionistic perMelozzo da Forli and Mantegna, possibly
spective of
576.
Raphael and
assistants.
Loggia
di Psiche.
Rome
577-
Raphael
and assistants.
Wedding of Cupid
and Psyche, western
half of ceiling.
Loggia
di Psiche
in
Cupid and
It is
Roman High
perhaps
fit-
Renaissance
on a prophetic note. Sebastian del Piombo's Flagellation in San Pietro in Montorio (fig. 580), begun in 1516,
admits us to a darker world of experience to which we
will soon becom.e accustomed, as it was to be the scene of
daily existence for most of Central Italy for decades.
Christ, based on a drawing by Michelangelo for the
Rebellious Slave, is tied to a column that culminates
outside the limits of the picture, and appears to grow
directly from the actual altar below. Since the mural exploits the curve of the chapel wall, on the principle of
Mantegna's Adoration of the Magi (see fig. 420), the wall
disappears, leaving the marmoreal figure, painted with a
wholly new mastery of anatomy, to be assailed by the
swarthy executioners who appear to have sprung from
the columns. This powerful conceit, which converts a
painting into a work of sculpture and projects Christ's
pupils.
suff"ering in three
simulated architecture; perhaps the cycle was to be restricted to the airy episodes. It
is
is
Romano
to the
One of
Three Graces
(fig.
full
as marble,
and
oristic
we have
characteristic of Giulio as
There
last
in
Florence. After
paintings
in
the
and Leo
Chigi,
in
seen
however, col-
are,
in their
as
if it
saint,
not
and
480
in
Titian.
left:
Raphael
578.
and
assistants.
Psyche Received
on Olympus, eastern
half of ceiling.
Loggia
di Psiche
below
left:
579.
Raphael and
GiuLio Romano.
Cupid Pointing out
Psyche to the Three
Graces, compartment
of
ceiling,
Loggia
di Psiche
1516-21. Mural.
Borgherini Chapel,
S. Pietro in
Montorio,
Rome
IN
ROME
481
8.
much confusion
or frustra-
work
in
group of
into reason-
And
this in turn
and
difficulties
of Italian
this
book, an attempt
and
be made to inter-
will
artistic
events in terms of
first it will
"Mannerism."
glance at
many
of the illustrations
in this
chapter as
have watched
it
in the
distortions, visual
contemptuously
what they called maniera (manner), a word derived
from the Italian word for hand (mano) and intended to
signify the ascendancy of manual practice over visual
observation and intellectual clarity. The belief in a postHigh Renaissance decline in Central Italian art persisted
throughout the nineteenth century; the decline was atreestablish a classical style, they referred
to
Romano, or to both.
World War I, in an
1900, but
it
The
first
scholars
notably the
late
who
century
the position taken by such painters as PontorRosso Fiorentino against the principles of
Michelangelo and especiall} Raphael. The later general
adoption of the word maniera produced a modern
linguistic equivalent. Mannerism, and the post-High
Renaissance generation of artists were somewhat hastily
dubbed Mannerists. The expression was fraught with
danger, since in most languages "mannerist" and "mannerism" describe something quite different from the often
startlingly original works of art under discussion.
mo
in
or
(These,
incidentally,
maniera
in
either,
period to be
set
forming a
antithesis,
and
Hegelian
three
hundred
years,
began to excite
superficially
in the
masters as
482
Botticelli,
new
succession
of thesis,
synthesis.
Like
all intellectual
interest.
many
a
Baroque,
more than
saw a parallel
sympathetic
and con-
Walter Friedlaender
artistic atmosphere heavily charged with the revolutionary developments of twentieth-century art, the works
for
difficult
let
generation of
Some
word Man-
who
be treated briefly
will
in
at once,
still
20,
a losing
battle considering all the ink that has been spilled in the
past
fifty
years.
opposed
styles,
in
Chapters
and
13
it is
14,
itself.
or
The
the following
in
it
has become
so deeply
just forget
about
their midst
death
in
1521
brought the
last
made
Vatican came to a
Pope Clement VII and continued to control the Florentine Republic. It was not long before the Florentines
realized that, under the Medici popes, they had lost not
only their internal liberties but their external independ-
From
ence.
liberty in
modern
in
centered in
in
Rome.
proudest, and
Rome)
Renaissance
last,
Renaissance
High
After less
Florence and
the
halt.
derive
Dutchman who,
Florence,
own
moments when
In the midst of
in
weakened or
threatened to dry up (the mid-Trecento in Florence and
Siena, the later Quattrocento in Florence and Rome), we
Conversely, at
lation
and group
the sources
disparity.
The
state of affairs in
bound
in
in
town of Prato by
Spanish troops serving under Julius II. While the old
pope lived, the Medici ruled Florence again in the
unobtrusive person and mild government of Giuliano,
youngest
brother
of
Cardinal
Giovanni.
Giuliano
the traditional
work of
the
sharp change.
Lorenzo,
He
X in
513
the frame-
Giovanni's
brought about a
who entertained
sterner ideas. In
nephew
5 1 6 the pope,
distaste of the
months quarrying
was
reliefs.
Michelangelo wasted
the marble,
first at
many
Carrara, then at
new
we
still
know
about the
final
projected
still
built to
we have mentally
at all
and
we know anything
about Michelangelo's sculpture, we suspect must
reliefs in
if
483
in
tombs and
their sculptures
rapidly, because
Carrara with
all
the
581.
of
Michelangelo. Model
S.
for fa?ade
saints
have been intended to jut forth from the niches and the
frames, imparting a passionate interplay of masses
and
of
the
classicism
of seventeenth-century
And
abandoned, to
reason, however, in the author's view, is not hard to find.
The death of Lorenzo in June of 15 19 had deprived the
fagade of
its
in
(fig.
Lorenzo
Construction began in
death.
canon of San
484
many
monu-
Orvieto on December
7.
and
fled to
guilt,
wounds
Church of Rome
And whoever examines
c.
Rome
ll
Colorplate 62.
7'
9"x6'
Virgin. 1526-29.
Florence
upon which
the principles
and
sees
tices
how
that rehgion
and application
chastisement
is
at
Rome
the court of
example of
and
founded
present prac-
its
are, will
hand.
is
The
has destroyed
evil
all religion
piety in Italy.
Not
until
and half-depopulated
artist
invasion.
Michelangelo was
life
in
Not
He
never, in
fact,
returned to Florence.
until
down
to the penulti-
582.
Michelangelo.
Medici Chapel,
S.
Lorenzo,
Florence. 1519-34
added
583.
Michelangelo. Upper
stories,
Medici Chapel
584.
Michelangelo.
Tomb
Michelangelo.
585.
Tomb
in
Roman
less
opposition to a
within
statues but of
shape and
584, 585),
shape of flattened
its
On
set in
enclosures.
still
beyond the
in front
is
meet
at the corners
the
sarcophagi
of the
dukes
in the
(figs.
Dawn and
the dukes,
488
shown
as beardless,
tombs.
and that
(not,
it
in
analyzed by a Neoplatonist,
is
no other
evidence.
On
the face of
it
Mass and
the saying of
and
On
words:
The heavens
We
it is
Duke
vengeance upon us
as he does,
slain
have
the
586.
587.
Tomb of Lorenzo
Medici Chapel. Designed 1521; carved
1524-34. Marble, length 6' 9"
de' Medici,
588.
Tomb
of
Fame
6'
it
4V2"
goes neither
working
is
finished.
489
know
be able to
in
Hill in 1513,
complete with
Roman
and an
altar at
the oldest
persistent motives in
Madonna of the
Stairs,
is
tomb
totally
nude, as always
in
Michelangelo's
Arise
O God
73: 22]
Roman
there rise
full
rise up,
of the Holy
perdition
of deadly
Peter
venom
carefully calculated
is
Madonna
Giuliano
now
least,
resurrected.
ceremony of
but there
them
151 3 in
Rome,
precisely.
chapel
490
many
Italians in the
hidden by his
left
Dawn and
Twilight,
some of
the
massive and less energetic. A strange lassitude overcomes them both. (It is worth remembering that while
at work on the statues Michelangelo, then only in his
late forties, wrote that he was already old, and that if he
worked one day he had to rest four.) Shoulders slope,
muscles sag, veined hands hang heavily. The drowsy
less
face of Giuliano
590.
(fig.
its
of
rich beauty
line
Michelangelo.
Head of Giuliano
de'
Medici
(see
fig.
584)
591.
Tomb
of
The
on the beautiful countenance of
prevented from reaching the blank face of
Giuliano
is
592.
(see
fig.
587)
49I
and
surface,
is
and con-
fire
the
Although
the pulsating
(fig.
they
591)
weariness.
own
in the projection
of male
and not-quite-closed
The
tragic
recalling
Dawn
(fig.
the facial
caught
in the
592), her
structure
of the
Italo-Byzantine
male models;
still
in fact
made of
Much
is
cess; the
through a
The
veil
an atmospheric
quality, as
if
seen
of haze.
total effect
of the sculpture
of false dreams
original left
for which
disturbing.
leering
So even
mask, symbol
is
The
started a
new one
twisted
running behind
that death
is
all
the
monument.
While engaged in the carving of the statues for the
Medici Chapel, Michelangelo was taking a still more
radical step in the development of
forms.
new
architectural
593.
Michelangelo.
Entrance Hall,
Laurentian Library,
S.
Lorenzo, Florence.
1524-33; staircase
completed 1559
492
began
was halted
in 1524,
recommenced along
in 1526,
In 1557 he sent a
residence in
Rome
in 1534.
the wall,
pilasters.
in the
corners of the
and
is
revived,
nothing
in architectural terms, is
on a grand
less
than the
we have
seen in
594.
it.
Locked
S.
in conflict,
.*^^
bow-shaped
its
ward.
At
first
ventional
not
The
594).
move inward;
there are
no
floating consoles.
do
And
and the
space, he comes to realize that the battle is still on, and
he is caught in it. Pilasters, matching ceiling beams,
and floor patterns produce a continuous and total cage
of space in which the reading desks (also designed by
Michelangelo) are trapped, two to a bay, and the reader
595.
windows and
more or
all
room
it
composition.
Today we
triangular
its
and
fit
would have
into
the
made
analogous to the
never
built.
effect
was
to
(fig.
the
Tomb
of Julius
II
The
from con-
see the
lighted
Michelangelo
597-602)
is
and
that Michelangelo
493
But
it is
victor
discarded
straining
cornice,
left:
596.
under
its
Tomb
Head of
Victory, detail of
Michelangelo.
fig.
597
"Crossed-leg''' Captive.
bottom
left:
600.
Michelangelo.
i".
''Beardless'' Captive.
Accademia, Florence
bottom
right: 602.
Michelangelo. "Blockhead"
work on them
set to
in
Duke
526.
II,
deathof Leo
X in
ally
it
can be assumed
on
figs.
541
in
tomb
wall
story
Victory
(figs.
597, 598),
The strange
has often and erroneously been connected with Michelangelo's passion for the
handsome and
last lines
no marvel
It is
am
494
cultivated
young
8'
7I/2".
Captive.
Accademia, Florence
changed
its
meaning with
its sex.
The
Medici Madonna
586),
(fig.
subduing rather
597)
than liberating a captive, yet withdraws at the moment of
triumph. A revival of the old Psychomachia raging in
most penetrating
youthful figure
not only
(fig.
is
but
in the Victory
engaged
in the
in
1527:
in
"Do you
hold dear
(fig.
the Victory
understood creations.
if least
unrealistic to guess at
It is
Some
(figs.
Tomb
of the motifs
formalized
may go back
in the
1532
contract.
down
wrath,
hatred
let
put
go,
bitterness."
aside
Medici pope,
state of the
"Not
the
injuriously, against
enemies, but the deeds that are done, prudently or valorously, give,
won
or
lost,
words were
as far as the
a wholly
upraised
left
lifts
left
foot.
back.
weight
in
(fig.
tilted
is
left
elbow to
right foot,
474, 489).
The following
same place,
the Florentines had won their
year, in the
we have
to
lift
but
(fig.
601),
self,
later.
in
a languorous, almost
in
bearded Captive
in the torsos,
which
are,
at least, fully
still
encased
on one
in the
side as
times the statues have been started from two sides at once,
sometimes from
One can
back
is still
tion,
fig.
we must look
to the point
their
man
Tomb
for
it
which
regains
it
its
was designed
its
The
vast areas
silkily,
lofty dignity
all
and he must
their present
effect
To watch
worked on
them.
all
all
his
its finish.
Only the
the
way of this
496
As
which
it.
after
508-9 of the three greatest inventors of the High Renaissance style left a clear field for lesser masters. One of
1
these,
Andrea
del Sarto
(i
of the
highest rank.
Perhaps
it
was
this
crisis,
is
St. Philip
Benizzi
was painted
life
in
fig.
Through-
319).
atmospheric
amplitude
The
itself,
of
Baldovinetti,
which was
filled
demanded
with sunlight.
and
trees
can imagine
Piero,
whose
One
eccentricities.
above: 603.
5 ID. Fresco.
Atrium,
left:
604.
Annunciation. 1512.
Panel, 7 1 14 x 72 V2
Pitti
"
Gallery, Florence
497
6o5.
5 14. Fresco.
Atrium,
made
and
his studio,
would have
kills
the gamblers.
At any
move with
rate,
Andrea's landscape
lowland
(fig.
604),
artist
otherwise
the
figures
ginity?
clarity,
these
comes
Holy
Spirit.
The massive
5 14
art.
parts
portico
Mary
surprisingly
resembles
that
in
Ghiberti's
Jacob and Esau scene on the Gates of Paradise (colorplate 22). Unusually, Gabriel approaches from the right,
498
is
(fig.
fig.
369).
The splendid
605), a clear
diff'use
High
miscellany of
chiaroscuro.
The angels on
their clouds
in
Florence and his ideas for the San Lorenzo fapade, "mir-
ground figures, were derived by Andrea from an engraving by Albrecht Diirer. Joseph, in the center toward the
back, is lifted in reverse, almost bodily, from Raphael's
roundness and
of Athens
(see
fig.
The severity
dominance of
and
drapery
547)-
at a noble statement
These various elements of style and motif are assimilated very easily by Andrea, whose noble altarpiece is,
Roman
us that
tells
his
own
completely original.
unconvincing
in the
Montelupo
who guard
It
borrowing
is
is still
so
instantly
same
quoted
figs.
540,
whole cycle of reciprocal borrowings demonstrates the lack of any sense of personal ownership of a
figural motif among High Renaissance masters, and
their great interest, on the contrary, in extracting the
maximum effect from a handsome invention. The in550), the
606.
6'
gVa'xs'
Harpies. 1517.
Florence
unified
by
It is
expression of
St.
Francis but
ir-
fulfill
and counterpoise of
masses, and the eloquence of figural style achieved by
Andrea in this and other contemporary pictures gave him
the deserved leadership of Florentine painting toward
the end of the second decade of the Cinquecento. So far,
in spite of a pervasive note of gloom even in the happiest
paintings, there is not a hint of the so-called Mannerist
crisis, nor will there be, save in an occasional emotional
outburst, to the end of Andrea's days.
simplified composition, the poise
607.
air
separates the
first
range of
hills to
in
local St.
Margaret of Cortona
foreground.
in the right
clarity
and
dissolution,
mo
more than
ter
throughout Central
Italy.
1517 or so appeared
No more
are
we
invited, as in
on the wounds of
Christ, to
body
and indeed
in
It is
who
in
on which
the Eucharist,
all
the saints
looks, as he
in Florentine territory
sixteenth.
reality
Or
is
that because
we
do not
still
fully
under-
PONTORMO.
Andrea
del Sarto
in his
in
the
person of his younger pupil, Jacopo Carucci da Pontor(1494- 1 557), the forces of the Mannerist
crisis
reach
their culmination.
Pontormo already saps the foundaof High Renaissance structure. At first sight his
figs.
tions
composition looks
left;
like
And
wom-
tural setting.
Two huge
altarpieces
Antonio
dei Servi in
sioned in 1526
it
may
an
air
500
an seated on the
motif at the
right,
stairs
at
the
left
Pontormo breaks
and scratches
it
with a
the
down
similar
symmetry by
at his left leg
at
composition.
monu-
left:
608.
PONTORMO.
Visitation. 15 14-16.
Fresco. Atrium,
SS. Annunziata, Florence
Joseph
in
Egypt,
c.
518.
38x43 '/s".
National Gallery, London
Panel,
full
p.
of Christ.
Its
'^
and St.
martyrdoms
sacramentally
of
God
rather
their
than
dramatically),
new submission of
is
naked, un-
little,
likely to
concerned boy.
this instance
of Pontormo's irrespon-
5OI
6io.
sibility
full
onslaught of Mannerism in
chamber of Pierfrancesco
(now Palazzo
Palazzo
Borgherini
Borgherini. The
Rosselli del Turco), a splendid example of Florentine
High Renaissance architecture, still stands in Borgo
Santi Apostoli, and Pierfrancesco, a close friend of
Michelangelo and by all accounts a dehghtful person,
ordered for
it
up
into
away,
little
yet
vignettes,
without
jumps
picture splits
us,
some
far
irrational
upper
502
in scale,
Villa Medici,
Poggio a Caiano
up
in his perfectly
wholly different
fresco
Pontormo
Villa Medici at
mood
is
Poggio a Caiano
(fig.
610),
which had
260 and
fig.
villa to
be
Leo
6' 4".
Capponi Chapel,
Sta. Felicita,
Florence
Colorplate 65.
Catherine,
c.
15
il
dome
(portion). Cathedral,
Parma
was superintending
cardinal
(if
the death of
Leo
in
much
be resumed until
Of Pontor-
mo's share, only one lunette was ever done, but that is a
The subject was identified by
Vasari as Vertumnus and Pomona, but it has always been
to
difficult
make
fresco
the
own
await his
full
The
sunlit scene
tive,
due to
Pontormo painted
its soft,
somewhat decep-
is
bucolic spontaneity of the lunette there lurks a set of compositional principles as dangerous for the unity and logic
if
is
Joseph
in
treated as
if
in
nowhere defined,
the figures are poised on the horizontals as if balanced on
wires, and the whole illogical composition is on three
levels, dehcately laced together by Lorenzo de' Medici's
ground
the
air,
is
nonexistent, space
laurel branches.
compared
is
sometimes extended
to the
is
in
utmost
harbor an immense reserve of latent energy. All Pontormo's poses are calculated so as to bring out unexpected
of the figures
aspects
ventional
and
in
extremely uncon-
new and
arrestingly
rhythms. Where
we
sometimes
beautiful
linear
will
visible.
Renaissance,
it
delicate
is
Entombment (colorplate
on the
Lamentation
no
and the
(fig.
607),
this
is
meditative
and
is
its
is
the Sacrament.
Two
lifeless
like
Andrea's
slow, dreamlike,
and
unreal.
own
volition but as
if
carried
by the now-
No one
through his
is
rates earth
Sarto's
St.
nucleus of
At the top
63), the
are
fountain in
hke a
line.
Pontormo's masterpiece
subject of the
web of
The
The
colors pass
common
act of
pinks,
all belief
and appear
in the
Vasari relates,
for three
years and
private a
let
507
in his
finest
paintings of the
Italian art.
J'
Rosso
is
As we
would do
well to
under
St.
Cajetan
remember
that
it
we
in
existing drawings
(fig.
human
crisis.
figure
is
The autonomy,
now
completely
1546.
del Disegni e
Red
chalk. Gabinetto
Stampe,
Uffizi,
Florence
Rosso Fiorentino.
Assumption of the Virgin.
right: 613.
in
is
preserved for us in
is
an Assump-
life
appear. There
they cannot
is
if carved from
formed
of cubic
and
faces
are
wood, and their bodies
shapes derived from the bleak planes of the Cross and the
ladders. In the kneeling, stretching Magdalen under the
Cross, an astonishing knife-edge crease splits the figure
from elbow to knee, into light and dark halves, and to
show this is no accident, her belt is bent as it goes around
the crease.
Other
principle.
figures,
The head of
of twisted rags
away from
(fig.
614). St.
the Cross
and covering
raking
(64:6) of
fight.
human
One
recalls Isaiah's
614.
detail of
upper portion,
in
is
shown
is
as
the
human
To cap
tier.
ping to
dangling
ever got
in
Thomas,
St.
it
in front
away with
tie
is
Cosimo
completely
is
monkey
loved, we are
own
child.
Rosso
did not
the
showed
light,
St.
615.
c.
denunciation
1523. Canvas,
63x46
Florence
upon
by
at length
St.
still
in
at least
we
cloth that
an
artificial
by
Rome,
of
his
subsequent wanderings
in
Umbria and
represent
nerist style,
of
Raphael),
lie
DOMENICO BECCAFUM I.
The
nearly with
Rome
in 1527,
aside from
economic
but
loss,
little
on
direct effect
may be regarded
art
as the
sensitivity,
their
Pontormo
in the
consummate craftsmanship.
All
the traditional
phemous
hard to find
painting
is
in
more than
it
hides.
The construction of
is
the figures in
based on Michel-
and more
classicistic
Roman
was more
around
151 8, and shows many traits that we are accustomed to
call Manneristic. Its symmetrical format goes past
Raphael, back to Perugino. The inlaid floor is projected
from the foreground plane, through an arch, to the outer
career; but
edge of a terrace
Athens
is
in
(fig.
546).
it
in a
likely painted
manner suggesting
The grand
effect
the School of
style.
The softening
And
Jerome that
and
figures
feet
of
manner
that reveals less the shapes of their bodies than the rigid
verticals of the piers.
(in Italian vele,
upheld by
putti,
The
or veils)
arches, pendentives,
become
and vaults
The clouds
below the sacred figures fade off into the haze that conand this, in turn, blends into the ground mists
floating upward, exquisitely observed and painted, from
ceals the sky
this
a single plane.
floor,
St.
Catherine,
Catherine altarpiece
x 17
14".
Pinacoteca, Siena
510
and that
any person or
object, occupies
in the
shadows
St.
Catherine's
and book, St. Jerome's lion. In his language of diaphanous color and tremulous line Beccafumi seems to
lily
be telling us that
substance
all
is
an
mist.
contemporary
St.
Communion
miraculously given
Yet she
by an angel
who
the church
space
pervaded by an otherworldly
light
Angels
(fig.
617),
Michael brandishes
is
chaos.
St.
utterly
unprecedented
manner
more
Him above
St.
And
in his
c.
Encompas'd them
is
this
and Siena
617.
("No
in the early
Cinquecento separates
in a similar
level
of the
and
in-
fig.
557), but
all
to
Rome. Correggio's
is
style,
Roman
becoming
own
highly
From
of his
in
to
absorbed
and secular
at
in
alike.
No
5II
Madonna
as in Giovanni
figure,
and still in
unconven-
Bellini
in
the
Church of Sant'Antonio
can experience
in
Parma
(figs.
Child's
His
in the
crook of
left
While
we
work. Mary
618, 619),
thigh, bringing
left
left
hand,
by the aged
mass of
He concentrates all
St.
lips.
in a
lifted
up to Him
is
a deeper message.
The Magdalen's
Magdalen
herself was to
wash
with her tears and dry them with her hair. The Child,
meanwhile, for
all
from
its
St.
is
conferring
Jerome's Latin
Human
attraction
blended in
whether of cloth that flows
like
melting marble, or of
flesh,
or of
Sts.
After
left:
fig.
618
torrential,
honeyed
swept together by
hair, are
this single
makes Correggio's
love that
is
it
in a sense
who
few decades
later,
it
fair to
is
seems to have
felt,
all
indeed
who
it
would be
a harsh Puritan
we know
forbade nudity
and
victim
which so sternly
in religious
fell
became an
surfaces,
much
as his
essential ingredi-
In
his
most
it
is
Now
in the
Correggio's
ble
if
own
believa-
We
He illuminates
who
draws back
the midwife
and
raises her
hand
as
if in
momentary attempt
And
to
carried
it
sorrow of the
loss in
this
San Prospero's
Crashaw's
Hymn
in
the
Nativity,
with
its
it
recurrent
their
EASTE
Historically,
dome
field
and eighteenth
centuries.
The
first
of these, painted
in
the
Camera
first
fig.
426).
elliptical
The drum of
structed, serves as a
drum
On
(fig.
622),
nudes on
refrain:
Perhaps
was
identified with
on a bundle of wheat
is
and
620.
St.
aeternall
DAY!
513
on the
inside of
masked the
carefully
drum and
enormous
boy angels
in
means of
between,
pear
in the central
In Correggio's
rapture
in
central figure
carried
composition.
is
rapt
ously at
artist's
least.
No
The
classical
Gonzaga,
1
first
Duke
of Mantua, apparently
whole room
The
in
the early
far
(see
fig.
425). Jupiter
Gonzaga
in the
family, not at
exploits of Federigo. In
all
inappropriate to the
known
depicted
An
who
Apostle, detail of
fig.
Parma
621
wrapped
in a floating cloak, to
the
514
entire ring
seems
Jupiter
left:
623.
CORREGGIO.
and
Early 1530s.
Canvas, 64'/2X28".
Kunsthistorisches
Vienna
dome
of the Cathedral
master's disappearance.
No
Italian art,
daring
Jupiter
sexual climax
it
cannot
at his
contemporary, Titian,
in the
We
on a
level
guilt
complex no one
completeness of his
life
of
man
present,
is
as a subject
as rare as
it is
pure.
in art, past or
Museum,
many
as
it
is filled
with
compares
to the distortion of
and
master of
Parmigia-
it.
sits in
absurd-
all its
Lauro
abandoned by
Convex Mirror.
Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna
in
later
Citta di Castello.
Holy Night
is peaceful, as distorted spatially as the Holy Night is
convincing. In a sharply foreshortened pose, at an
unexplained depth in the picture, St. Jerome lies sleeping
It is
Rome, and
Rome,
in
fitfully.
(if
this
reason that the Baptist and the Virgin and Child are
Jerome's
The
PARMIGIANINO
Corrcgglo's slightly younger contemporary in Parma, Francesco Mazzola, called Parmi-
at
High
Correggio's
style.
is
proto-Baroque
even
Renaissance,
Parmigianino
is
perhaps the
who knew
to
show
his
own
Rome
in 1524,
reflection in a barber's
it
exactly.
belonged
it
to reproduce
it
departure for
when
of art." Fascinated by
wooden
On
this
lens-shaped surface he
size.
visionary figures
And we
are
still
in
is
reduced to an
it
recalls to us
enlarged
in
enshadowed
tenuated
in
right
chill
opaque darkness
and
enormously enlarged, and the leaded, slop-
that
ships between the figures, or indeed any spatial construction for the painting, the rays of light flash
sleeve are
gaze of
its
are at-
Monaco
(colorplate 13),
arms of
leg.
unknown
Every surface
gianino
let
his
is
like
from the
shards of
ice.
is
lascivious
and perverse.
the Child's
through the
516
it
insofar as
it
Leonardo
whose minds
"transforms
itself
into
first
steps (see
fig.
of her tunic.
doubtless the
is
Whether or not
uncertain.
while
was
in
It
to
remain bald
is
also.
figural representations
is
was
St.
upward
smooth
which stands
in night-
a capital,
in
show
up with
it.
glance
show
that
it
was
to be Corinthian.
Why
did he
Madon-
na. Thus, unsatisfied with the picture (so Vasari tells us),
London
Christ Child
lies
fig.
482).
arm hanging
as in
Four exquisitely
517
it
its
if
The
cento,
is
epitomized
in
its
jeweled surface
it
this
Although
picture.
Cupid
pushed so
is
parallel
his flesh so
observed
his
one screams
in fear
two
Normal, supernormal, or
Dead Christ
(see
fig.
and
aristocrats
Up
inition" of
style in
it
Mannerism.
Now
we have
that
seen
the
painters,
we
are in a position to
At the
way:
tions.
this
princes.
to this point
risk
make
a few generaliza-
High Renaissance
Content:
is
at
minutely
propelled toward us
in
to
forward and
far
it
Mannerism
ideal; appeals
Abnormal
or anormal; exploits
to universal
emotion, or withdrawal
Narrative:
Space:
foreground plane
Composition:
centralized
Proportions:
Normative, idealized
Figure:
Contrasting, surprising
Substance:
Natural
Artificial
Many
of these Cate-
first
cate-
periods. Nonetheless,
Mannerism
is
a precipitate of a
crisis that
through
his innocence,
518
abundantly
He had,
who main-
One
left:
628.
Madonna
di S. Biagio,
above: 629.
1518-28
Plan of
below: 630.
Montepulciano.
Madonna
di S.
Biagio
Interior,
Madonna
di S.
Biagio
known
gious and
civil structures
significantly
and designed
reli-
He was,
death of Francesco
di
Giorgio (see
left
fig.
unfinished
382).
When
5 1 6,
Rome,
whose construction was dormant after the death of Bramante in spite of designs submitted by Raphael, Peruzzi,
and others. It was also Antonio's masterpiece. He chose
a simple, Greek-cross plan crowned with a dome, similar
to that of his brother Giuliano's Santa Maria delle
Carceri at Prato, an unfinished commission he had also
inherited (see figs. 312-14). Antonio eschewed entirely
which
conferred
upon the
to be flanked,
all
filled,
three facades
(see
459).
519
Antonio
set
orders.
third
The fourth
story
around
folded
octagonal
attic
is
surmounted by an
divided by consoles, and culminates in an
corners;
its
octagonal pyramid.
is
it
It is
Antonio intended
is
Much
it
is
level
of the
if
we
fact,
pilaster
story
is
first
story, in
who
brother,
after
real fight
seems to
latter
is
and
column-and-pier
clustered
massive
The
wall.
windows favored
is
in
of the entablatures
corner obelisks.
in
efTect
is
And
is
The dome, so
It
worth
is
window enclosed
vertical
in
dome
with
ribs,
pilasters
in
it
imitation
on a
of a
peristyle.
The
effect
of the interior
overwhelming
is
(fig.
630)
not
Giuliano
when moved indoors; the piers carry arches that are just
as heavy. The inside walls are travertine throughout, so
square
he had seen
in the ruins
in
Rome.
In
(see p. 483),
Wherein, then,
lies
younger
in
in
the
the supports
in
expanse of sky.
brilliance in spite of
the
cathedral.
Antonio
made each
fagade
roughly
in-
631.
520
c.
1515
Ionic, the
second Doric,
succession.
The altana
umns, placed
in
window caps of
632.
Baldassare Peruzzi.
Palazzo Massimo
alle
columns
the Ionic
On
is
the
mezzanines, afloat
in
horizontal
own
frivolous
scrolls.
pictorial contemporaries.
GiULio ROMANO.
Meanwhile
PERUZZI.
in
Rome
succumbed
to the
new
style in
even
the
elegant
High Renaissance,
an extraordinary building
when
the
originally very
Mannerist
crisis
was ever
(figs.
It is fitting
Romano's Palazzo
to beget, Giulio
633, 634),
to close a chapter
on the
and
constructed
decorated
del
it
Te
great
at
unknown
in
which
it is
The palace
known
name of
is
From no
single point of
have been
visible,
illogical,
because
it
street.
Uflfizi in
in
Florence
(fig.
729),
successively
then single
umns, then paired columns and the wide central openHis supports
pilasters,
col-
became most
fine,
smaller than
to suspect.
and the
its
little
palace, far
city,
successions
in quite separate
52I
GiULio Romano.
North facade, Palazzo
del Te, Mantua.
right: 633.
1527-34
below: 634. GiULio
Romano.
i'.
war has entered on a new phase. The windows are capped by massive pediments, whose raking
angles do not meet. Yet the rusticated keystones below
them have crept upward from the lintels, as if forced out
of
line.
And
Nothing
like this
architecture
have
GiuLio Romano. Courtyard,
Palazzo del Te, Mantua. 1527-34
635.
noticed
this
alarming
and compression
is
is
serenely rusticated in
flat,
Massimo
the
first
alle
Colonne. The
story are
much more
was
ruin. It
is
monument
into an imitation
intervals,
destruct device.
The
interior, in
entertained
635).
great
522
many
(he
if to
in
Rome
feeling of tension
phenomenon
The consequent
Renaissance
in
it
loggie,
still
survives, in spite of
153OS.
Museum, Vienna
Madonna
with the
Uffizi Gallery,
Florence
>
3
O
>
C
u
d
2:
ui
z
o
5
O
O
d
c,
_0
left:
636.
GiuLio Romano.
Mantua
Romano.
Mantua
Mantua
the
Sala di Psiche
(fig.
636)
tells in
its
in the
figs.
is
the
was
sufficiently
Ingres
in
in spots,
637, 638), a
is
at times orgiastic
When
realizes, to his
the
mock
to
assault
Mount Olympus, by
upon
and
us as
struck
years later,
is
it
first
completed when he
an eloquent
if
somewhat
among
many
values
that
its
aftermath,
527
19-
in
As
in
Europe, disputed
in
was
works of many a minor master of the
period look at
first
much
sight
Quattrocento: one
member
from the
still
Bellini, in spite
of
in 1516.
Two new
and
Around
two more
the
Venetian
made
style
giants,
their appearance.
from
Lombardy
in that
Lombard
city
under
from the
peril
its
well-nigh im-
lagoons saved
sister
the
and
Italy
528
in
the
in
1503 by
Romagna.
in
1506,
in the
II,
least,
much of
It is
the
known world.
moment when
the aged
possessed
nature to enjoy.
little
artistic
endeavor, Venice
in the history
It
may
itself
then
well be that an
is
The
nature poetry and
landscape painting
in
France
in the
the Serenissima
Julius
industrialization of
GIORGIONE.
late Bellini
its
fall
the
Venetian influence.
It is difficult
from the
Lotto
to
profited
its
suburbs.
and reaches out toward the observer. Giorgione, traditionally and observably his pupil, is more of a mystery.
Giorgio (in Venetian dialect, Zorzi) was born in Castelfranco, a small town on the Venetian mainland, probably
around 1475-77, and came to Venice at an early age. A
few documents record his activities in 1507-8, and in 15 10
he died, still young, of the plague. According to a tradition picked up and retold by Vasari, Giorgione (-one is
the Italian suffix for "big") was given to worldly delights.
good company
at parties
on account of
his agreeable
He enjoyed
nature, he
loved
Giotto
is
there so
little
in the
configuration of
Magi
relied
(see
fig.
its
on Mantegna's
earlier.
Nor has he
reduce the
tionists
known
to a bare half-dozen.
(fig.
639,
often
accepted,
tiny,
list
now
in
left.
(Significantly
from a contemporary
is
It
in
shadow.
is
quality.
replica of the
suitably dark.
No
Vienna.)
enough, these
combination of
red, blue,
ledges
it,
over
in
or at
least
not friendly
world Gior-
is
the motivating
humans he
entertains the
completely
convincing
of
Bellini.
landscape
wild,
And
rocky,
at first sight
and
it
is
produces some
639. Giorgione.
Washington, D. C.
(Kress Collection)
is
steps that
armor, wearing
icantly
enough,
produced
it
his
for
which he painted
it.
Even
Cathedral of Castelfranco
this
symmetrical composi-
tion
means of access
is
installed.
We
to the Virgin,
artist
provides
no matter how
some
regally she
few steps to
Bellini's
his
Panel,
78%
and
530
Madonna
of
fig.
640
IN
VENICE
St.
Liberalis
(fig.
is
there through
there.
its
cross banner.
his
in
shining
Francis addresses
Our
the broad
movement of
trees
noteworthy that
men-at-arms, one
It is
Two
GlORGIONE
642.
(finished
by Titian).
Sleeping Venus,
c.
1510.
Canvas, 42 % x 69".
Gemaldegalerie,
Dresden
at the right,
and
These
mood
explicit allusions,
if
by
artillery.
the
now
woman
Land
bathing.
change
in the
dramatis personae,
He
view,
dal composition,
now
may
visit
of Fra Bartolommeo to
is
of counterdiagonals
in the
is
scholarly controversy.
Who
is
the nude
woman? Why
is
she nursing her child outdoors under these unconventional circumstances? Why is the soldier standing nearby
and watching? Many determined and fruitless efforts
were made to find in ancient literature and in the Bible
It
The
little
with the gypsy and the soldier, was from the hand of
Zorzi da Castelfranco.
upon the
little
glare.
river
Lightning
Another unconventional
nature,
is
picture, ruled
by a savage
Two young
in
lute,
happy conversation,
who
a crystal pitcher.
IN
VENICE
53I
women
in
Giorgione's
He was
man
in
the
modern times
history of art.
The
artist
in the
works. Form
Bellini's later
there
is
is
less
left,
than
drowned
light.
in
is full
we can
little
see
in Giovanni
shadow, and
The
for instance,
face of the
of expression,
more than
the
profile
begins to
One of
because
(fig.
it
was
finished
by Titian,
we
is
Venuses by
removed from
who
plate 36),
later
Botticelli's Christianized
recumbent
Far
Titian.
goddess (color-
present state
is
its
was repainted in
Dresden in the early nineteenth century. The landscape
was completed in his grandest style by the young man who
conventional a master; probably
it
rapidly supplanted
dominance over
his
in Venice.
word
velatura, or "veiling,"
down
English as Titian,
1490.
No
independent
Fondaco
German
him
as
still
young when,
and
shadows,
seem
lights
when
532
communi-
miraculously
colors,
suspended.
is
off,
colors he
at first set to
work with
whose
manner he found impossibly old-fashioned, and then by
Giovanni Bellini. Even in this authoritative shop he did
not stay long, but moved on to study with Giorgione. By
1510 he seems to have become independent. The young
mountaineer, whose exuberant strength fills a majestic
series of canvases with form, light, and color, was also a
shrewd businessman, and invested his earnings in lumber
in Cadore. By 1531 he was able to buy a palatial
fied,
Bellini,
Murano
he painted
life
to
many
5 1 6-1 8,
1488.
in a period
much and
still
The most
lie around
in
is
them
in
New
he
Italy.
known
to
Central
Tiziano Vecellio,
in
surfaces, volumes,
TITIAN.
first
middle distance.
the
line Hill.
chanced to drop
his brush, and the emperor of most of the known world
stooped to pick it up. Leonardo da Vinci, w ho had striven
his studio, Titian
state
From
other
all
at the princely
artists,
must follow
is still
in
pictures, particu-
are
and
placings
therefore
what the
1510-15
c.
(?).
Panel,
Museum, Vienna
Kunsthistorisches
related.
spiral
is
for
The
the
triangle
is
portraits.
right
somewhat overlap
sleeve
its
body
is
perfectly balanced.
positional principles
"
motion over a
of the middle distance
Throughout
26X32I/2
in its
Gypsy Madonna,
643. Titian.
of the picture, and the diagonal rising relationship between the parapet and the cloth of honor corresponds to
for
is
way
the
the
hand
shadow. The
for Michelangelo.
man's
It
it is
present here
Among
strong, fine line of his straight nose against the dark of the
many
in
own
against
lesser
interior of the
manner introduced
An
violet
its
more
compo-
figures,
parapet, in the
It is
ful
it
actually
is
may
644),
an
The composition
who
deportment. So grand
is
the
picture that
Frari,
fig.
is
it
IN
Madonna of
VENICE
533
(fig.
644). These,
who
sail
happily
their legs
toward us
in space.
Adam.
It is
not without
compared
com-
latter
warmly
beautiful
in the fullness
women. Certainly
who
necessity for
broad
effects that
would be
visible
from a
of the Virgin
Sta.
Raphael
we must
Rome
and directly.
Probably a year or so earlier than the Assumption,
and possibly using the model who later posed for Mary,
Titian painted the so-called Sacred and Profane Love
(colorplate 73), about whose interpretation so much has
been written. The universal appeal of this picture is so
strong due to the harmony of its composition, the
splendor of the contrast between glowing stuffs and glowing flesh, and the beauty of the two women that the
Maria Gloriosa
probably painted
in 151 3, three
remember
until 1545.
Central
Italian
and
Renaissance
He
Heaven of the
Virgin's
body mi-
as a scene
of cosmic jubilation. Nature, so fascinating to Giorgione,
has vanished. The foreground is filled with healthy,
One
534
is
to a few
style.
wildly.
seated on
simplest explanation
is
of a fountain
in the light
of late afternoon.
One is clothed,
be seen
figure
is
left,
in
is
evident to
What, then,
all.
is
the nature
of that exhortation? Through an analogy with Carpacon the Passion (see fig. 447), also an
arrangement of figures and carved stone with
an upland scene on the left and a peaceful lowland on the
right, a mystical transition between two states of being
appears to be indicated, and this takes place through
cio's Meditation
house.
more
in three
paganism can
chamber
(let
made
by
Roman
third-century
is
(fig.
646),
allegorical
cophagus,
new
life
of love
is
evening
light.
No more
was
satisfying apotheosis of
human
well-being
composed it
in terms of his characteristic triangles, and in a simple
harmony based on whites and silver-grays, blues and
roses, and deep greens, already showing the warmth and
left
645. Titian.
Head of Female
Figure, detail of
IN
c.
VENICE
1515.
535
646. Titian.
Festival
of Venus.
Prado, Madrid
647. Titian.
Bacchanal of the
Andrians.
c.
1520.
Canvas, 69 x 76".
Prado, Madrid
nude
at the
lower right
who
lies,
unashamedly
at the
his shirt to
lifts
top of the
hill
One
little
boy
classical sources,
freedom of
istic
figural
expression.
new
The
now
Tuscan
his
favorite
diagonal-triangular
calculated example
(fig.
649).
is
principle.
commissioned
in
closely
House ofPesaro
in
the
in full sunlight.
on whose
galleys.
An
centers,
at the left,
members of his
family,
red of the wine that no light touches, and the soft sheen of
eloquence of color
prising than
its
in the
beauty
in
shadows
is
unexpected as the
the picture plane, then set the Virgin so far to one side
so acute in contemporary
its
leaps. If the
Mannerist
crisis,
the kneeling
648. Titian.
National Gallery,
London
and
in
in figures
at the
in,
regularity
as
were
High Renaissance
Mannerist contemporaries
his
own
in
owe
their great
their
can see
it
in the
all
over
it, is
by multiple
When,
at
glazes.
subject of the
its
successor,
the
p. 475), he does so in a more measured and controlled fashion than Pontormo or even
Andrea
that of the
649- Titian.
Maria Gloriosa
650. Titian.
8' 10".
Entombment. Mid-i520S.
538
del Sarto.
651. Titian.
Man
above: 652. Titian. Presentation of the Virgin. 1534-38. Canvas, 11' 4"x25' 5". Accademia, Venice
below: 653.
boar hunt,
reliefs.
in a
well-known
series
Women,
detail
of
fig.
652
Roman sarcophagus
of
Christ, Nico-
into an isosceles
plified to their
tragic intensity.
Man
(d.
in
may
651)
1523),
1527.
rendered
to Federigo
Gonzaga
is
and
ships of hands
the painting
is
intense.
and
flesh tones.
One cannot
scheme
kill
which
fives
overlay of glazes.
in the
work
Virgin
(figs.
rambhng mass of
buildings that
Temple
another triangle of
One
IN VENICE
539
is
may
all
on the
subtle organization of architectural space and crowds of
standing figures in the murals of Avanzo and Altichiero
in Padua (where, in fact, he had painted a major fresco
series as a young man), and adapted their ideas to largescale narrative composition, which had not previously
this.
Titian
interest.
The
Doges' Palace.
On
the
left
in
Rome and
or
movement
(fig.
540
web
IN
VENICE
Uflfizi
Maria
Gallery, Florence
6"X9'
on the
first
is
a touching
some
atten-
opening on treetops. In
this palatial
reserve,
(fig.
654), finished in
Duke of Cameri-
reduce her, in
(fig.
pose of
now
looks at
httle
dog asleep
waved golden-brown
hair floods
from
his
youth to
the
who
of a prince's mistress
imagination
his
is
in-
fidelity to the
white,
abundant
such
girl in
environment stands
657. Titian.
flesh,
own
enough
brocade
in the
time.
The
nerism
with
is
flat
background
own
is
closest he ever
comes
to Central Italian
Man-
and
The
Titian
originally
visit to
IN
to
Venice the
VENICE
54I
these
now removed
first
Rome, showed
visited
Maria
time Titian,
to a similar
who had
not yet
him
why he
rival before
520,
from
first
Roman
artistic
vocabu-
Romano,
still
working
in
Mantua; and
if
we
tumble through
are to be-
Gonzaga
who
battle
in
and
Sacrifice of Isaac,
thing.
There
figs.
is
more
is
fixed
and sometimes
startling viewpoint
Among
for so long.
Titian's
the
portrait of
Pope Paul
is
the dramatic
which Titian painted
to Bologna in 1543. The
style
is
shown
in a characteristically
one hand on
his
important a factor
is
as
In a contrasting technique
which
on the
lights crackle
and brushwork
which
new freedom of
light
tered
how
the mortal
Danae
who
the
Night (see
version,
now
in
in
in the
famous
first
loved by Jupi-
Roman
human
Madrid
(fig.
542
IN
coins.
VENICE
c.
15 10-15.
Assumption of the
Panel, 22'
Sta.
Virgin. 1516-18.
6"xii'
10".
Frari,
u
E
o
>;
o
-n
O
PQ
>
C
U
in
s:
z
<
H
>
81
5014x70".
Prado, Madrid
660. Titian.
550s. Canvas,
SsxZiVi".
all
the fullness of
its
lies
waiting for a
physical expression,
and turquoise
The type of
Sacred and Pro-
fane Love, painted some forty years earlier, and the glance
that of the yearning Mary in the Assumption. The broken
brushwork of Titian's late style releases the warm, glow-
coy than the Venus of Urbino, but recalling her pose. One
of the finest is the Verms and the Lute Player (fig. 660),
is
Danae resembles
ing
the
nude
figure in the
trace of Michelangelesque
crowned by Cupid,
which
reclines
on
in a burst
of glory
in the
her.
In broad.
IN VENICE
547
mering landscape
in
and
hills,
pipe.
handling of a few
of Venus.
It
details,
that were
make them
unfinished at Titian's
in crucial details
do
by
lesser
men
not detract
to
from
In the
blandishments of Jupiter
quecento imagination
that
in the relatively
innocuous shape
companions
49x371/2
"
Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna
As Correggio does
Ganymede
from earth
foreground
in his
figures,
with
spatial
661. Titian.
Rape of Europa
Europa and
Bull, detail
of
548
IN
VENICE
is
sea, clouds,
moment
to reveal a spiny,
sur-
facing
fish.
life
Christ.
On
nude Venus. Strada's success in his profession is shown by his own rich costume, fur cape, and
massive gold chain, his gentlemanly status by the sword
at his left side and the dagger at his right, and his scholarship by the books on the cornice over his head. The
torch.
portrait appears, of
statuette of a
manner intended
interest.
to
communicate
to the
trait-with-attributes
the excitement of a
for delivery
shows a controlled
brushwork and luminous glazes.
mr:^IKiWITi^'^
1m % *JtrfflBPi
#
il.
ver-
ri
-ft
^^^H^^^H^H
Om^^S^JLh^^^^^k^
final
in pictures for
(figs.
more
personal and,
'
inevitable
wax
especially
The motif of
moment of
commerce
it
life
in his
St.
holds
Moses carrying
if
in a
i^W. >L
^,:,&j
'^^-^
/
^^
^m
^Jp
-K
:'
\c/">^ >^ fl
li
..>kfi.
^^iia
\Si
-vi^^H iH? (^^H
'
ti^ 4'
'^
'
A-^'l
^0
ii^ f
'^ wry
that recur
"i-^ffifm
663. Titian.
Canvas,
9'
2"xs'
c.
IN
/A
1570.
Munich
VENICE
549
right: 664.
Titian
by
(finished
Palm A Giovane).
Pieta.
c.
1576.
664.
fig.
Maria Gloriosa
dei
his
\i
He
of 1576.
it,
for both he
649).
fig.
plague
whose
He
self-inflicted
torments
Jerome
(fig.
in the desert
665), with
he seems to
have
felt
spared
it
ignorantly to
many
added
it
contains glorious
and
in her rich
Magdalen
is
all
emanate from or
converge upon the Saviour and the mother. The hypotenuse of Titian's
last triangle,
by
his
550
IN
is
as.
VENICE
semblance of
in his
Jerome, he concentrates
St.
all
his
LOR ENZOjLOTTO.
the reader of a
Titian's
book
like
own
own
artistic
message.
and almost
strikingly original
what
CriveUi, but
break his
ties
accept the
stylistic
Nor
own
individuality,
number of changes on
inventions, running
and he could
his personal
mood and
little
Marchigian
seen an Annunciation
Italy, to
city
(fig.
of Recanati
666),
is
to be
is still
an exultant
color.
somewhere
We are
Lorenzo Lotto.
666.
in the
Annunciation. 1520s.
in
nail,
and, strangest of
all,
an
hourglass with the sands half run out, partly covered with
a cloth and placed on a stool like the chalice and the
paten on an
altar.
Sacra
is
riddles
and magic of
Conversazione
(colorplate 75),
mood
fills
if
with
work
of the beautiful
which
this dis-
and mantle,
with the
hills.
distilled
Any affinities
hair.
Mary
shadow on
in terror, casting a
its
The
the breadth,
little
to
do with
in
The
soft features.
No
55I
much
glowing color.
many
achieved a high
limits of
The
level
prolific school
Cinquecento,
fell
manner
more
of
and
was not
of Ferrara,
still
their invention.
flourishing in the
The
spell.
de Lutero,
strange
1490-1542),
c.
tensions
of the Quattrocento
Ferrarese
now
667), a benign
Furioso, frees
personage who,
humans whom
in
(fig.
Ariosto's Orlando
We
her
spells,
artificially
lighted
landscape elements,
is
wooden drawing
painters
is
is
Canvas, 69
Rome
GIROLAMO
SAVOLDO.
Canvas,
37%
491/2
".
Borghese Gallery,
Rome
520s,
is
Probably
is,
contemporary
with
Angel
(fig.
1548).
father, looks
dark green
still
fresh.
552
it
is
is
to
live
with
us.
We can
who seem
The
earlier,
life
whose
made
of his
in the
who
whom
he
may have
**
arisen partly
young man
we
formidable com-
from
offered
more
incompatibility
of
is
attributable to a fundamental
personality,
stylistic
aims,
own
unfinished
for the
full-size
hostility, not
made enemies
it is
an essential
same
artist if
in the
Capture of
Uffizi,
Florence
by shorthand drawing methods. A story is told about two Flemish masters, the
scrupulous reahsm of whose detailed and polished
drawings astonished the Venetian public; Tintoretto's
response was to pick up a piece of unsharpened charcoal
and in a matter of minutes, with a few rough, hooklike
strokes, knock an action figure into abundant and
astonishing fife, whereupon he commented, "We poor
Venetians can only draw like this." Tintoretto's preserved drawings (fig. 669) are almost exclusively in this
first
style, yet
to Ridolfi, an inscription
life
detailed
execution.
Bowman
and
impetuosity.
We
j(!
fear, for, as
to
do with
this desire, as
IN VENICE
he
553
intensity, his
pictures
to enable himself to
them
at angles to the
it
all
Few
twentieth-century
observers can
resist
being
dramas, and
own life,
it is
quiet.
He
left
in
accompany him. He
his wife
princely Titian.
Tintoretto's real
reported to have
is
As a
life
in his
was
He
lived not
rushing
slate-gray
dark tones
sometimes
gray-green, brown, or
more
The
figures
beautiful,
in
colors, in the
in
with bright
retto's pictures,
taking place in
by sudden
flashes of lightning.
further increase in the
of
speed
his execution was aff"orded by his use of the wide,
square-ended brush introduced by Titian in such
554
1540S,
is
Today
brushwork
is
the pas-
a source of
when he introduced
his
new
style at full
St.
to punish
right
we
about to
throne with
richly
hammer,
St.
Mark forms a
form of
is
a sight
all
Mark
The
Now
recent cleaning.
its
full brilliance
inner
when
was
it
origi-
own bearded
his
hairy neck.
The
third canvas
from the
a wonderful light
them
When
was unveiled
emanating largely from
the picture
criticism,
it
and
Tommaso
whom we
should be eternally
pay for three more pictures to continue the narration of the legend of St. Mark. In one of
grateful), offered to
of the Body of
St.
Mark
(fig.
is
Rangone of Ravenna
effect), St.
in
spite
(in
his true
the tombs.
the frame.
equally
tians have
by
is
is
670).
Captured by the
its
motion to a sudden
halt, as
Venetians.
architecture
is
the true
saint.
pagans, the saint was dragged for two days through the
streets of
fled,
Marco
in Venice.
The orthogonals
little
The
us at the right.
time in Tintoretto's
first
art,
became a stand-
is
it.
The
drawing. This
to pass,
is
craftsmanly tradition.
artists in the
had
tried to paint
the lightning
trifle
stifled
Tintoretto
if
it
the
And
if
better), the
IN
VENICE
555
End
2'
672
fig.
I
which the ceiling painting of the Sala delJ' Albergo had
been smuggled into place in 1564, the Crucifixion (fig.
672) painted below it in the following year reaches a peak
of
religious
Venetian
previously
feeling
artist.
inaccessible
Approximately forty
to
any
length,
feet in
down
as
if
penitent thief
is
being partly
lifted, partly
tugged into
is
about
sponge soaked
At
Tintoretto's
life is
the
its
neighboring church,
which convert the benevolent institution into a monument of painting on a level with the Arena, Brancacci, and
sistine chapels as one of the most exalted manifestations of Italian genius.
scuola are
The
literally lined
three principal
rooms of the
the
left
in vinegar.
fulfilled
Roman
centurion,
who must
be the
radial principles of
rider in
556
in
IN
VENICE
John 12:32-33):
And
I, if I
men
should
be
lifted
up from the
draw all
what death he
earth, will
when
some modeling
die.
an occasional
surrounding
to
light areas
more
and
who
Who draws to
Himself all
men
will listen.
Although Tintoretto's
figures,
due to
his light-on-dark
and backgrounds, the foreground figures in the Crucifixion (fig. 673), grouped in a
massive pyramid at the base of the Cross, are modeled
with remarkable plastic force in bold planes of light and
dark, and defined in contours of great vigor. Here, as
throughout his work, Tintoretto's expressive sensitivity
and depth are abundantly visible, and nowhere more
strongly than in the head of the aged Joseph of Arimathea, who, holding his hands crossed on his breast, looks
downward with intense sympathy at the Virgin swooning
under the Cross. The little group, huddled as if for
especially in marginal areas
protection against the massive hostility of the surrounding crowds, forms the base of a composition
whose
lifted
to
an upper
level.
In the Nativity
(fig.
675) the
(fig.
by wild vegetation, while a beautiful and persuasive Satan reaches up to Him two stones He is asked to change
into bread. In the Last Supper (fig. 677), which is transformed from the announcement of the Betrayal as we saw
it in Leonardo (colorplate 55) into the older Byzantine
subject of the Institution of the Eucharist, the same twoarrangement continues. Two servants recline or
crouch below a step which a dog tries to climb, and above
them we look along the orthogonals of the checkerboard
level
Sala
for
the
Rock
(fig.
order to
in
One looks
water
graduated
rod.
The
pouring
in their
illusion
of
light,
is
so striking that
it
really
appears as
if
on our heads were it not for the intervening receptacles. At the upper right the Lord, reclining
foreshortened on a mass of clouds, floats into the picture
fall
The composition
is
largely built
on
technique of Tintoretto
the figures a
is
Grande
the light-on-dark
674. Tintoretto.
IN VENICE
557
floor
is
As
in several
left.
construction.
light.
One of his
last
di
17' 9".
4"-*
t
'^%.'*F'*"*'^^^Si^.>'>^J^'
^\^ r-ii
-=^i^''''*'>yii*i'1/
^?fmfK
^
I
left:
678. Tintoretto.
Canvas, 12'x
18' 8".
and white
is
where its
otherworldliness contrasts strangely with the sumptuous
architectural setting by Palladio (fig. 691). The long
table, set on a diagonal in depth, serves to divide the
material from the spiritual. To the right of the diagonal,
powerfully modeled servants gather up the remains of the
feast and stack the dishes in a basket, where they attract
the interest of a marauding cat (a dog crunches a bone at
the foot of the table). Another servant (distinguished as
such by his clothing and his cap, although he has been
mistaken for Judas) sits on the floor with his elbow on
the table, trying to understand what he sees. But behind
Supper
in
is
(fig.
678),
Who
stands to give
Communion
with
heavenly ministers,
Tintoretto, as
some Uke
to say, a
Mannerist?
If
is
not.
As
how
feverish,
is
own
Florence
and ordered, to
is
produce a
clear, often
disciplined
is
never bizarre.
He speaks in parables,
is
a child of
eating, drinking,
now and
all
its last.
was Paolo
Titian's
Renaissance giants
in
com-
Venice,
on
handsome main-
training in the
beyond Mantegna
thirty-five years
pear to
set
him
at the
to Altichiero,
was only
in
expression.
It is
in his
Among
sixteenth-
Palestrina; Veronese
makes
and motets of
piety,
like
ments.
The
was
to achieve
went
far
beyond Lotto
of his adjustment of
in the subtlety
settings,
much
he subdivided his
as
him
to see exactly
artist his
its
paint in
his
not
in a
hue or
as
hue.
flat
unknown
to the Trecento
is
maintains, as
680. Veronese. Triumph
Canvas, 24 x
560
18'.
of Mordecai. 1556.
IN
VENICE
tion,
it
He
By these means,
Veronese was able to cover an acreage of canvas not
inferior to that painted by Tintoretto, yet without any
appearance of haste.
therefore, to the total decorative effect.
in
the altarpiece
little
of Mordecai
Esther 9
(fig.
5 as if it
were happening
in a
Renaissance city
fine linen
city
of Shushan
re-
Romano had
Mantua, where
visited
Duke Federigo
Lame Man
in the tapestry
cartoon of the
Chapel
(see
fig.
561). In the
whose murals
in
studied in
we
hooves. (Why
spectator:
instinctively
full tilt at
the crumbling
Rome
in 1560. It is instructive
how
little
with
that trip
c.
and Envy.
Maser
in
cornucopia
any attention to
The largest of all Veronese's scenes of feasting (thirtytwo feet long) is the Marriage at Cana (fig. 682), which
many observers find overcrowded. The huge canvas was
painted in 1563 for the Sacristy of San Giorgio Maggiore
Supper
(fig.
horseshoe table
is
laid
on an open
terrace, with
The
Roman
made some
and
It is
Farnesina (see
figs.
which
570-79), which
and vaults
in several
rooms
his illusionistic
new
at the
if
much
lady
is
(fig.
683);
some gentlemen
are
IN VENICE
561
right: 682.
Veronese.
Marriage at Cana.
io"x32' 6"
The Louvre,
Paris
of
fig.
682
I
The master of
little
and
string quartet
(fig.
mask on an amphora;
684)
recognizable
portraits of the
viola
If anybody is
concerned about the miracle that has just taken place, the
spectator would never
Ten years
know
later a similar
it.
but
much more
tastefully
He
was, in
fact,
brought
Germans,
whose fascinating
and similar
record
is
vulgarities," in a trial
still
preserved.
With transparent
naivete,
these goings
down
with them.
562
(L>
'c
>
a
a
o
o
<
m
oo
>
c
<1
U
on
u
Z
o
OS
UJ
>
t
Colorplate 78. Veronese. Mystical Marriage of St. Catherine. 1570s.
Christ
sits in
their attendants,
its
sultry clouds.
or so earlier, supplying
fill
the
The background
architecture
is
somewhat more
loggia,
which
far
by the
outweigh
we
if
it
will
be noted that he
is
no more willing to
wealthy gatherings.
Veronese and
685.
pupils.
Triumph of Venice,
c.
1585.
in the pair
garments.
winged
figures Hfted
ceiling fres-
coes in the cathedral of Paolo's native Verona, one holding a crown over the head of Venice, the otherclearly
Fame
brandishing a trumpet.
is
essentially new.
upward
The mas-
it
the
and
sceptered Venice, flanked by
enthroned between the towers of the Arsenal, from which
the Venetian galleys sailed forth to dominate the seas.
allegorical figures
experimented with
Renaissance discussed
in this
seventeenth century,
all
who
studied
its
principles
and
IN
VENICE
567
JACOPO SANSOViNO.
It is
Grand Canal
in
signifi-
Venice can
di Psiche in the
Lombard
architects,
Not
and
true
and so
beholds
it."
live that
influenced, as
and
it
was
who
(i
was "so
fills
it
much
Like so
it
original
thinker
architectural
we have
in
He
Venice.
tectural
the
in
down
centuries.
Sack of
an architect
brought up on Roman columns, arches, and balconies;
Venice, on the other hand, suffered from no such physical
restrictions. The lagoons protected the city and its public
and private buildings, and these could therefore exoffer only very limited opportunities to
air.
Venetian
Jacopo Sansovino.
Venus Anadyomene.
Before 1527(7).
Bronze, height 66".
National
Gallery of Art,
Washington, D. C.
(Mellon Collection)
scene. Sansovino's
Roman
and development.
His undoubted masterpiece, and surely one of the most
satisfying structures in ItaHan architectural history,
is
the
was never
In 1554
its
it
after
break
fidelity to
and the
monument.
is
unified
visible,
The long reading room was to be placed in a commanding position, safe from high tides, on the upper story.
on the Canale San Marco and twentyone on the Piazzetta, the opposite side of which is formed
by the Gothic Doges' Palace. The ground story arcade is
in the Roman Doric order, based on that of the Colosseum, with keystones carved into alternating masks and
lions' heads, and recumbent figures in the spandrels. The
three bays facing
much
richer,
is
Ionic,
687.
the spandrels
is
eff"ect,
Venice. 1535-45
of extraordinary
and the
friezes.
eff'ect is
San Marco,
large
moment
ANDREA PALLADIO.
Italy, regardless
The Supreme
North
the only North
architect of
Renaissance archi-
in
judgment.
means of
cities in Italy by
numerous public and private buildings
a new and more strongly archaeological ver-
their
designed in
Rome
is
IN VENICE
569
architectural problems
Roman basilicas. He
"not doubt that this building may be compared with
ancient edifices, and ranked among the most noble
and most beautiful fabrics that have been made since the
ancient times, not only for its grandeur and its ornaments,
but also for the materials." As in his judgment on Sansovino, who are we to say him nay ? The building is glorious.
Derived quite obviously from Sansovino's Library of
1549
the
"Palladian motif"
flexible.
an
on sculpture,
more
and at
is
the motif
made
perceptibly
less,
Begun
55
Palladio
by Vincenzo Scamozzi).
right: 690.
(finished
Villa
570
30
h-M20
METERS
S.
S.
Giorgio Maggiore
When
is
do
unmolded
building
is
Of course
the
manner
The
streets,
many
manner of a tent.
The most strikingly
his building in
the
residences
in
Chiericati
(fig.
Vicenza
689),
is
commenced
variations of the
is filled
in
its
by a wall fenestrated
among
all
the columns.
57I
Palladio
(executed by Vincenzo Scamozzi).
Interior, Olympian Theater,
right: 694.
Vicenza. 1580-84
View of
stage,
Olympian Theater,
Vicenza. 1580-84
eminence which projects from the flank of a ridge overlooking the city of Vicenza from the south. Like most of
the
numerous
villas
citizens of Vicenza
Villa
commands
city,
hills, valleys,
qualities
is
The
effect
stilts
developed
maintained
in
most
statues
domestic architecture
572
of the
twenty
villa
in all
all
is
the outer
On
in the
axes
austerely simple in
its flat
walls,
com-
It
has
IN VENICE
partly by houses
in his villas,
and
was not
it
its
campanile,
a basilica
anyway.
ratios are
leschi.
utihzed by Brunel-
though
out
set
some milestones
in
is
Giorgio Maggiore
island facing
(figs.
691, 692). on
its
that of
San
is
amplified
it
into
Like
all
Palladio
Renaissance,
major designs
terms of a
in
it
is
conceived
in
The
pilasters.
coupled
in
depth
columns of Sansovino's
window embrasures of
the Library of
facades.
Olympian Theater
Vicenza
at
ly in
Roman
(figs.
is,
wood and
theater.
stucco,
The
classicistic ideals
build-
of the
and
reliefs,
exact model.
on two
stories
What connects
and an
in
the
statues, tabernacattic,
follows no
way
is
in
rising
of perspective
is,
The
who
fore,
Maria Novella
the street
(see
fig.
224), Alberti
had solved
it
by
height
much
its
was a mere
screen.
225) he applied to a
scend.
He
in
is
disconcerted to
comes up
to
when he ought
own proper
unalterable laws.
IN VENICE
573
20.
The
art
final
is
paradox
in the history
of Italian Renaissance
middle and
Cinquecento, of the
later
Michelangelo and
late
style
of
Man-
more accurately termed the Maniera. Michelanwas an artist of the utmost individuality, sincerity,
nerism,
gelo
and directness;
Gothic contemporaries.
monument
sixty-sixth years.
artificiality,
institutionalize
The explanation
1563.
in
is
to
in
enormous
still-
The
534.
of mid-Cinquecento painting
1536-41, that
is
between the
(fig.
is
696), painted in
artist's
Central
Rome
in
sixty-first
VII
and
discussed
first
tion
thirty-five years
the
his
in
the
all about
younger than he), nor even in the fact
that Michelangelo had been one of the founders of High
Renaissance style for, as we have seen, this had not
prevented him from devising inventions of a strikingly
diff'erent sort in Florence between 15 16 and 1534.
It
should be kept in mind that Michelangelo never relaxed
his stern
his life
in his
opposition to the Medici government, and he even entertained the possibility of returning to Florence to
for
Duke Cosimo
I.
He
work
new pope, Paul III (see Titian's portrait, fig. 658), the
Last Judgment must have seemed far more appropriate
to the situation of
Rome and
scale in
many
portions
fig.
617,
its
torrents of figures
and to the
compunction
artists,
had
that
It is
we have
noted, was
in
essence an
574
Antonio da Sangallo
little
in
tearing
fres-
both essential to the narrative program of the fifteenthcentury cycles lining the side walls of the Chapel (see
representing the
first
own
windows,
696.
Rome
575
rated from the rest of the wall by the edges of the floating
He
also preserved
Haman
crucified,
What
below.
For the
rest
away
in
if it
had
Coming
of the Second
fallen
And
altar
its
in
special character
is
the vision
Matthew 24:30-31
man
erally
structures in which
all figures,
and
and the
Heaven; instead,
in
other.
The
airy
background of the
ment of
It is
simply the
fulfill-
Some
Christ's
some
form
in Signorelli's
knew
in resurrection
in life,
Some
soar as
if
monumental
499). The
fig.
or in the recognition of
Some
others hopeless;
skeletons, in
in
are
dazed,
still
who
lift
them, or by
to the
paint
is
little
was
commissioned to
later
perfectly in
lifelong
adopted an
Ceiling,
As
the
fuller
proportions
The
heavier,
heads
the
upward the
women always clothed, the men generally nude compassionate angels help them into Heaven. Wings, like
smaller.
and
beauty
(fig.
698) distin-
Damned
detail
576
all
com-
Michelangelo
his
poems
(fig.
do
699), revealing as
and
and inade-
his letters
quacy:
I
dying to myself
live;
It is
As
damned descend
the
rage, but
who drive
will.
As a child
works
in Florence: the
own
p.
known
Nardo
fig.
Nardo
113).
He
di
Cione
in
read Dante's
surprising
how
little
is
fig.
696
dominant color
is
that of
human
echo
rising
earth
from
their graves
still
The dead
The whole
in
at
the altar.
Around
the
awesome Judge,
ranks that run back into the clouds until only the heads
by the windows on
is
and given a
eithei side,
Him and
the Virgin
who appears
scale
still
who surround
still
Among
Judge,
St.
fig.
696
577
ment.
The
down
from his
horse on the road to Damascus, whither he was bound
falls
And
light
to the earth,
fell
The
vision
is
and
why
me?
sharply foreshort-
in
among
of many
in the
their
the
As
Christ
moves
foreshortened
equally
horse leaps upward and inward, splitting Saul's attendants also into blocks of figures. In the foreground the
blinded Saul
Paul
700.
Tomb
Michelangelo.
Marble.
of Julius
II.
S. Pietro in Vincoli,
Completed
altar, as
pope himself,
is
in the
suggested
1545.
(colorplate 59)
appears on the
directly
above the
who might
all
be the
man-
the Apostle
falls
man
(St.
that of
may
kind.
become
703), shortly to
clearly
Rome
fire
(fig.
refer to
reflect
life.
Tomb
1545;
fig.
handled as an elevation of St. Peter's cross. The configuration becomes a hollow square, tilted up with the
climbed
rising
Still
still
Pope Paul
The
difficult subject
movement of
the landscape
and traversed
"by the
the massive-
all
III off
passages
are
in,
578
in
no
frame.
now
knee by the
for an artist so
much more
optical effects,
The
strange composition,
figures floating
culminates
in
is
disregard of real
above.
now
with
its
ranks of
distant promontories.
at
each other,
and executioners.
Few
figures are
shown
in
between
Christian.
personal,
all
Contrapposto has
So have hatred, anger, and
action.
fear.
As
in a
passion play,
townsfolk, there
executioner
and
is little
martyr,
in
distinc-
pagan
strangcl\ intimaie
and
and
When he finished the Pauline frescoes in 1550 Michelangelo was seventy-five. His failing eyesight and his
general
ill
monumental
pictorial
As
his control
o\'
still
the
his
Peter.
fig.
Rome
702
in
carrying
elevated to the
Antonio had designed for the cardinal a relatively modest town house with ground-floor
shops in the Roman tradition. Immediately the new
papacy as Paul
III;
whom
579
^rrt^pm^wt^
all
\.
4 m
11
9
9}-M*
above
left:
704.
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and Michelangelo. Palazzo Farnese, Rome. 1535-50
Palazzo Farnese
(figs.
The
Roman and
Floren-
floor of shops
had of
a fundamental transformation.
is
eff'ect is
is
in stone
and
depends on a
restraint, severity
The ground
fig.
Strozzi (see
palaces
in
fig.
Florence.
mullioned openings
in the
upper
stories.
On
the ground
single
he
ward
Florence; see
insert the
fig.
stringcourse which
142), seemingly
is
suspended along a
a continuation of their
sills.
For
triangular
580
the
filled in
tympanum
out,
in a cluster
it
of column-pilaster-column. This
in-
novation at once, prevented the second story from apsplit apart, and gave Michelangelo space to
pearing to
is
(fig.
little
706)
is
basilica in
flat-roofed,
rise directly
(fig.
707).
He
with only minor changes. But in the third story he demonstrated his sovereign originality by abandoning the
little
each pilaster
is
and vibrating
ness and
near-human vibrancy
new organic
and
rich-
was
this
new
in
of the seventeenth
Michelangelo, and
in a
somewhat more
Chapel taberna-
restrained.
Broken
sills
pediments, are
all
in
already
are
built
according to Bramante's
still
have their
and
Constantinian Basilica of
the center,
left
of the
But
in
set
as
The model
its
already
gigantic size.
(fig.
largely
706.
as lofty as the
dome.
58I
Bramante was
reinstated
(fig.
fig.
513),
Michelangelo
however,
suppressed
also
Bramante's
in
effect
of the dome.
710), as
(fig.
if it
above: 708.
the peristyle
Florentine ribbed
Antonio da Sangallo
THE Younger. Model
dome
in
it
preference to Bramante's
ribs,
ribs of the
71
Thus
1539-46.
Museo
Wood.
Petriano,
Vatican,
(fig.
1)-
Rome
To
increase
its
unity
coupled
right: 709.
Plan of
Vatican,
pilasters,
to
fill
the sharp
Michelangelo.
the
St. Peter's,
Rome. 1546-64
dome by
At
drum and
dome were
built
Admittedly
Antonio's design
is
fantastic.
At no
always
it
importance.
peristyles
architecture, surely
by
oculi,
is
with obelisks.
bristle
in
If
last
is it.
it
would take an
582
its
towers.
in
many
was able
Michelangelo
Rome
to supervise the
construction
incorrectly
S.
c.
1546. Panel, 61
X56%". National
Gallery,
London
710.
left:
St. Peter's,
Michelangelo.
Vatican, Rome.
below
left:
Model
for
71
\.
Michelangelo.
dome
1558-61.
Museo
of
St. Peter's.
Wood.
Petriano, Vatican,
Rome
Window
in
north transept,
St. Peter's,
Vatican,
Rome. 1546-64
quite severe,
inlaid
fig.
single
was constrained
(fig.
in
equestrian statue of
but
713).
1538 to
its
an
double
intricate
flight
is
still
controversy on the
516).
enormously influential
civic
was
contribution to
design
the project for the remodeling of the partly ruined structures that crowned
Michelangelo's
statue with
its
still
con-
original
John Lateran
to the
began
always near.
Redeemer. His
713-
life in
One, carved before 1555 (fig. 716), was meant for his
own tomb. In a fit of desperation (he claimed the stone
was too hard and would not obey him, but doubtless
715.
Michelangelo.
714.
Crucifixion. 1550-60(7).
11". British
Museum, London
Roman
(its
left
from
.JUMk.
significance as symboliz-
its
(fig.
his ideas
7'i4),
and
which
in
his taste,
many
and
it
is
'y.
it was built, as has been mainfrom designs which he did in 1538. The central
theless,
revolutionary design
of the building
is
and Palladio
(the
colorjblate 79;
fig.
The
structure
is,
embraced and clamped tight by a single Colossal Corinthian order, within which a stunted Ionic order for the
portico maintains an imprisoned existence.
its
The
flat
586
roof
He
succeeded
smashing the
in
above
left
arm and the left leg of the Christ before his pupils stopped
him. They were able to piece together the arm fairly well,
but the leg has entirely disappeared. In spite of this
mutilation,
and an
ill-advised attempt
the group
tomb with
less to
human
figures are
power-
It
should be remembered
comes Christ
Head
to his
into his
man
Michelangelo
own (fig. 717); like Joseph, he welown tomb and presses the sacrificed
bosom, merging
of
divinity, in
in the air
(fig.
Marble, height
7' 8".
Cathedral, Florence
by one of the
the
left: 716.
Michelangelo.
of
left:
fig.
716
718.
Michelangelo.
Pieta. 1554-64-
Milan
right: 719.
Benvenuto Cellini.
Perseus and Medusa.
1545-54. Bronze, height
18'.
Bartolommeo Ammanati.
Sea-Nymph, on the
Fountain of Neptune.
1560-75. Bronze, over lifesize.
Piazza della Signoria,
Florence
the Virgin
is
standing at
its
weightlessly in
her arms, as
tombment than
the Resurrection.
if
this
were
less the
En-
which the
artist
drank
in
was
still
to the rain, at
first
fell
ill
after
exposure
life
and
be, the
art.
Rough though
may
to
remember
in his
THE MANiERA.
analysis.
own
charming
in their
(fig.
The
718).
It
went through
original group,
finished, consisted
dead Christ
in
fig.
different stages.
her arms as
if lifting
Madonna
Him up
Tomb
of Julius
II.
before us in
557), or of Michelangelo's
Virgin on the
again
two
at least
it
own
But
in
Son
gin's shoulder
and bosom.
588
work.
One
gets the
not that they are sinking into the grave, but that
own
writings,
makes
it
clear that
composition.
Of course,
their
contemporaries
in
Venice,
were by no
Dolce uses
Lodovico
means convinced. The Venetian
the word maniera derogatorily, to refer to the artists
in whose paintings the faces and figures had a tendency
to look too much alike; to Vasari, this was a distinct
advantage, in that
it
still
flourished,
is
it
is
a matter of
hardly open to
in
Central
of "re-
was
birth,"
and
"OPVS
FLO[RENTINVS]" after his return
DONATELLI
from work
in
another land.
BARTOLOMMEO AMMANATi.
Michelangelo,
What
Maniera and
with
less
an epilogue. The
is
artists
of the
be treated, perhaps,
in fact
sculptor
much
closer to
Ammanati
(1511-92).
Sea
is
Maniera artists to Michelangelo in its obvious derivation from the Dawn in the Medici Chapel (see fig. 587),
and its equally obvious differences. Where Michelangelo
much
as can be
shown
to
BENVENUTO
Among
CELLINI.
limited sculptors
most familiar
figure
is
in
smith
in
Rome,
many
Pitti,
Florence. 1558-70
Cinquecento, the
Cellini
Autobiography. After
Palazzo
later
Benvenuto
(i
500-1 571),
tion of
DukeCosimo
1.
In 1545,
it
this celebrated
work
one of the most successful sculptural creations of the Maniera. The destination of the work for the Loggia dei Lanzi, where Donatelearlier
lo's
models for
Judith (see
it,
fig.
the statue
is
triumphant male and female figures, the defeated eneiconomies, and even the cushions used for the bases
The modeling of
the
nude
There
the
is
no attempt, as
moment
in
manship, born of
Cellini's
training as a goldsmith,
Like Michelangelo
placed his signature
Peter's, Cellini
on a strap crossing
722.
a Santa Trinita,
is
Ammanati
Ammanati is
tense,
tragic,
is
is
is
orna-
Ammanati's
drama
is
sculpture, as
gone. This
it
and
will
is
is
Michelange-
true of
much of
Ammanati's
is
Sea
Allori.
(fig.
721)
discovered
artist criticized
less
walls, arches,
tecture of Giulio
is
Romano
achievement,
the
letter,
Ammanati took
pylons
may be understood
as emanations of Michelan-
is
perhaps
fig.
590
architectural
;
his duchess,
finest
GIOVANNI BOLOGNA.
performed by a foreigner,
fact a non-Italian, Jean Boulogne (i 529-1608), born in
is
he studied avidly,
it
human
and
Gianlorenzo Bernini.
there
is
real
transition
725.
c.
1583 by Grand
Woman
Duke Francesco
(fig.
723), placed in
Judith.
little
to
the
in
vitality
in
bronzing.
popularity set
in,
unquestionably
was
Agnolo
the small boy in
Pontormo's
favorite
who
pupil,
is
in Pontormo'syo>ye/7/? in Egypt
Although Bronzino absorbed much from
master, there was something about his character that
(see
his
fig.
609).
come
Capponi Chapel,
(fig.
Instead
Pontormo's
represented
Capponi
is
Entombment
of figures
(colorplate
in
63),
masses
Luco Lamentation
(see
fig.
59I
surfaces persist
if
sometimes
drawn
precisely
tures, anatomical
distant landscape
ly
humanistic art
zation of
three
its
empty
Quattrocento
in
details,
style, isolate
and drapery
the fea-
Even the
folds.
trees
in
in
its
securely
fits
mid- 1 540s,
is
592
bill
at the left
Venus' doves
her hair.
left,
is
with
The cross-
left,
rigidity
and hills.
and a small wood
to suppose that he
Calvary at the
crosses,
styli-
An
incipient incest.
ful
and alluring
mies
Fraud, and
it
sets
them
all,
violet.
of this picture
and
compared
should be
The
deliberate
who come to
mind of God. It is
the same society that
this, also
enforced bits
Aretino,
the age.
mid-Cinque-
It
seems to
consummate
skill,
frescoes as well.
chapel erected
Toledo,
in the
He decorated
for
Cosimo's duchess,
Eleonora
da
payment
have
utilized
a technique far
more time-consuming
Damaged
was
portions seem to
in true fresco
and
drawing and modeling, added in tempera. The Crossing of the Red Sea (fig. 726) immediately recalls Michelangelo's Deluge (see fig. 523) and was so intended. This
at
Michelangelo's poses
some abandon
left:
jiS.
Bronzing.
that,
all
own
and often
ence,
and
in a series
of Giorgio
lifelong friend
striking
delightful
Rome and
Flor-
of Camillus
geous sight,
(fig.
is
a gor-
color range of
so well-disciplined his
aid Vasari
Imperial
Roman
reliefs.
The procession
is
sharply com-
manner of
the
in
the
army of assistants,
(fig.
was painted
clarity.
The
style. It
Rome,
728)
is
fairly typical
hall
of the Cancelleria
late
in
593
728.
of St.
Cinquecento into
in the
govern-
Peter's. 1544.
Rome
left
elbow and
left
foot propped on
result? One's
A Roman
re-
flight
The pope
is
tume.
He
lifts
in
classical cos-
p.
58
),
while with
judgment of such
rhetorical
paintings
in
Florence
(fig.
Vasari's architecture
729), an
commissioned by Cosimo
in
enormous
is
the
structure
in
Bernardo
1580,
594
after
Vasari's
death,
by
his
pupils
of mezzanine windows above, alternating with Michelangelesque consoles; then another triad of balustraded
it
(see p. 570)
opens the
vista in
in
great technical
skill,
and
of
and altarpieces a
their
on the colossal
huge wall decora-
tions
visible
it,
one of the
earliest
known
strangest
and most
book should
characteristic
inventions
I
of the
bit
Eight sculptors
tedious.
in
their artificial
and fantasy.
Vasari's
own
729.
Giorgio Vasari.
The Uffizi,
Florence.
1560-80
730.
731.
Florence
is
background,
stylized
promontories that
recall
Just as toylike in
(fig.
its
total unreality
731) by Bronzino's
follower
is
is
Alessandro Allori
exalted.
human
cool,
history of
female nudes,
596
Fishers.
X34''.
Florence
coral. In the
'/a
fig.
489), but in
ing,
deprived of
its
artistic
it is
imagination.
Now
that the
meaning and
its life,
should provide
from which
the Florentines of the Renaissance issued to conquer
reality has become the refuge for the most extreme
Mannerist flight from reality.
teries
by
artificial light.
The
spiritual fortress
GLOSSARY
Cross references are indicated by words
in
small capitals.
An
ARCH.
architectural
construction,
often
semicircular,
ABACUS
abaci).
(pi.
The
mem-
ber of a CAPITAL.
at the sides.
Christ
(I
John
Any pope
anti-Pope.
it
refers to the
popes
elected at
as well as to
Felix
still
at Basel, including
(1383-1451).
now
ARCADE.
series
which
is
the
tectural supports.
bead-and-reel. a convex molding having the form of elongated beads alternating with disks placed on edge.
Beatitudes. Eight declarations of special blessedness in
Christ's
Beato
Sermon on
the
Mount (Matthew
5:3-1
1).
Beata). Italian word meaning blessed. Specifically, beatification is a papal decree which declares a deceased
person to be in the enjoyment of heavenly bliss (beatus) and
grants a form of veneration to him. It is usually a step
toward canonization.
Benedictine order. Founded by St. Benedict of Nursia
(c. 480-C. 543) at Subiaco near Rome, the Benedictine rule
(fern.,
GLOSSARY
597
steps,
and occasionally by
a screen.
agricultural.
when
CHERUB
BERETTA.
CAMPO.
Italian
cities to
Cantoria.
Italian
word
to foot.
CAPITAL. The crowning member of a column, pier, or pilaster, on which rests the lowest element of the entab-
lature.
CAPPuccio. Italian word for hood. See mazzocchio.
Cardinal Virtues, see Virtues.
Carmelite order. Begun in the mid-twelfth century by a
crusader named Berthold and his followers, who settled
in caves on Mt. Carmel and led lives of silence, seclusion,
and abstinence. About 1240 they migrated to western
Europe where the rule was altered, the austerities mitigated,
and the order changed to a mendicant one, analogous to
the Dominican and Franciscan orders.
Carthusian order. Founded by St. Bruno (c. 1030-1101)
at Chartreuse near Grenoble in 1084. An eremitic order,
the life was, and still is, one of prayer, silence, and extreme
austerity.
CARTOON.
598
GLOSSARY
ing.
chasuble,
worn over
all
celebrating Mass.
COMPANY
In Renaissance terms, a
under ecclesiastical auspices dedicated to good works. In Venice it was usually called a
scuola (school), though it had no educational function, and
in Tuscany it was sometimes called a confraternity.
condottiere. Italian term for army leader.
CONFRATERNITY, SeC COMPANY.
CONSOLE. A bracket, usually formed of volute scrolls, projecting from a wall to support a lintel or other member.
CONTADO. Countryside or rural area around a city.
contrapposto. Italian word for "set against." A method
derived from ancient art which gives freedom to the
representation of the human figure by setting the parts
of the body in opposition to each other around a central
(Italian,
compagnia).
fraternal organization
vertical axis.
home
in
God.
DOME.
or,
picture.
or painting.
garden,
see
Closed Garden.
may
GUELPH.
GLORY. The
dor la.
Golden Legend. A
major
Jacopo da
Golgotha. From
the
GLOSSARY
599
GRAFFITO
(pi.
graffiti). Scratched
and
tinted designs
common
GuELPH. Originally
the
name of
German
party formed
own
cloth.
An
inter-
laced lines.
HARPY
From
harpies).
(pi.
the
in the
An
oblong vestment worn around the shoulders and used for enveloping the hands when holding sacred
veil.
vessels.
the
title
The scene
is
600
and ceremonies
Roman
Catholic,
enemy beneath.
of Mercy.
Madonna
Maesta.
Magus
arts. In
men who
or occasionally a saint;
it
is
MARZocco.
mitre.
Christ.
humeral
holiness.
dlers.
GuiLLOCHE.
is
painted.
liturgy,
PILASTERS.
their
tion.
MozzETTA.
mullion.
worn by
the
pope and
of lights.
NAVE. The central
aisle
glossary
reconcile
Christian
beliefs
with
Neoplatonic
mystical
of a DOME.
OIL PAINT. Pigments mixed with oil and usually applied to a
panel covered with gesso, as in tempera painting, or to a
stretched canvas prepared with a mixture of glue and white
pigment.
Opera del Duomo. Board of Works of a cathedral. Also
used to denote the Museum of the Board of Works, as an
abbreviation for \tusco ilcU'Opcra del Duomo.
Oratory of Divine Love. A confraternity, founded in Rome,
which had the grudging approval of Pope Leo X by 1517.
its goal was the reform of the Church from within, and it
was pledged to the cultivation of the spiritual life of its
to the
The
five classical
ORDER (monastic).
religious
society
or fraternity living
PALAZZO
PIETRA SERENA.
clear gray
in
Flor-
ence.
pilaster,
engaged
flat
in a
vertical
wall
from which
de'
Medici in the mid-fifteenth century for the study of rediscovered Greek writings of Plato. Cosimo appointed as
head of the Academy the young humanist Marsilio Ficino,
who translated both Plato and Plotinusinto Latin. The Academy and its studies had a great influence on European
thought during the Reformation. See also Neoplatonism.
POLYPTYCH. ALTARPiHCF or dcvotional picture consisting of
more than three wooden panels joined together.
PORPHYRY. A very hard rock having a dark, purplish-red base.
PORTA CLAUSA. Latin phrase for Closed Door.
POUNCING. Method of transferring a cartoon to a plaster
surface. Small holes are pricked along the outlines of the
drawing and dusted with powdered charcoal so that the
chief lines of the composition appear on the plaster beneath.
poverello. Italian word meaning poor little man. Refers to
St. Francis of Assisi, whose followers were sometimes called
poverelli.
purely decorative.
Quattrocento.
Italian
word
for
four
hundred.
Means
open court.
piano nobile.
section;
PIER buttress.
An
exterior pier in
it
Pieta. Italian
pity
and
mourned by
angels.
When
the
is
entine builders.
given to Christ.
GLOSSARY
601
Sagra.
St.
Italian
word
Antonine of
communing.
for consecration.
solved
in
and the cross in one hand and blessing with the other.
Savonarola, Girolamo. Born in Ferrara in 1452, he became
a Dominican monk and in 1489 went to Florence, where
he was appointed prior of San Marco. His eloquence as a
preacher, his fervor for reform in Florence, and his political
adroitness enabled him to become for a short time the
virtual dictator of the Republic. However, political and
religious intrigues against him led to his downfall. In 1498
he and two companions were hanged in front of the Palazzo
Vecchio and their bodies burned on the gallows.
SCHIACCIATO, see RILIEVO SCHIACCIATO.
scuoLA (pi. scuole), see company.
sella gestatoria. The portable throne on which the pope is
carried on certain ceremonial occasions.
SERAPH (pi. SERAPHIM). A celestial being or angel of the highest
order. See cherubim.
SFUMATO. Italian word for smoky. The method developed by
Leonardo da Vinci to model figures by subtle gradations
of light and dark.
SHAFT. A cylindrical form in architecture, the part of a column
or PIER intervening between the base and the capital.
SHOP, see bottega.
;
siLVERPOiNT.
to oxidize.
602
GLOSSARY
mixed with
on the ar-
SLIP. Potters'
SPANDREL.
An
made
terra verde.
MITRE.
together.
VAULT.
An
or concrete.
VAULT.
rising from the sea. She is usualrepresented as standing on a scallop shell. Venus pudica.
Latin term for modest Venus. She hides her nakedness
with her hands in a pose favored by Greek and Roman
ly
sculptors
Vices.
Coming from
GLOSSARY
603
CHRONOLOGICAL CHART
Bernardo Daddi
1312-48)
(fl. c.
Arnolfo
di
Cambio
1245-before
(c.
3 10)
SiMONE Martini
1317-C. 1330
JSth century: second half
Francesco Traini
(fl. c. 1321-63)
South Doors, Florence Baptistery (Andrea Pisano), 1330
1260
Siena defeats Florence in Battle at Montaperti, 1260
Coppo DI Marcovaldo (fl. 260s- 1 270s)
Pulpit, Pisa Baptistery (Nicola Pisano),
1338-39
Maso
Nardo
1
Lorenzetti),
8)
di
Cione
1343-66)
(fl. c.
Black Death
(i
360-1429)
1369-96)
1371-c. 1425)
14th
century)
Petrarch (1304-74)
Arena Chapel frescoes (Giotto), 1305
Removal of papacy from Rome to Avignon, 1305
The Maestd altarpiece (Duccio), 308-1
"Babylonian Captivity," French popes at Avignon,
1
1309-78
Visconti rule in Milan, 1312-1447
604
CHRONOLOGICAL CHART
Gates
389-1459)
CosiMO de' Medici (Cosimo il Vecchio; 1389-1464)
LiMBOURG BROTHERS (late I4th-isth century)
St.
Baptistery,
(Ghiberti), 1425-52
Institution of the Catasto tax in Florence, 1427
begun 1428
Piero della Francesca (c. 1423/24-92)
Alesso Baldovinetti (1425-99)
1400-10
1430-40
(d.
1439)
Desiderio da Settignano
DOMENICO
Sassetta
Dl
(c.
1400-1450)
Giovanni Bellini
(c.
Andrea Mantegna
Masaccio (1401-28/29)
North Doors, Florence Baptistery (Ghiberti), 1403-24
Giovanni di Paolo (14037-83)
LlONELLO D'ESTE (1404-50)
Leonbattista Alberti (1404-72)
Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (1405-64); Pope Pius II
David, marble (Donatello), 1408 (reworked 1416)
Bernardo Rossellino (1409-64)
Fra Filippo Lippi (c. 1409-69)
RoDERiGO Borgia
(143 1-1506)
in Florence,
1434-94
Arnolfini
LUDOVICO GONZAGA
(14I I-78)
Luciano Laurana
(d.
1479)
1420-30
Jacopo Bellini
1424-70)
Brancacci Chapel frescoes (Masaccio and
(fl.
Masolino),
1424-27
1425-38
1430-1 5 16)
(1
Medici domination
1410-20
Main Portal,
1430-64)
c.
(c.
// libro
Melozzo da Forli
(1438-94)
Council of Ferrara-Florence attempts to reunite Catholic
and Orthodox
Bologna
faiths,
in
1440-50
Pazzi Chapel (Brun'elleschi), begun c. 1440
Florence and Venice defeat Filippo Maria Visconti at
Anghiari, 1440
Palazzo Medici (Michelozzo), begun early 1440s
LucA SiGNORELLi (after 1441-1523)
Lucy
Battle of
S. Petronio,
pittura, 1436)
altarpiece
Rossellino),
(Domenico Veneziano),
San Romano
Julius II
c.
c.
1445
1445
CHRONOLOGICAL CHART
605
Sandro Botticelli
Piero
(1445-1 510)
449-94)
de' Medici,
II
Cesare Borgia
(c.
1476- 1507)
14^0-60
II Sodom a (14777-1549)
Primavera (Botticelli), c. 1478
Pazzi conspiracy, 1478: Giuliano de' Medici assassinated;
Lorenzo the Magnificent escapes
Baldassare Castiglione (1478- 529)
GiULio de' Medici (1478-1534); Pope Clement VII
GlANGIORGIO TrISSINO (1478-I550)
Giuliano de' Medici, Duke of Nemours (1479-1516)
Portinari altarpiece (Hugo van der Goes), late 1470s
1480-go
De
S.
1453-54
Fall of Constantinople to the Turks, 1453
GiULiANO de' Medici (1453-78)
Peace of Lodi, 1454
Ovetari Chapel, Padua, frescoes (Mantegna), 1454-57
PiNTORiccHio (c. 454- 5 3)
1
Judith
(c.
1464-1503)
De prospectiva pingendi
90
St.
II
Cronaca (Simone
del Pollaiuolo,
457-1 508)
da Sangallo),
1485-92
7^60-70
Medici
1487-1502
14887-1576)
(c.
7^90-/500
Carlo
(d.
1492)
GiuLio
Romano
(c.
1492-1546)
de' Medici,
^'
ence, 1494
1470-80
606
CHRONOLOGICAL CHART
CoRREGGio (1494-
534)
Pontormo (1494-1557)
St. Ursula series (Carpaccio), c. 1495
Last Supper (Leonardo), 1495-97/8
Palestrina
(c. 1525-94)
attacked by Colonna party, 1526
Dome of Cathedral, Parma (Correggio), 526-30
Sack of Rome by Spanish and German mercenaries of
St. Peter's
1^00-10
Charles V, 1527
Expulsion of Medici, reestablishment of Florentine Re-
Mystical Nativity
(Botticelli),
1500
public. 1527
Palazzo del Te (Giulio Romano), 1527-34
Philip II (1527-98)
Madonna
Caste/franco
(Giorgione),
c.
1500-05
Charles V (1500-1558)
Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571)
1530-40
S.
First project.
Parmigianino (1503-40)
Bronzing (1503-72)
Battle of Cascina (Michelangelo), 1504
Spain rules Kingdom of Naples after 1504
1510-20
Vatican Stanze (Raphael), 1510-14
Sarto,
Pope
in Rome by Ignatius of
Loyola, 1540
Sacristy, St a. Maria della Salute, ceiling paintings {Titian),
1542
Pauline Chapel frescoes (Michelangelo), 1542-50
Tomb of Julius II (Michelangelo), installed 1545
1545-63
(151 1-92)
Julius
151
Madonna
di
S.
Biagio,
Montepulciano
(Antonio
Tintoretto
(151 8-94)
(Titian),
J5
50- 1 600
Villa
Lives
Architects
(by
Vasari),
first
edition,
Sculptors,
1550;
and
second
edition, 1568
St.
Villa
J540-50
Bartolommeo Ammanati
1519-25
da
Pietd (Titian),
Rape of
c.
1576
the Sabine
Woman
chronological chart
607
marked with an
paperback
2.
Writings by Individuals
editions.
I.
Antal, Frederick, Florentine Painting and Its Social Background, Kegan Paul, London, 1948.
*Baron, Hans, The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance,
2 vols., Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1955.
*BuRCKHARDT, Jakob C, The Civilization of the Renaissance
in Italy, trans, by S. G. Middlemore, Phaidon, Oxford, 1965.
Chastel, Andre, The Age of Humanism: Europe 1480-1530,
trans, by K. M. Delavenay and E. M. Gwyer, McGraw-
New
Hill,
Yoik, 1964.
New York
"Power and
Art,"
Western Art: Acts of the 20th International
Congress of the History of Art, Vol. 2, The Renaissance and
Mannerism, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J.,
1963, pp. 222-38.
*Hauser, Arnold, The Social History of Art, trans, in collaboration with the author by S. Goodman, Knopf, New
York, 195 1.
*Kristeller, Paul O., The Classics and Renaissance Thought,
published for Oberlin College by Harvard University Press,
,
Studies in
Cambridge,
Mass., 1955
Renaissance Thought).
(paperbound
edition
entitled
*Seznec, Jean, The Survival of the Pagan Gods; the Mythological Tradition and Its Place in Renaissance Humanism
and Art, trans, by B. Sessions, Princeton University Press,
Princeton, N. J., 1953.
*WiND, Edgar, Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance, Yale
University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1958.
II.
/.
SOURCES
Cliffs,
WiCKHAM, Archdale
thology,
608
York, 1954.
Filarete (Antonio Averlino), Treatise on Architecture,
trans, with an Introduction and Notes by J. R. Spencer,
2 vols., Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1965.
Leonardo da Vinci, Treatise on Painting, trans, and annotated by A. P. McMahon, 2 vols., Princeton University
Press, Princeton, N. J., 1956.
Leonardo da Vinci on Painting: A Lost Book {Libro A),
edited by C. Pedretti, University of California Press,
Berkeley, Cal., 1964.
*Vasari,
Anthologies
III.
Englewood
1911.
*HoLT, Elizabeth,
Hall,
N.
J.,
1966.
Oxford University
Press,
New
York, 1934.
GENERAL
Berenson, Bernard,
VEB
vols.,
McGraw-Hill,
in
New York,
the Art
of
Renaissance, Praeger,
New
York,
1967.
(I vol. ed.,
1965).
Rowland, Daniel
Mannerism
University Press,
B.,
New
THEORY
IV.
V.
listed
under H,
sance
in Italy,
Writings by Individuals.
London,
Jack,
1909.
Architecture
of the
Gromort, Georges,
by G.
Renaissance from
The Hague,
1925.
Crowe, Joseph
A.,
B.,
His-
Architecture,
Dewald, Ernest
in Italian Painting,
Columbia University
Press,
New
York, 1957.
Gardner, Edmund
Scribner's,
Garrison,
rev.
New
York, 1962.
* Murray,
Peter, The Architecture of the Italian RenaisSchocken Books, New York, 1963.
*Pevsner, Nikolaus, An Outline of European Architecture,
6th (Jubilee) ed.. Penguin Books, Baltimore, i960.
Ricci, CoRRADO, Architecture and Decorative Sculpture of
the High and Late Renaissance in Italy, Brentano's, New
York, 1923.
Stegmann, Carl M., and von Geymuller, Heinrich, Architecture of the Renaissance in Tuscany, 2 vols., Architectural
Publishing Co., New York, 1924.
*Wittkower, Rudolf, Architectural Principles in the Age
of Humanism, 3rd ed., rev., Tiranti, London, 1962.
sance,
VI.
ing,
77?^ Architecture
Dagobert,
ARCHITECTURE
PAINTING
Frescoes,
Florentine
1930.
Prey,
Tancred,
BoRENius,
Studies
in
Florentine
Painting,
the
14th
Century,
Brace,
New
York, 1930.
609
VII.
SCULPTURE
IX.
1958.
Pizzi,
Milan, 1945.
Milione, Milan,
at
Rome, Edizioni
1955.
in the
House of Levi,
Milan, 1948.
VIII.
/.
DRAWING
Comprehensive Studies
Museum, 4 vols.:
Popham, Arthur E., and Pouncey, Philip, 77?^
1 4th and 15th Centuries, 2 vols., British Museum, London,
in the British
Vol.
I:
1950.
Vol. II:
Vol. Ill:
and His
PoPHAM, Arthur
Vol. IV:
in the i6th
E., Artists
Working
in
Augustin,
New
York, 1944.
2.
Single Artists
Popham, Arthur E., Correggio's Drawings, Oxford University Press, London, 1957.
Clark, Kenneth, A Catalogue of the Drawings of Leonardo
da Vinci in the Collection of His Majesty the King at Windsor
Castle, Macmillan, New York, 1935.
*PoPHAM, Arthur E., The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci,
Reynal and Hitchcock, New York, 1945.
Goldscheider, Ludwig, Michelangelo's Drawings, 2nd ed.,
Phaidon, London, 1966.
PoPHAM, Arthur E., The Drawings of Parmigianino, Beechhurst Press, New York, 1953.
Hill, George P., Drawings by Pisanello, Van Quest, Paris
and Brussels, 1929.
Rearick, Janet C, The Drawings of Pontormo, 2 vols..
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1964.
Middeldorf, Ulrich, Raphael's Drawings, Bittner, New
York, 1945.
Hadeln, Detlev von, Titian's Drawings, Macmillan, London,
ARTISTS
Fra' Angelica
1952.
Antonello da Messina
BoTTARi, Stefano, Antonello da Messina,
Scaglia,
New York
trans, by G.
Graphic Society, Greenwich, Conn.,
1955.
London, 1899.
Heinemann, Fritz, Giovanni
Bellini e
Belliniani, 2 vols.,
Hendy,
Bellini,
Botticelli
1927.
610
X.
Parma
PoPHAM, Arthur
of
1953-
the
1944-
Ricci,
F. L. R.
Brown,
Scribner's,
New
York, 1925.
New York
Graphic Society,
Alessandro Filipepi,
Commonly Called
HoRNE, Herbert
P.,
E.MiLiANi,
Andrea,
//
McCoMB, Arthur
Brunelleschi
J.
Carpaccio:
Emmons,
New
Skira,
York, 1958.
J.,
1932.
Correggio
Gronau,
Georg,
Brentano's,
New
Correggio,
York,
Bell,
Classics
London,
in
1903.
Art
Series,
1921.
J.
M. Brown-
Conway, W. Martin,
Giorgione: a
New Study of
His Art
Richter, George
by
Emmons,
J.
and
Critical Study,
by
F.
Schenck,
Mass.,
bridge,
vols..
1917.
London,
Donatella
Sculptor,
Allen
Weller,
S.,
Engineer,
Besant
Francesco di
I,
Civil
& Co.,
and Military
London, 1934.
Giorgio,
1439-1501,
Ghirlandaio, Scribner's,
1909.
J.,
York,
1954.
New
York,
Cape,
1933.
1939-
Neilson, Katherine
Bell,
London, 1906.
J.,
1958.
Pietro Lorenzetti
Dewald,
Ghirlandaio
Gerald
New
Ambrogio Lorenzetti
Rowley, George, Ambrogio
Lauts,
Giorgione, trans, by
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York, 1896.
Davies.
New
1967.
Siena,
john, Abrams,
Giotto
Bronzino
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Ludwig von,
Baldass,
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Giorgione
Rome and
Milan, 1957-
61I
Manfegna
Camesasca, Ettore, Mantegna,
11
Club
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Piero di Cosimo
Bacci, Mina, Piero di Cosimo, Bramante, Milan, 1966.
Douglas, R. Langton, Piero di Cosimo, University of
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Press,
Pintoricchio
Carli, Enzo,
II
Ricci,
Hendy,
New York
The Complete
York, 1965.
,
1939,
Hill,
George
F., Pisanello,
trans,
Nicola Pisano
Pollaiuolo, Scribner's,
New
York, 1907.
Pontormo
Clapp, Frederick M., Jacopo Carucci da Pontormo, His
Life and Work, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.,
1916.
Raphael
Camesasca, Ettore. All the Frescoes of Raphael, trans, by
P. Colacicchi, 2 vols.. Hawthorn, New York, 1963.
All the Paintings of Raphael, trans, by L. Grossi,
2 vols., Hawthorn, New York, 1963.
Crowe, Joseph A., and Cavalcaselle, Giovanni, /Jop//ael. His Life and Works, 2 vols., John Murray, London,
,
in
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1962.
New
Phillips,
Masaccio
New
trans,
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1882-85.
Fischel, Oskar, Raphael, trans, by B.
Kegan
Rackham,
2 vols.,
London, 1948.
MiJNTZ, Eugene, Raphael, His Life, Works, and Times,
Chapman &. Hall, London, 1882.
PoNENTE, Nello, Who Was Raphael?, trans, by J. Emmons,
Skira, Geneva, 1967.
SuiDA, Wilhelm E., Raphael: Paintings and Drawings,
Phaidon, London, and Oxford University Press, New York,
Paul,
1942.
Giulio
Antonio Rossellino
Planiscig, Leo, Rossellino, Vienna, 1942.
Andrea del Sarto
Baxter, Lucy E., Era Bartolommeo: Andrea d'Agnolo
Called Andrea del Sarto, Scribner & Welford, New York,
612
Romano
2 vols.,
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1881.
1965.
Sassetta
1939.
Signorelli
Luca
1907.
Tintoretto
Newton,
Eric,
Tintoretto,
1952-
1950.
64.
Titian
New
Gronau, Georg,
New
Work of
Titian, in
284
Illustrations,
York, 1907.
Titian, trans,
by A. M. Todd, Scribner's,
York, 1904.
MoRASSi, Antonio, Titian, New York Graphic Society,
Greenwich, Conn., 1964.
Phillips, Claude, The Earlier Works of Titian, Macmillan,
New York, 1897.
Paolo Veronese
Bell, Nancy R.
E.,
Paolo
Veronese,
George Newnes,
London, 1904.
Pallucchini, Rodolfo, La mostra
di Paolo Veronese,
1939.
2nd
Andrea Verrocchio
Cruttwell,
Maud,
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613
INDEX
Page numbers are
in
roman
numbers of black-and-white
type. Figure
Names
Castagno
fresco
224
419
Agostino di Duccio 419; Rimini, Malatesta Temple (S. Francesco) 188
Alberti, Leonbattista 186-88, 191-96,
382, 391; cited or quoted: on art and
nature 187; on beauty 187; on Brunel111; on classical art 111, 196,
290, 295; on color 195; on Ghiberti 199;
leschi
39.
art
614
345,
by classical
187, 191, 193; Mantua, S. Andrea
240,
246;
INDEX
influenced
Man-
and Melozzo da
144, 174,
19,
99, 217, 263, 295, 396, 554; 232; proportion 573; Rimini, Malatesta Temple
(S.
writings:
186,
387;
On
Ten
On
the Statue
Books on
Painting (De
111,
(De
186,
194-
Allegory of
zetti,' A.)
Good Government
151;
(Loren109-11,
colorplate 10
nique, panel
Ammanati,
Bartolommeo 589-90;
as
to
see
Verroc-
Campa-
7, 13,
altarpiece
271;
allegory, see
115,
Man
(De
re
18; 7,
18,
X) 186, 199
Albizzi, Rinaldo degli 404
Alessandro di Mariano Filipepi see
Botticelli, Sandro
Alexander VL Pope (Roderigo Borgia)
93,
nile)
Campanile)
nile
aedificatoria libri
91,
statua) 186;
Architecture
italics.
105,
106,
on
84,
219;
215; Annunciation
(S.
Florence,
S.
196,
piece
185;
St.
Lawrence Distributing
219;
St. Peter's,
179, colorplate 20
267.
264.
164,
269.
289.
295;
318
Memmi)
Aix
Arte: dei Corazzi e Spadai 137; dei Giudici e Notai 15; dei Linaioli e Rigattieri
134, 137; dei Medici e Speziali 15; dei
Vaiai e Pellicciai
15; del
Cambio
15,
Lana
16; di Pietra e
Leg-
name
15.
23; 14
Jerome
Studies
of
Sforza
Castle
Arnolfini
353,
354;
420,
422
Ascension of
As.<!assination
St.
80;
95.
96;
S.
514;
Chapel,
Baroncelli
Florence,
see
Sta.
Croce
Bartolini,
Leonardo 175
Fra
(Baccio
Bartolommeo,
della
Porta) 427-28, 518, 530, 533, 534;
influence on: Raphael 374, 427, 428;
di
623,
Banco)
Betrayal
101;
66;
(Nanni
477
188
Leopardi) 279-81;
Bartolommeo
competition 115
339^2
Panciatichi
(Bronzino)
592; 725
Basel, Council of, see Council of Basel
(Palladio; Palazzo della Ragio-
Basilica
404,
409,
422,
424,
463,
466,
496;
plate 30
Battle of Heraclius
della Francesca)
Battle of Lapiths and Centaurs (Michelangelo) 414, 429, 432; 478, 479
use of 264, 267; Florence, SS. Annunziata, frescoes 267-68, 371, 399, 497;
3ip, 320; Florence, S. Miniato al
Monte, Chapel of the Cardinal of Portugal, fresco and painting 268-69; 321
322; Florence, S. Egidio, frescoes 257,
263; influenced by: Castagno 263-64;
Domenico Veneziano
colorplate 33; Nativity (SS. Annunziata) 267-68, 371, 399, 497; 319, 320;
Portrait of a Young Woman 269; 323;
portraiture 269.
106,
(Giotto?)
105,
Filippo)
Francesco,
Croce
(Mantegna)
Arnolfo
13
Ascen.'iion
Assisi, relations
59,
colorplate 52
285
Battle of
San
Romano
(Paolo Uccello)
Battle of Santa
Maura 537
Taro 401
Battle of the Ten Nudes (Pollaiuolo, A.
del) 272-73; 326
Bazzi, Giovanni Antonio see Sodoma
Battle of the
INDEX
615
influences on 510; St. Catherine altarpiece 510-11; 616, colorplate 65; Stigmatization of St. Catherine 510-11,
colorplate 65
Beheading of
Sts.
532
Giovanni
Bellini,
98,
345,
358,
363,
XIV
6l6
INDEX
St.
Peter's, Bal-
pauperum 203
Lorenzo 237
Bicci DI
BiGORDI,
DOMENICO
DOMENICO DEL
GHIRLANDAIO,
SCe
Bird's-eye
(Sistine
Chapel)
352-55;
Birth
294,
249
602
blue, use of, in art 19, 34, 52, 58, 233, 330
Boccaccio, Giovanni, in Castagno fresco
224; Decameron 101; on Giotto 51
Bologna, Giovanni
logna
see
Giovanni Bo-
RENZE
Bonaventura,
445
323-24; 385
da Ferrara, Padua, Eremitani
Church, Ovetari Chapel, frescoes 347
Bono
66,
292,
143, 297
Brescia 334
S.
Pietro in
Montorio
Borghini, Raffaele, on Tintoretto 555
Borgia, Cesare 297, 388, 389, 401, 404,
419
Borgia, Roderigo, see Alexander VI,
Borgia family 528
Pope
House,
frescoes 281,
frescoes
291-92;
Giorgione
influence
alle-
gory 592; Pieta 591-92; 724; in Pontormo painting 502, 591; 609; Barto-
lommeo
on
1 1 1
124;
festival
15, 391;
centi
143,
195;
angelo
BuoNTALENTi, BERNARDO. Florence:
Trinita, fa?ade 306; Uffizi
Sta.
594
(Verrocchio)
Bust
(Benedetto
da
Byzantine
31, 32, 36. 37, 51, 56, 57, 345; proportion 31; see also Italo-Byzantine art
League
of,
see
League
of
Cambrai
degli Sposi, see
Mantua, Palazzo
Ducale
Campidoglio, see Rome, Capitoline Hill
Cantoria (Donatello) 200, 201; 240, 241;
(Robbia, L. della) 200, 201, 213, 236,
245; 238, 239
Dante (Villa
Carducci)
tombment
cita
series
223-
Carducci)
(Villa
Carducci)
224; Piero della
Francesca compared with 236, 237;
Pippo Spano (Villa Carducci) 224, 296;
270; Queen Esther (Villa Carducci)
224; Queen Tomyris (Villa Carducci)
224; Resurrection
(Sta.
Apollonia)
221, 223; 268; St. Julian (SS. Annunziata) 225-26, 472; 273; Vasari on
219-20, 226; Venice. S. Marco. Mascoli
Domenico Veneziano
cortegiano
Michelangelo
Captives, see
Domenico Veneziano
Camera
Mellini
Cambrai,
portrait of,
St.
Peter's
52
cartoon 21; see also Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael
Caryatid (Giovanni Pisano) 47; 42
Cascia di Reggello, S. Giovenale: altar-
//
libro del
559
Castiglione
Tommaso 494
symbolism
Christ in Glory (Melozzo da Forli) 33031, colorplate 43
Christ Pantocrator (Cefalii, Cathedral)
27; 75
Church of
Sts.
see
Rome
Church of the Badia, see Florence
Church of the Pieve, see Arezzo; Vico
I'Abate
Church of the
Mar-
tino ai Servi
Cimabue (Cenni
Ciompi
S.
16, 111
INDEX
617
city-states 12,
24
classical
Alberti
on
art,
295; Ghiberti on
111, 471; on architecture 22, 115, 119,
569; on painting 291, 349, 357, 428; on
290
Clement VII, Pope (Giulio de' Medici)
143, 483, 487; imprisonment 484, 496;
as patron 469, 473, 484, 492, 502, 507,
COLAN^ONIO 365
Colleoni, Bartolommeo, equestrian statue
of,
339^2
97;
264, 267; BeUini, Giovanni 369, 370, 371, 374; Botticelli 298;
Baldovinetti
angelo 447, 456, 577; Piero della Francesca 242, 245; Pontormo 500, 507;
Raphael 423, 424, 463, 464, 467, 468,
469, 470, 474, 479; SignorelU 431;
symbolism, see symbolism; terra verde
17, 213; Titian 532, 533, 534, 535, 537,
539, 541, 542, 547, 548-49; Veronese
560, 567
column, symbolism 354; from Temple of
Solomon 471-72, 561
Commentaries (Ghiberti) 129
Communion
see
Council of
Constance
Constantinople 27; Topkapi: decoration
(Bellini, Gentile) 364
Conversion of St. Paul (Michelangelo)
578; 70]
Cooper, Frederick 507
37, 74;
Crucifix
31-32, 59; 23-25; drapery, treatment of
Florence,
Baptistery,
mosaics
influence on: Guido da Siena 33; influenced by: Byzantine art 32; Last
Judgment (Florence, Baptistery) 33,
577, colorplate 2; Madonna and Child
32, 74; 26
Coronation of the Virgin (Angelico, Fra)
185; 217; (Bellini, Giovanni; Pesaro
altarpiece) 370-71; 438; (Francesco di
Giorgio) 316; 379; (Gentile da Fabriano) 148-49; 777; (Lorenzo Monaco)
104-05, 148, 221, 312-13, 516; 124,
colorplate 13; (Paolo Veneziano) 33536; 397; (Vivarini and Giovanni d'Alemagna) 344-45; 404
Corpus Christi (Corpus Domini), feast
of 282
CoRREGGio (Antonio Allegri) 511-15,
518; Adoration of the Shepherds (Holy
Night) 72, 513, 516; 620; Assumption
Ganymede 514-15,
Cumaean
treatment
of 72, 513; Madonna and Child with
Sts. Jerome and Mary Magdalen 512,
537; 618. 619; Parma: Cathedral, frescoes 514; 623, colorplate 66; S. GioJupiter
light,
INDEX
451
Council
Council
Council
Council
Council
St.
of Basel 328
of Constance 148
of Ferrara 182, 236
of Florence 182, 236
of Trent, nudity in religious pic-
530
Creation of
511; 616
6l8
Crucifixion with
tecture
32-33;
Man
82
325-
387
Zion,
symbolism of
269
Daddi, Bernardo 69-71, 89, 94; Annunciation 71; 79; drapery, treatment of
71; influence on: Nardo di Clone 95;
Giotto 70, 71; Madonna and Child
(Berenson Coll.) 69-70; 78; Madonna
and Child (Orsanmichele) 123
Damned Consigned to Hell (SignorelU)
43 1 500
Danae (Titian; Madrid) 542, 547; 659;
(Titian; Naples) 542
Dance of the Nudes (Pollaiuolo, A. del)
;
Daniele da Volterra,
as pupil of
Mi-
chelangelo 576
448
CRONACA,
IL
496; 599
Crossing of the
93; 726
crucifix 16;
32,
59; 23-25;
(Donatello)
205; 248,
(Mantegna)
(Masaccio)
David
424
Death of the Virgin (Castagno)
354,
(Castagno and Giambono; S. Marco)
220, 221, 222; 266
Decameron (Boccaccio)
Deguilleville,
Human
Guillaume
101
de. Pilgrimage of
Life 59
On
Painting
42
Departure of the Prince from Britain, His
De
pery, treatment of
Strozzi
198,
211,
297;
614,
Discovery
St.
Mark
Divine
Comedy (Dante
577
Doges' Palace, see Venice
Dolce, Lodovico, Dialogue on Painting
532; on maniera 588; on Titian 532
dome, symbolism of 52, 330
59, 95, 222, 294, 316,
Domenichino 470
Domenico da Pescia, Fra 297
Domenico di Bartolo 313-14; Care
the Sick (Sta.
314;
328;
della Scala)
Madonna
Sta.
of
313,
Pintoricchio
Maria
313;
of Humility 313; 375; Siena,
Maria
della
Scala,
Domenico Veneziano
Pellegrinaio,
376
25;
della
Mandorla
Cimabue
34;
Coppo
di
278, 350; Gentile da Fabriano 149; Ghiberti 104, 130, 132, 199; Greek art 27,
199; Leonardo da Vinci 393-94; Lo-
renzo
Monaco
Nanni
di
132;
Mantegna
350;
37;
Dream
Ursula
of St.
(Carpaccio)
377;
446
Ducal Palace, see Mantua, Palazzo DuUrbino, Palazzo Ducale; Venice,
Doges' Palace
calc;
Duccio (Duccio
di
Buoninsegna) 74-
donna
77;
influence
compared with
influenced by:
Byzantine art 74, 75, 76; Nicola Pisano
40; Mae.std 75-79, 311, 316; 87-91,
colorplate 8; Martini as pupil 79; Naof:
69;
Duomo,
Cathedral
Rome
Hill
(Cam-
713
150, colorplate 11
(Bellini,
(Mantegna;
S.
Zeno
altarpiece)
350-
(Bellini,
Giovanni; S. Zaccaria altarpiece) 37475, 528; 444; (Botticelli) 294, 516; 356
Enthroned St. Cecilia (Master of St. Cecilia) 73; 55
Entombment (Castagno) 221, 223; 268;
(Pontormo) 507-08, 591; 611, colorplate 63; (Titian) 538-39; 650
Entry into Jerusalem (Duccio) 11-1%, 90,
colorplate 8
equestrian
Erasmo di Narni,
Erasmus 459
see Gattamelata
and
erotic
subjects,
Correggio
515, 516; Parmigianino 516, 517; Romano 479; Titian 515, 542
Este,
Este,
INDEX
358
619
337, 382
Eucharist (in art)
185
Mars
Demon
in the
Temple of
364
Exposure of Luxury (Bronzino; formerly
Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time) 592,
colorplate 80
Expulsion (Masaccio) 161-62, 449; 193;
(Quercia; Fonte Gaia) 146, 161-62;
172; (Quercia;
S.
Petronio)
147, 449;
176
Expulsion of Attila (Raphael) 465-66;
556
Expulsion of Heliodorus (Raphael) 46364, 578; 554, colorplate 59
Wedding 469;
treatment of 160, 182; optical
concepts 469, 516; portraiture 533; St.
Jerome 299; Turin-Milan Hours 140
altarpiece) 182; Arnolfini
light,
527
(Beccafumi)
rara
Festival of Venus (Titian) 535, 537;
festivals, designs for 16, 173
Fete
Champetre
(Giorgjone)
646
531-32,
colorplate 70
Ficino,
renzo
vice to
620
291-92;
Fischel,
Oskar 472
symbolism of 290
Flemalle, Master of
flames,
see
Master of
Flemalle
Flight into Egypt (Gentile da Fabriano)
151, 152; 181; (Giotto) 57; 57
289-90
INDEX
Baptistery:
competition
for
Marcovaldo)
orplate 2; sculpture:
251-52; 292, 293;
plate 37;
Ognissanti:
(Ghirlandaio)
frescoes
125;
doors:
127; (Brunelleschi) 112, 127, 128; 146;
(Ghiberti) 127-29, 198, 219, 501; 147,
148; (Quercia) 127, 144, 309; South
Doors (Andrea Pisano) 72-73, 105,
(Coppo
manism; Neoplatonism;
(Botticelli)
580
Exorcism of the
409,
422,
424,
463,
466,
474;
496;
(Ammanati)
(Alberti)
225;
sculpture:
Maria Nuova.
(Baldovinetti)
frescoes:
257, 263; (Castagno) 257, 354; (Domenico Veneziano) 218, 233, 257; (Piero
della Francesca) 218, 233, 257;
S. Felice (Michelozzo) 194;
Sta. Felicita.
tormo)
507-08.
591;
611,
colorplate
63;
Marco:
(Michelozzo)
126,
180;
Fra) 180,
182-83, 196, 286, 290, 427-28, 462;
212-14; frescoes (Angelico, Fra) 126,
183-85. 196. 219, 310, 424, 473; 215145;
(Angelico,
altarpiece
18;
Maria
Sta.
Chapel,
del
Carmine, Brancacci
frescoes:
(Lippi,
Filippino)
150,
di
colorplate
11;
frescoes:
(Nardo
Michele
Visdomini
(Pontormo)
Forli) 331
Fortitude (Nicola Pisano) 38; 33
Genoa
Founding of
lino)
Sta.
altarpiece
Banco)
295;
326,
Francesco
316; Pollaiuolo, A. del 317; Verrocchio 317; landscape 317; Nativity 317;
380; perspective 316; Siena, Cathedral,
sculpture 75; space, treatment of 317;
Urbino, Palazzo Ducale, decoration
331
Francis I, King 592; and Leonardo da
Vinci 410
Franciscans, architecture 47; Virtues 310,
311
Francis of Assisi, St. 28, 35
Madonna
Giovanni)
Frederick H, Emperor 36-37
Frederick IH, Emperor 309
fresco, sinopia 20-21; 72; technique 19-
and Child
(Bellini,
21; 77
tomb
203-05,
212-
247
Milan 111;
Florence
(Donatello)
Pisa 27
254;
275;
Jacopo 415
294
Gattamelata
furniture 249
535, colorplate 61
Galli,
165,
303;
S.
of
Florence
Florence, School oi,Cross 30-31, 58; 27,
22
Fonte Gaia, see Siena
foreshortening, Correggio 514; Giotto 55;
sculpture
with
151;
tist in the Desert 149; 775; Valle Romita altarpiece 148-50; 777, 775;
Venice, Doges' Palace, Sala del Gran
Consiglio, frescoes 148, 337
George, St., as patron saint of Arte dei
Corazzi
England 423
Gericault, Theodore 143
Ghent, Justus van see Justus
van
Ghent
Gherardini, Lisa di Antonio Maria, see
Mona Lisa
Ghibellines 52, 62
Ghiberti, Lorenzo 16, 127-32, 142, 186,
196-99, 249. 411; Alberti on 199; Annunciation (Baptistery, North Doors)
130; 750; on classical art 129,387;Cowmentaries 129; Creation (Baptistery,
Gates of Paradise) 198; 234; Crucifixion
(Baptistery,
North
Doors)
131,
Florence: Baptistery: North Doors 7273, 112, 127-31, 198, 219, 367, 501;
INDEX
621
Monaco
196,
104;
198-99;
influenced
classical
by:
art
Alberti
130,
132;
396; 235
Ghirlandaio, Davide del 303, 304, 307;
Vatican, Library, decoration 329
Ghirlandaio, Domenico del (Domenico BiGORDi) 103, 270, 303-08, 31314, 317; Adoration of the Shepherds
306-07, 393, colorplate 38; Birth of the
Virgin (Sta. Maria Novella) 307, 413,
Peter and
Andrew (Sistine Chapel) 304; 366;
color,
use of 304, 308; Florence:
Ognissanti, frescoes 304, 399; 365;
Sta. Maria Novella, frescoes 307-08,
315, 498; 369, 370: Sta. Trinita, Sassetti
Chapel, frescoes 305-06, 308; 367,
368; Funeral of St. Francis (Sassetti
Chapel) 306; 368; influence on: Michelangelo 307, 412; influenced by: Castagno 304; classical art 306, 307-08
Goes 307; Leonardo da Vinci 393
PoUaiuolo, A. del 304; Verrocchio 304
Last Supper (Ognissanti) 304, 399
365; light, treatment of 305, 308
Massacre of the Innocents (Sta. Maria
Novella) 307-08, 315; 370; Michelangelo as pupil 412; Miracle of the
Spini Child (Sassetti Chapel)
306;
367; Old Man with a Child 308, color498;
369;
Calling
of Sts.
on 304;
of 304; Vatican:
Library, decoration
329; Sistine Chapel, frescoes 292, 304;
366
622
INDEX
Fondaco
532
(Arena
Chapel) 58-59, 78; 60; Dante on 51;
Duccio compared with 77; Enthroned
Madonna (Ognissanti Madonna) 6162, 65; 69, 70; Flight into Egypt (Arena
Chapel) 57; 57; Florence: Campanile,
use
of
58,
59;
Crucifixion
cy
Maso
(Arena Chapel)
Joachim Takes Refuge in the
Wilderness (Arena Chapel) 53-54; 50.
51; Justice (Arena Chapel) 61; 66;
Lamentation (Arena Chapel) 59, 66;
61; landscape 54, 529; Last Judgment
(Arena Chapel) 52, 59-61, 577; 6265; Last Supper (Arena Chapel) 59;
light, treatment of 54, 56, 105; Meeting
at the Golden Gate (Arena Chapel)
55; 53; Nativity (Arena Chapel) 57,
67; 56; Padua: Arena Chapel (Scrolini
61; 67;
57;
Villani
on
of the Sabine
Woman
591; 723
Giovanni
Giovanni
Francesco 170
Paolo 311-13; influences on
312; Madonna and Child in a Landscape (Madonna of Humility) 312, 345;
373; perspective 312; St. John Entering
di
di
47;
41;
Siena
Cathedral:
facade
God
Magi (Palazzo Medici-Riccardi) 26263; 315, 316, colorplate 32; St. Augustine Given to the Grammar Master (S.
Altarpiece 32
Guelphs
Guidalotti,
Buonamico 96
277
27; influence
on 33
Gypsy Madonna
(Titian;
Madonna and
324a
Ludovico
Gonzaga), in Mantegna
fresco 356; 425
Holbein. Hans, portraiture 426
Holy House, Basilica of the, see Loreto,
Santa Casa, Basilica of the
Holy Night, see Adoration of the Shepherds (Correggio)
Holy
human
Giovanni 372;
Giotto 54, 62; Michelangelo 414, 449figure,
Bellini,
humanism
111,
124,
138,
Neoplatonism
Hunting Scene (Piero
503
Hymn
Cosimo) 432;
Dome
Ingres,
(Thomas
Kempis)
Jean-Auguste-Dominique 470;
portraiture 426
Injustice (Giotto) 61;
of
Temple of Solomon
umns 471-72, 561
the
Rock
423;
in the Wilderness
(Giotto) 53-54; 50. 5/
Job (in art) 372, 378
John XXIII. anti-Pope (Cardinal Cossa),
tomb of, by Donatello and Michelozzo
206, 211. 220, 256
John Paleologus. Emperor, in Gozzoli
fresco 263, colorplate 32; in Piero della
Francesca paintings 241, 244, color-
plates 30, 31
John the
series (Pollaiuolo,
A.
del) 271
King 112,
133, 139
Lamentation
Giovanni 369,
345-46; Bonaventura
29-30;
Berlinghieri
Botticelli
287;
Cennini on 54, 97; Domenico Veneziano 218, 219; Francesco di Giorgio
317; Gaddi, A. 104; Gentile da Fabriano
104, 159; Giorgione 528, 529, 530, 531,
532; Giotto 54, 529; Leonardo da Vinci
298, 388, 389, 402, 404; Lippi, Filippino
Ghent) 216
intarsia 333
Invention of the True Cross (Piero della
Francesca) 239; 284
Isenheim Altarpiece (Griinewald) 33
Italo-Byzantine art 27, 34, 37, 38, 47, 74,
528;
BelUni,
J.
Masolino
Perugino 325, 326; Piero della
Francesca 236, 239, 243, 244, 274-75,
410; Pollaiuolo, A. del 272, 274-75;
cio 104, 159, 163, 167, 218;
168;
of)
(Coppo
di
Marcovaldo)
plate 2; (Giotto)
62-
696-99;
(Nicola
Pisano)
40;
35;
(Traini)
609
Joshua (Donatello) 419
Judith and Holof ernes (Donatello) 137,
250-51, 589; 294. 295
Julius II, Pope (Giuliano della Rovere)
435-36, 443, 446, 456, 458, 463, 465,
483, 528; in Melozzo da Forli fresco
329; 390\ in Michelangelo fresco 457;
as patron 329, 422, 435-36, 438, 439,
67
Ladislaus,
355
Inconstancy (Giotto) 61; 68
578
Imitation of Christ
55,
423
Labors of Hercules
di
Sassetta
336
Jacopo di Cione 95
Jacopo Strada (Titian) 549; 662
Jeremiah (Donatello) 142-43; 168
Jerome, St., in art 226, 377, 378
Jerusalem,
Sts.
Aragon 331
Luciano 422;
Laurana,
Bramante
in-
Laurentian
Library,
see
Florence,
S.
Lorenzo
Lawrence, St.. flames as symbol 290
League of Cambrai 334, 528
Le Corbusier 572
Leda (Michelangelo) 542
Legend of St. Ursula (Carpaccio) 37577; 445, 446, colorplate 52; (Memling)
375
INDEX
388-
623
donna of
Mona
Lisa
Domed
tormo
St.
Liberation
//
//
libro dell'arte
(Cennini)
17,
St.
194; see
also Cennini
Libyan
Sibyl (Michelangelo)
454-55;
535; drawings 455; 536
Life of Christ (Ludolph of Saxony) 221,
222
treatment of.Angelico, Fra 182-83,
233, 253; Antonello da Messina 365,
366; Baldovinetti 267, 268; Bellini,
Giovanni 345, 369, 371, 372, 374; Bellini, J. 345; Botticelli 285, 288; Correg-
light,
624
INDEX
Botticelli
19;
as
assistant
Domenico Veneziano
LiPPO
Memmi,
Martini,
Annunciation,
work on 83
Lives
of
the
Sculptors,
Lorenzetti, Ambrogio
88,
Cross (S. Francesco) 86, 297; 102; Enthroned Madonna 88-89; 104; Giotto's
influence on 86, 88, 89; Last Supper
(S. Francesco) 87-88. 558; 70.?; light,
treatment of 87, 88, 242; Madonna and
Child with Saints, Annunciation, and
Assumption 85; 100, 10 1; perspective
89; space, treatment of 89
Lorenzo Monaco 104-05. 148; Angelico,
Fra. Descent from the Cro.v.v, frame, pin-
267,
269, colorplate 33; (Bellini, Giovanni)
369; 436; (BeHini, J.) 345; 405; (Coppo
174-75,
243,
267;
204;
(Masolino)
with
Donor
(Bellini,
46
Madonna and
nico
Veneziano)
ation,
(Lippi,
with Saints
Filippo;
and An-
Barbadori altar-
(Leonardo da
St. Anne
401-03, 409, 424; 472. colorplate 56; cartoon 401, 417, 438
Madonna and Saints (Angelico, Fra; Cortona) 18-19; 8-10: (Angelico, Fra; S.
Marco altarpiece) 180, 182-83, 196,
286, 290, 427-28. 462; 212-14
Madonna dal Collo Lungo, see Madonna
Madonna and
Vinci)
Long Neck
with the
Madonna
Candelletta
della
(Crivelli)
381; 4^9
Madonna
Madonna
di S. Biagio, see
Montepulciano
Madonna
Madonna
of
the
Victory
(Mantegna)
357-58, 381:427
Madonna
gianino;
the
517-18, coiorplate 68
Maesta (Duccio) 75-79, 311, 316; 87-91,
coiorplate 8; (Martini) 79; 92
Mainardi, Bastiano 303
Malatesta, Pandolfo 148
Malatesta, Sigismondo 187-88, 243; as
patron 188, 191; in Piero della Francesca fresco 238
Malatesta family, as patrons 186
Malatesta Temple, see Rimini
Male Nude (drawing, Leonardo da Vinci)
390; 457
138
Manetti, Giannozzo 250; On the Dignity
and Excellence of Man 124, 168
Mantegna. Andrea
345,
347-58,
363,
353,
Gonzaga (Camera
degli
Sposi)
356
of 350, 354, 357; Crucifixion 350, 35152; 417, 418; Dead Christ 354-56, 518;
424; drapery, treatment of 350; Enthroned Madonna and Child with Saints
(S.
Zeno
363; Veronese 561: influenced by: Alberti 348; Bellini, J. 345, 348, 352, 353,
354; Castagno 354; classical art 349.
357; Donatello 348, 349; Ludovico Gonzaga. His Family, and Court (Camera
degli Sposi) 356; 425; Madonna of the
Victory 357-58, 381; 427; Mantua,
Palazzo Ducale, Camera degli Sposi,
frescoes 356-57, 513, 561; 425. 426,
coiorplate 48;
Eremitani
Padua.
358,
363;
ogy
Church, Ovetari Chapel, frescoes 34750. 351, 368; 410-15; Parnassus 358,
363; 428; perspective 348, 350, 351,
353, 355; portraiture 356: St. James Before Herod Agrippa (Ovetari Chapel)
348, 349-50; 411. 412; St. James Led to
Execution (Ovetari Chapel) 350, 368;
413, 414; St. Sebastian, representations
Camera
Martyrdom
of
St.
George (Altichiero)
336-37; 399
Martyrdom of
351:4/5
St.
MoNE)
196;
164-65;
198; Expulsion
(Brancacci
Chapel) 161-62. 449; 193; Florence:
Sta.
Maria del Carmine. Brancacci
Domenico Veneziano
Filippo
175;
170,
Michelangelo
158,
(Man-
polyptych 164-67, 168, 218, 234; 198200, coiorplate 17; Raising of the Son
of Theophilus (Brancacci Chapel) 16364, 472; 197; Sagra (S. Maria del Car-
degli
Sposi,
frescoes
with
Man
134
Marriage
mine) 158;
St.
Jerome and
St.
John the
ish art
at
682-84
Marriage of Alexander and Roxana (Sodoma) 477, 479; 574
Marriage of St. Francis to Lady Poverty
(Sassetta) 311; i77
Marriage of the Virgin (Raphael) 423,
460, coiorplate 58
Marsuppini, Carlo, tomb of, by Desiderio
da Settignano 252, 254; 296, 297
Baptizing
Maria Novella)
(Sta.
167-68,
681
Maso
di
Banco
Croce, Bardi
69,
di
di
Cristofano Fini)
Castiglione d'Olona, Baptistery, frescoes 168, coiorplate 18; Florence: Baptistery, doors (?) 152; Sta. Maria del
Carmine, Brancacci Chapel, frescoes
158, 160, 161, 218; 191, 192, coiorplate
Founding of
16;
Sta.
Maria Maggiore
ple
cacci Chapel)
168;
Michelangelo
INDEX
625
Money
(Brancacci
Chapel)
160,
color-
161,
Upper Church,
Fran-
S.
73; 85
St. Cecilia
Master of the
Francis
St.
Cycle,
S.
Mazzola, Francesco
Medici, Alessandro
Medici, Carlo de'
Vecchio) 175
Parmigianino
487, 592
see
de'
(son
of
Cosimo
il
484
Medici, Lorenzo de' (Duke of Urbino)
483; tomb of, by Michelangelo 484,
487, 488, 489-90, 491, 492, 589; 585,
587, 592
Medici, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de',
Ficino's advice to 289-90; as patron
289, 290, 291, 303; portraits 291
626
il
Piero
Cosimo
plate 16
cesco,
Medici,
INDEX
Medici
Meditation on the Passion (Carpaccio)
377-78, 535; 447
Meditations on the Life of Christ 78-79
Meeting at the Golden Gate (Giotto) 55;
53
390
Melzi, Francesco, Leonardo's Treatise on
Painting compiled by 389
Memling, Hans
375
see Lippo Memmi
Mercatanzia 277
Mercury, flames as symbol 290
Memmi, Lippo
Michelangelo (Michelangelo Buonarroti) 16, 21, 142, 252, 299, 368, 41122, 431, 432, 435, 483-84, 487-94, 496,
Last
274,
293,
412,
414,
431,
445,
574,
Hill
Tomb
701-03;
21, 47,
Sistine
Chapel,
frescoes
422,
488,
576-
17; 263
Miracle of the Irascible Son (Donatello)
206; 251
Miracle of the Spini Child (Ghirlandaio)
Compagnia
34-35
models, use
in
Lorenzo Monaco
see
Moses
Striking
Water from
the
Rock
360
mythology and allegory, Botticelli 28790, 291, 295, 297; Bronzino 592; Correggio 51415; Lorenzo de' Medici on
287; Mantegna 358, 363; Piero della
Francesca 244; Pollaiuolo, A. del 27172, 275, 287; Raphael and assistants
477-80; Romano 477, 480, 527; Titian
531-32, 534-35, 537, 541-42, 547-49
Florence:
Baptistery,
sculpture
206, 211, 220, 256; Cathedral, architecture 114-15; 130; Orsanmichele, sculpture
Palazzo
277;
Medici-Riccardi,
142^4;
facade 194; S. Marco, architecture 126, 180; 145; John XXIII, antiPope, tomb 206, 211, 220, 256; Monte-
S. Felice,
pulciano.
Cathedral,
sculpture
211;
252
Marcantonio, on Giorgione's
Tempest 531, colorplate 69
Milan 334; relations with: Florence 111-
Michiel,
12,
398;
131,
137,
Genoa
158,
159,
334; France
Nanni
di
Chapel)
(Strozzi
95,
577;
113;
Ma-
95;
114; Paradise (Strozzi Chapel) 95; 112
Nativity (in art) 37, 57, 105, 282, 397-98
Nativity (Baldovinetti) 267-68, 271, 399;
19,
319.
320;
(Bonfigli)
Monaco)
ment (Siena, Cathedral) 40; 35; Madonna and Child (Siena, Cathedral)
Massacre
of the Innocents
40; 39; Nativity
(Pisa, Baptistery) 37; 31; nude, treatment of 38; Perugia, Fontana Maggiore
323; Pisa, Baptistery, pulpit 37-38, 39,
40;
538,
696-99; drawings 445, 453, 455; 522,
536; Victory 494, 495, 496; 597, 598
252;
557; 675
Neoplatonism 270, 286, 287, 459
della 233
Monaco, Lorenzo
37; 31;
306; 367
miracle painting 69, 85; ex voto 306
mirror (in art), distortion 469, 516
Misericordia,
Nardo
36;
(Siena,
Cathedral)
dral, pulpit
Night
491,
161,
198,
219;
Masaccio
161;
of
the Virgin (Porta della Mandorla) 141,
220; 165; drapery, treatment of 104;
Florence: Cathedral, Porta della Mandorla 141, 220; 165; Orsanmichele 132,
140-41, 159, 249; 164; Four Crowned
Venus
Naples
12;
112,
numbers:
Oderisi da Gubbio 51
Richard 365
Ognissanti, see Florence
Oflfner,
INDEX
627
Madonna
Madonna
Ognissanti
throned
Old
Man
(Giotto),
see
En-
Rome;
see
Rome;
Conservatori,
Rome;
see
Caprini,
Vicenza;
Ducale, see
see
Chiericati,
On
On
optical
137,
138,
painting
(Coppo
di
Marco-
valdo) 32; 26
Ovetari
Church
Schifanoia,
see
Fra Luca,
as assistant to Piero
on
Botticelli 281,
202,
painting,
models used
drawings
stencils
11;
oil
17-18
628
INDEX
see
Strozzi,
Rome
Palladio,
569-73;
Andrea (Andrea
di
Pietro)
570
see
painting,
186,
Deluge
(Sta.
dral,
Pacioli,
Florence;
see
Ferrara;
see
23;
Rucellai,
Siena;
see
fresco
Paradise (Nardo
of
397
di
Tommaso,
Parmigianino
(Francesco
Mazzola)
68; optical
Temple
(S.
Francesco),
architecture
as
185,
263;
Bellini,
J.
345,
346;
Uccello) 255
Perugia 323; relations with:
Spoleto 323;
Assisi
12;
Keys
326; 389
570-72:
Villa
Madama.
decoration
519
538; 649
Giovanni)
(Bellini,
Pesaro altarpiece
370-71; 438, 439
Pesaro Madonna, see Madonna of the
House of Pesaro (Titian)
Pescia. S. Francesco: painting (Bonaventura Berlinghieri) 29-30; 20
Petrarch (Castagno) 224
Petrucci. Pandolfo 309
Philip II. King, as patron 542, 548
Philostratus 535
Piccolomini. Aeneas Silvius, see Pius
II,
Pope
Pope
PlERO DELLA FRANCESCA (PiERO DI BENEDETTO DEI Franceschi) 186. 211. 212,
231-46. 309. 328. 365. 382. 420, 422,
482; allegory 244; Annunciation (S.
Francesco) 202, 241-42; 286: Arezzo,
Francesco, frescoes 59, 103, 202,
218. 237-43. 331, 398; 283-87, colorplate 30; Baptism of Christ 234, 236;
S.
De
501
PiERo
Giovanni
DI
Lorenzo Monaco
see
Pesaro
Pilgrimage of
59
Human
Life (Deguilleville)
di
plate
Pisanello, Antonio 337, 343, 382; animals depicted 337, 343; and Gentile da
Fabriano 337; Paolo Uccello compared
with 343; perspective 343; St. George
Anastasia) 337,
343: 400: drawings 343; 402; space,
treatment of 343; Study of a Head of a
Horse 337; 401 ; Study of Hanoed Men
343; 402; Venice, Doges' Palace, frescoes 337; Verona, S. Anastasia, frescoes
337, 343; 400; drawings 343; 402;
Vision of St. Eustace 343, colorplate 45
Pisano, Andrea see Andrea Pisano
Pisano, Giovanni see Giovanni Pisano
Pisano, Nicola see Nicola Pisano
(S.
pulpit (Giovanni
Madonna (Michelangelo)
443; 520
Pius II, Pope (Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini)
327-28; as patron 309; and Pienza 19394, 21 1, 309; in Pintoricchio fresco 328,
colorplate 42; Sigismondo Malatesta
Pitti
condemned by 187-88
III, Pope (Francesco Piccolomini)
Pius
Padua,
Eremitani
PizzoLO, NiccoLO,
Church, Ovetari Chapel, frescoes 347
plague 176, 225. 249, 499; see also Black
Death
View of Domed
Churches (Leonardo da Vinci) 391;
459
Platina (Bartolommeo de' Sacchi), in
Melozzo da Forli fresco 329; 390
Poggio a Caiano, Villa Medici: architecture (Sangallo. G. da) 260-62; 310,
311: frescoes (Pontormo) 261, 502,
Poliziano, Angelo,
ence, S. Miniato
the
Cardinal
275;
Villa
La
al
Monte, Chapel of
Portugal, altarpiece
Gallina, frescoes 273;
of
Woman
tormo)
ment
500;
608;
S.
drawing 612;
(Villa
Medici)
Pope Leo
with
Fra
Porta, Giacomo della, Rome, Palazzo
dei Conservatori 586
INDEX
629
Portinari,
Tommaso 299
Shepherds (Goes)
of a Bearded
Portrait
by:
Man
(Ariosto?;
366; 433
Portrait of a Turkish
Boy
Gen-
(Bellini,
364; 431
Portrait of a Young Woman (Baldovinetti) 269; 323\ (Pollaiuolo, A. del)
tile)
275; 330
portraiture 426; Antonello da Messina
366; Baldovinetti 269; Benedetto da
Maiano 257; Botticelli 291, 403; Bronzino 592; Donatello 204; Eyck, J. van
533; Giotto 61; Leonardo da Vinci 404;
Mantegna 356; Melozzo da Forli 329;
Perugino 326, 403; Piero della Francesca 243-44, 267, 271; Pollaiuolo, A.
del 275; Raphael 426, 467-69; Rossellino, A. 257; Titian 533, 539, 542, 549;
Verrocchio 278-79; see also self-portrait
pouncing 21
PoussiN, Nicolas 426,470, 591; influenced by Raphael 479
Prato 24, 483; Cathedral: frescoes (Lippi,
Filippo) 104, 175-76; 206, 207 Sta.
Maria delle Carceri: architecture (Sangallo, A. da, the Elder) 519; (Sangallo,
G. da) 262, 318, 519; J72-7^
Preaching of the Antichrist (Signorelli)
429; 498
\
predella 16
Presentation in the
Temple (Gentile da
Fabriano) 150, 151; (Lorenzetti, A.)
90-91; 108
Primavera
(Botticelli)
573; Bru-
Pugliese,
Punishment of Korah, Datham, and Abiram (Botticelli) 281, 293-94; 354, 355
Punishment of the Gamblers (Sarto)
497-98; 603
libri
deliarchitettura
(Palladio)
570
Petronio)
146;
174;
equestrian
monument
Petronio)
147, 449; 176; Florence,
Baptistery, competition for doors 127,
630
INDEX
Masaccio 161-
147;
classical art
compared with
ment of 146,
144,
Nanni
di
Banco
Cathedral,
font 143; Fonte Gaia 144, 146, 161-62;
170-72;
Temptation
Petronio)
(S.
146-47; 175; Vasari on 144; Wisdom
(Fonte Gaia) 144; 171
Raimondi
147;
Siena:
Marcantonio, engravings
af-
man
Quattro
62; Michelangelo
422,
and
the
Paul Preaching
St.
Athens All, colorplate 60; A. Sangallo the Younger as assistant 579; School of Athens (Stanza
della Segnatura)
180, 461-62, 463,
at
Veronese 560
rilievo schiacciato
13
Rimini 309; Arch of Augustus 191; Malatesta Temple (S. Francesco): (Alberti)
191, 436; 227, 222;
188,
(Pasti)
188,
Croce
RoBBiA, Andrea della 199-200
RoBBiA, LuCA della 143, 199-200, 211,
268; Alberti on 199, 200; Cantoria 200,
201, 213, 236, 245; 238, 239; Florence:
terracottas
Medici-Riccardi,
Palazzo
125; Sta. Croce, Pazzi Chapel, terracottas
121,
124,
colorplate
14;
Piero
on 236, 245
St.
Roman
50,
art,
Roman
Romanesque
art.
sculpture 27
Romano, Giulio
521-22, 527; as
assistant to Raphael 469, 470, 472. 477;
Cupid Pointing out Psyche to the Three
Graces (Villa Farnesina) 477. 480;
579: erotic subjects 479; influence on:
Titian 542; Veronese 561, 567; Mantua. Palazzo del Te: architecture 52122. 561; 633-35; frescoes 522; (Sala
dei
Giganti)
527, 574; 637, 638;
(Sala di Psiche) 527; 636; mythology
477. 480. 527; Raphael, Transfiguration of Christ, work on 474, 480; 565;
Rome: Villa Farnesina, frescoes (Loggia
di Psiche) 477, 480; 579; Villa Madama,
decoration 473; 564; Verona, Cathedral,
frescoes 567
Rome
470.
planning 435;
249; relations with Holy
Roman Empire 484; Sack of 484, 527
Arch of Constantine 191, 294, 30910; Arch of Septimius Severus 191; Ara
Pacis 200; Basilica Emilia 520, 522;
401, 435, 483; city
plague
176,
Basilica of Maxentius
(Temple of
Peace) 206; Campidoglio, see Capitoline Hill; Capitoline Hill (Michelangelo) 582, 585-86; 713. 714; Church of
Sts. Cosmas and Damian: mosaic 330;
36,
60;
30,
colorplate
4;
Sta.
Era)
185; S.
Pietro in Montorio: Borgherini Chapel,
painting (Sebastiano del Piombo) 480;
580; Tempietto (Bramante) 423, 43638, 571; 509-11; S. Pietro in Vincoli:
Tomb of Julius II (Michelangelo) 457,
458-59; 540, 700; Tempietto, see
Rome, S. Pietro in Montorio; Temple
of Venus and Rome 193; Theater of
Marcellus 193; Vatican, see Vatican;
Villa Farnesina:
(Peruzzi)
475-76,
(Angelico,
Bedroom
(So-
Pope
Rovere, Francesco Maria della 494
Rovere. Girolamo Basso della. in Melozzo da Forli fresco 331; 390; as
patron 331
Rovere. Giuliano della, see Julius II, Pope
Rovere. Guidobaldo della, as patron 541
Rovere family, as patrons 331; coat of
arms 275, 329, 331, 445. 449, 453, 454.
455. 456, 463; St. Sixtus as patron
saint
466
Giovanni,
as
patron
186-87,
192
Rucellai
di Psiche:
color-
plate 75
Sacrifice
Rome
St. Cecilia,
Master of
see
Master of
St. Cecilia
Sta. Cecilia in Trastevere, see
Rome
Florence
Domenico, see Siena
S.
St.
Florence
Florence
Sta. Felicita, see Florence
S. Francesco, see Arezzo; Assisi; Pescia;
Rimini, Malatesta Temple
St. Francis
(Bonaventura Berlinghieri)
29-30. 61. 85; 20
S. Egidio. see
S. Felice, see
Master of the
Cycle) 68; 75
Francis Undergoing the Test by Fire
Before the Sultan (Giotto) 65-66; 71
St.
George (Donatello) 137-38, 496;
160, 161
St. George and the Dragon (Donatello)
138-39, 155. 158. 196. 400; 162; (Raphael) 423. 424, 466; 490
St.
St.
Padua
S.
S.
San Gimignano, Collegiate Church: frescoes (Barna da Siena) 98, 101; 117,
118; S. Agostino:
263; 317
frescoes
(Gozzoli)
S.
S.
Madonna (Duccio)
34, 74-75;
86
Ruisdael, Jacob van 3 1
Ruskin, John, on Ghirlandaio 304; on
Giotto 52; on Gothic architecture 124;
on Tintoretto 554
Ruth, Obed, and Boaz (Michelangelo)
456; 538
St.
St.
Jerome and
St.
INDEX
631
St.
Madonna
St.
vanni)
Zeno, see Verona
St.
St.
of the Church
243; 219
Era)
(Angelico,
185,
St.
Lucy
St.
(Domenico
altarpiece
218-19, 264,
colorplates 24, 25
ziano)
350;
324,
Vene265,
S.
Marco
S.
altarpiece,
Madonna and
see
Maria
Maria
Maria
Cortona
Carmine, see Florence
del Fiore, see Florence, Cathedel Calcinaio, see
del
dral
Sta.
Sta.
Maria
Maria
Venice
Siena
Mark
St.
158, 159
St.
S.
Mark
S.
S.
Zeno
with
Saints
altarpiece
(Bellini,
(Mantegna)
Gio-
350-52,
Vecchio,
Sala
dcIl'Udienza,
Vasari 593
312-14
Sansepolcro, see Borgo San Sepolcro
Sansepolcro altarpiece (Sassetta) 309-11;
371, 372, colorplate 40
Vatican
477
Scrovegni
Chapel,
see
Padua,
Arena
Chapel
Scuola
Fall of
Icarus (Villa Farnesina) 477; 573;
Flagellation
480; 580; Polyphemus
(Villa Farnesina) 477; Rome, Villa
Farnesina, Sala di Galatea, frescoes
477; 573
306; 367; Mantegna 350; 412; Michelangelo 577; 696, 699; Piero della Francesca 236, 239; 262-83; Pontormo 507;
677, colorplate 63; Raphael 462, 463;
458, colorplate 59; Signorelli 429; 498;
Tintoretto 555; 670; Titian 549, 550;
664, 665; Veronese 562; 682, 684
Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror (Parmigianino) 516; 625
Darkness
Separation
Light from
of
(Michelangelo) 454, 514; 534
Serenyi, Peter 559
Serlio, Sebastiano, architectural treatise:
437; Bramante plans in 437; 570, 577,
575
S.
S.
S.
S.
S.
Rocco, Scuola
S.
di,
Rome
Rome
Rocco
Sebastian
(Antonello da Messina)
368, 373; 435; (Pollaiuolo, A. del)
274-75, 391, 401, colorplate 34
S. Sebastiano, see Mantua; Venice
Sto. Spirito, see Florence
St.
St.
Sylvester Resuscitating
Romans (Maso
Sta. Trinita, see
S. Vitale, see
S.
di
Two Deceased
Banco) 69; 77
Florence
632
Zaccaria
Ravenna
altarpiece,
INDEX
Sarzana, Cathedral:
27
S.
tormo 502; influenced by: Bartolommeo. Era 497, 498; Diirer 499;
Michelangelo 499; Perugino 500; Raphael 497, 498, 499; Lamentation 500,
see
Enthroned
Cross (GuUielmus)
Triumph of
Battista Sforza
397,
398, 436
shields, painted 16,
sibyl
(in art)
249
Michelangelo, sibyls
Sib\l (Giovanni Pisano) 40, 47; 41
Siena 13, 15, 24, 103, 309; banking 94;
(Matteo di Giovanni)
314-15; 377: Sta. Maria della Scala
nico: altarpiece
(Dome376
SiMONE Martini
Simonetta Vespucci
432; 501
sinopia 20-21; 12
Sir
John
Simone
di Cosimo)
see Martini,
Hawkwood
(Piero
Sistine
34;
557
perspective
Stefano
di
Stigmatization of
fumi) 510-1
St.
235
Strada, Jacopo, portrait of, by Titian 549;
662
300
on Michelangelo's Rome
Pi eta 417
Strozzi,
Strozzi
altarpiece:
Descent from
Fabriano), see Adoration of the Magi;
(Orcagna), see Enthroned Christ with
Madonna and
Saints
Maria
Novella
arms 418
Showing Bones and
(Leonardo da Vinci) 390;
Tendons
458
(Leonardo da Vinci)
Movements (Leonardo
Study of the
679
Head
180,
Cumaean
264, 269;
Catherine (Becca-
colorplate 65
1,
column 354;
on Mount
Lebanon
Ma-
Sylvester, St. 69
symbolism: amaranth 133; bird 378, 419;
blue 19, 34, 52, 58, 233, 330; cedar of
S.
Pietro in
Mon-
torio
Slave 554-55, colorplate 76; self-portrait 555; 670; space, treatment of 555,
557; Study for a Bowman in the Capture of Zara 553; 669; Study of nude
after a statuette 559; 679; Temptation
of Christ (Scuola di S. Rocco) 557;
INDEX
633
676;
Titian's
Crowning with
Thorns
Venus 535,
completed
Man
649;
with
the
Michelangelo compared with 534; mythology and allegory 531, 532, 534,
535, 537, 541, 542, 547-49; Pieta 549664, 665; Portrait of a Bearded
(Ariosto?) 533, colorplate 71;
Pope Paul III 542, 554; 658; portraiture
533, 539, 542, 549; Presentation of the
Virgin 539-41; 652, 653; as pupil of
Bellini, Gentile 532; as pupil of Bellini,
51;
Man
Agnolo
see
Bronzing
119,
Campo
120;
(Campo Santo)
Triumph
101,
103;
of Death
119, 120
(Bellini, Giovanni) 373, 473, colorplate 51; (Raphael) 473-75, 478, 480; 565-67
634
INDEX
St.
Mark
(Tin-
670
Treatise on Painting
(Leonardo da Vinci)
389
517; Perugino 324; Piero della Francesca 231, 233, 236, 246; Pollaiuolo,
A. del 274; Pontormo 500, 502, 50708; Querela
144;
509;
Peter's
Triumph of
Buttista Sforza
(Piero della
Federigo da Montefeltro
(Piero della Francesca) 244, 463; 288
Triumph of Heraclius over Chosroes
(Gaddi, A.) 103-04; 122
Triumph of Mordecai (Veronese) 561;
of
680
Triumph
(Andrea da
of the Church
Firenze) 96-97, 106, colorplate 12
Triumph of Venice (Veronese and pupils)
567-68; 685
Giangiacomo, equestrian mon-
Trivulzio,
ument 410
True Cross, see Legend of the True Cross
Tura, Cosimo 382-83; Enthroned Madonna and Child with Angels 382, colorplate 53; Ferrara, Palazzo Schifanoia,
Sala dei Mesi, frescoes 383; Pietd 38283; 450; Roverella altarpiece 382-83;
450, colorplate 53
Twilight (Michelangelo) 488, 490, 491,
492; 585
Two Sheets of Battle Studies (Leonardo
da Vinci) 409; 475
UccELLO, Paolo
Uffizi, see
see
Paolo Uccello
Florence
Cimabue 27,
Domenico Veneziano 218, 219-
della
Cancelleria)
and Andro-
595-96;
119, 120
Triumph
meda
(Palazzo
Vatican:
zoli)
286,
438,
439,
471.
581;
St.
512;
549; 664
Vecellio, Tiziano see Titian
Velazquez, Diego 219, 374
Vendramin, Gabriel, Giorgione Tempest
owned by 531, colorplate 69
"
Domenico
Veneziano,
see
Domenico
Venezuno
Veneziano, Paolo see Paolo Veneziano
Venice 334, 335, 528; city view 4\ Doges'
Palace, fire 372-73.
558; relations
with: Bergamo 334; Florence 112, 334;
France 528; Holy Roman Empire 528;
Milan 111, 334; Padua 334; Treviso
334; Verona 334; Vicenza 334; scuole
(confraternities)
363;
trade
12,
334,
336;
Fondaco
dei Tedeschi:
frescoes (Gior-
680:
S.
(Bellini,
Zaccaria:
altarpiece
(Bellini,
S.
altarpiece
siglio)
(Mantegna)
350-52, 372;
Scala family,
Young
279,
Woman
278-79;
David
337:
Thomas
A. del, compared
278; portraiture 278-79
laiuolo,
Vertumnus
507; 610
and
Pomona
with
277,
(Pontormo)
Villa
Villa
Rome
bolism: blue 19, 34, 233; cedar of Leb180, 264, 269; cypress on Mount
Zion 180, 264, 269; egg 246, 350;
flower 418; garden 174, 178, 184, 219,
294; lily 83, 269; mirror 175, 241-42;
palm in Cades 180; porta clausa 174,
184, 202, 219, 241, 242; Roman Catholic Church 501; rose tree in Jericho
180; white 85, 105; see also Christianity
anon
Madonna
Madonna) 298-99,
Filippino; Corsini
393; 361
Virgin Annunciate
sina) 365-66;
(Antonello da Mes-
432
Virtues
309, 334
Vision of Anna (Giotto) 54-55; 52
Vision of Constantine (Piero della Francesca) 242; 287
Vision of St. Bernard (Bartolommeo,
Fra) 427-28, 467; 496: (Lippi, Filippino) 299, 427, 432, colorplate 37
Vision of St. Eustace (Pisanello) 343,
colorplate 45
Vision of St. Jerome (Castagno) 226,
231, 354; 274, colorplate 27; (Domenico
Veneziano sinopia) 226, 231; (Parmi-
coes 347
Vivarini family 345, 528; influence of
375
Way
to
Wisdom (Querela)
Caiano
Vicenza
144; 171
Young Man
Virgin:
with
Medal
(Botticelli)
sym-
Youth of Moses
297; 352, 353
(Botticelli)
281,
293,
ZuccATO 532
Zuccone (Donatello) 142-43; 166, 167
ZuRBARAN, Francisco de 185
INDEX
635
LIST OF
PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS
The author and publisher v\ish to thank the Hbraries, museums, and private collectors for permitting the reproduction
in black-and-white of paintings, prints, and drawings in their
46
479, 48
484, 487, 488, 494, 495, 496, 498, 499, 500, 501
506,
509, 516, 517, 520, 521, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 53",
532, 533, 534, 535, 537, 538, 540, 543, 544, 545, 547, 549, 550,
462, 469,
551, 552, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 560, 563, 564, 565, 566, 568,
571, 572, 573, 574, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587,
613, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 623, 628, 630, 631, 632, 635,
following,
whose courtesy
is
gratefully
1 ,
acknowledged:
590, 592, 593, 597, 598, 599, 601, 602, 605, 606, 607, 608, 610,
636, 640, 641, 642, 644, 645, 646, 649, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655,
656, 657, 658, 659," 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 670, 671, 672, 673,
674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 680, 681, 683, 684, 685, 687, 688, 689,
Anderson and
Alinari (including
Brogi), Florence:
2, 3, 4, 5,
690, 691, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703,
7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,
37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55,
56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 75,
76, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, loi,
102, 103, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, III, 112, 116, 117, 118, 119,
120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133,
mante,
34, 136, 137, 138, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149,
150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163,
164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176,
21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 71, 73, 74, 77, 78, 80, 81, 85,
p.
1,
World Art:
i,
710,
713.
13,
15, 182,
177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 187, 191, 192, 196, 197, 200, 202, 203,
188, 189, 190, 193, 194, 195, 201, 212, 213, 255, 256, 257, 258,
259, 260, 262, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 284, 285, 286, 287,
220, 221, 222, 224, 229, 231, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239,
321, 322, 327, 335, 337, 363, 364, 369, 384, 385, 478, 480, 514,
240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252,
253, 254, 263, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 280, 281, 282, 283,
99,
288, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 300, 304, 305, 306,
II,
Lowry,
Braziller,
',
1,
371, 428.
1,
Renaissance Architecture,
Restauro,
pi.
Rome:
116: 705.
105.
Bates
94:
634.
225,
fig.
325, 328, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 336, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342,
MAS,
343, 344, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356,
230. Penguin
228. E. Peets and W. Hegeman,
Press, Baltimore: 226 (N. Pevsner, Outline of European Architecture), 45 ( John White: Art and Architecture in Italy: 1250-
357, 358, 361, 362, 365, 366, 367, 368, 370, 375, 376, 378, 379,
380, 381, 382, 386, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396,
398, 399, 400, 403, 404, 405, 407, 408, 409, 410, 41
1,
412, 413,
414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427,
Civic Art, p. 25
il, fig.
429, 432, 435, 438, 439, 440, 441, 443, 444, 445, 446, 449, 450,
45
636
LIST OF
PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS
19
507. Vaghi,
Parma: 621,
622.
n
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