AS LAB Man I

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SRINIVASAN ENGINEERING
COLLEGE, PERAMBALUR 621 212
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LAB- I

LABORATORY MANUAL
As per ANNA University syllabus
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(For Fourth Semester B.E., / B. Tech. Aeronautical Engineering students)
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Aircraft Structures Lab - I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LAB- I

LABORATORY MANUAL
As per ANNA University syllabus
(For Fourth Semester B.E., / B. Tech. Aeronautical
Engineering students)
D. MADESH
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Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Srinivasan Engineering College
Perambalur
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Acknowledgement
At first and foremost of all we thank GOD for completion of this lab manual.
We wish to express our heartfelt thanks to our beloved Chairman Shri A. Srinivasan for
having blessed this venture.
We are grateful to the Principal Dr. B. Karthikeyan. Srininvasan College of Engineering for his
constant support & guidance in bringing out this manual.
We are thankful to our colleagues for their suggestions for the preparation of this manual.
We are also thankful to our family members for their Cooperation.
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We sincerely acknowledge the various digital resources used in this Laboratory Manual.
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PREFACE
Its a great privilege in bringing out this manual for IV semester B.E / B. Tech students as
per prescribed syllabus of Anna university, Chennai. The principles and procedures of each
experiment have been presented in simple language which is easily perceined. Relevant tables
are given wherever necessary. List of apparatus required for each experiment with short
procedures, special instructions and viva voce with Graph sheets are all given which will be
helpful for students. We advice the students to do practicals with interest and get full benefit out
of this book. Maintain your observation book and record neatly. We wish you all success in your
career. May God bless you.
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D. MADESH
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SYLLABUS
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UNIVERSITY PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

ALLOTMENT OF MARKS
Internal Assessment
= 20 marks
Practical Examination
= 80 marks
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT [20 Marks]

Staff should maintain the assessment Register and the Head of the Department should monitor it.
SPLIT UP OF INTERNAL MARKS
Record Note
10 marks
Model Exam
5 marks
Attendance
5 marks
Total
20 marks
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION
The examination will be conducted for 100 marks. Then the marks will be calculated to 80
marks.
ALLOCATION OF MARKS
Aim and Procedure
20 marks
Tabulation & Observation
30 marks
Calculations
30 marks
Graph & Result
10 marks
Viva Voce
10 marks
100 marks
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Total
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LAB I

LABORATORY MANUAL
CONTENTS
SL.NO.
EXPERIMENT
Determination of Youngs
mechanical extensometers.
of
steel
using
Determination of Youngs modulus of aluminum using

electrical extensometers.
Determination of fracture strength and fracture pattern of

ductile and brittle materials.
Determination of forces in statically indeterminate force

system.
Deflection of beams with various end conditions.
Verification of Maxwells Reciprocal theorem & principle of

superposition.
Column Testing.
South wells plot.
Testing of Riveted Joints.
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Determination of membrane stresses in a thin cylinder under

internal pressure.
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modulus
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LIST OF NOMENCLATURES
SI.NO.
SYMBOL
UNIT
DESCRIPTION
N/mm2
Young Modulus of the material
N/mm2
Stress
P or W
N or Kg
Load
mm
Area
Strain
Kg/mm3
or Y
mm
deflection
mm4
Moment of Inertia
mm
Diameter
10
Pcr
N or Kg
11
mm
Thickness
12
mm
radius
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1 & 2
N/mm2
Maximum & minimum Stress
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t & c
N/mm2
Hoop & Longitudinal Stress
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N/mm2
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F, H, V,
X, Y, Z
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Nmm
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Pd
mm
Diagonal Pitch
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Pb
mm
Back Pitch
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22
Leff
mm
23
KL
Density
Critical Load
Constant = 3.14
Shear Stress
Summation of Force, Horizontal,
Vertical, In X, Y & Z direction
Summation of moment
Effective Length
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Effective Length factor
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INDEX
S.No
DATE
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
DATE OF
MARK
SUBMISSION
SIGN
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total Marks obtained

Internal marks awarded
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Signature of staff incharge
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LABARATORY CLASSES - INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. Students must attend the lab classes with ID cards and in the prescribed uniform.
2. Boys-shirts tucked in and wearing closed leather shoes. Girls students with cut shoes,
overcoat.
3. Students must check if the components, instruments and machinery are in working
condition before setting up the experiment.
4. Power supply to the experimental set up/ equipment/ machine must be switched on only
after the faculty checks and gives approval for doing the experiment. Students must start
to the experiment. Students must start doing the experiments only after getting
permissions from the faculty.
5. Any damage to any of the equipment/instrument/machine caused due to carelessness, the
cost will be fully recovered from the individual (or) group of students.
6. Students may contact the lab in charge immediately for any unexpected incidents and
emergency.
7. The apparatus used for the experiments must be cleaned and returned to the technicians,
safely without any damage.
8. Make sure, while leaving the lab after the stipulated time, that all the power connections
are switched off.
9. EVALUATIONS:
All students should go through the lab manual for the experiment to be carried out for
that day and come fully prepared to complete the experiment within the prescribed
periods. Student should complete the lab record work within the prescribed periods.
Students must be fully aware of the core competencies to be gained by doing

experiment/exercise/programs.
Students should complete the lab record work within the prescribed periods.
The following aspects will be assessed during every exercise, in every lab class and
marks will be awarded accordingly:
Preparedness, conducting experiment, observation, calculation, results, record

presentation, basic understanding and answering for viva questions.
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NOTE 1
Preparation means coming to the lab classes with neatly drawn diagram / experimental
setup, tabular columns, formula, model graphs etc in the observation notebook and
must know the step by step procedure to conduct the experiment.
Conducting experiment means making connection, preparing the experimental setup

without any mistakes at the time of reporting to the faculty.
Observation means taking correct readings in the proper order and tabulating the
readings in the tabular columns.
Calculation means calculating the required parameters using the approximate formula
and readings.
Result means correct value of the required parameters and getting the correct shape of
the characteristics at the time of reporting of the faculty.
Viva voice means answering all the questions given in the manual pertaining to the
experiments.
Full marks will be awarded if the students performs well in each case of the above
component
NOTE 2
Incompletion or repeat of experiments means not getting the correct value of the
required parameters and not getting the correct shape of the characteristics of the first
attempt. In such cases, it will be marked as IC in the red ink in the status column of
the mark allocation table given at the end of every experiment. The students are
expected to repeat the incomplete the experiment before coming to the next lab.
Otherwise the marks for IC component will be reduced to zero.
NOTE 3
Absenteeism due to genuine reasons will be considered for doing the missed
experiments.
In case of power failure, extra classes will be arranged for doing those experiments
only and assessment of all other components preparedness; viva voice etc. will be
completed in the regular class itself.
NOTE 4
The end semester practical internal assessment marks will be based on the average of
all the experiments.
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The Laboratory Notebook

Each student must have their own laboratory notebook. All pre-lab exercises and
laboratory reports are to be entered into your notebook. Your notebook must be clearly labelled
on the cover with the following information:
Register no
Year / Sem
Lab Code
: AE 2257
Lab
: Aircraft Structures Lab - 1
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Name
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Notes about the Lab

Aircraft Structures I consists of a theoretical module AE 2254 Aircraft Structures I
and a practical module AE 2257 Aircraft Structures Lab - I. These courses run concurrently and
the aim of the manual is to introduce students to laboratory procedure including data recording
and report writing. The experiments were developed to expand on the material covered in
lectures and to experimentally demonstrate the validity of principles presented in AE 2257. The
manual outlines 10 experiments. It helps the students to study experimentally the load deflection
characteristics structural materials under different types of loads.
Aircraft Structures is one of the most important courses for specialty for undergraduate
students of aircraft design majors. This course provides an in-depth coverage of finding youngs
modulus of different materials, statically indeterminate Structures, Column, verification of
theorems studied in theoretical module AE 2254 Aircraft Structures I and calculating
deflections of beams with variety of end conditions. The course is intended to provide students
with clear fundamental principles of mechanics of materials that used in aircraft structural
design.
This course presents the basic structural analysis principles of aerospace structures with
special emphasis on aircraft structures. Aerospace structures are generally made up of thin
walled members which are assembled together to bring about the final sub-structure such as
wing, control surfaces, fuselage, tail etc. The main aim of the course is to complement the
analysis principles acquired in Strength of Materials and Elasticity and apply them for the
analysis of beam and columns which form the components of sub-structures of aircraft. Analysis
principles are then applied to the structural analysis of sub-structures mentioned above which are
the main building blocks of the aircraft.
NOTE: Learning occurs differently for different students and no one approach is 100%
effective. Laboratory work is an effective teaching tool and it is important to realize that it
stands alone. There is no plan or need to have a lecture on a subject prior to a lab. A lab
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experience and a lecture should reinforce learning, but the order in which the learning takes place
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should not significantly affect the process.
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Experiment Description
Covers the relationship between stress and strain in deformable solids. Analysis is
applied to beams, columns and pressure vessels. Covers combined stresses, statically
indeterminate systems and properties of structural materials. The Objective of the lab is
o To observe, evaluate and report on the load deflection relationship of a simply
supported beam and a cantilever beam.
o To determine the modulus of elasticity of the beam and what the material the
beam is made of using beam deflection theory.
o To verify the principle of superposition and Maxwells Reciprocity Theorem.
o To find Deflection in columns
o Basic types of riveted joints.
o Different important design parameters of a riveted joint.
o Uses of riveted joints
o To find Stress acted in thin cylindrical shell under pressure vessel.
Intended Outcomes for Experiment

The student will be able to:
1. Understand the concepts and principles applied to members under various loadings and
the effects of these loadings.
2. Analyze and design structural members subjected to tension, compression, torsion,
bending and combined stresses using the fundamental concepts of stress, strain and
elastic behavior of materials.
3. Analyze columns and pressure vessels under various loadings.
4. Conduct himself or herself professionally and with regard to his or her responsibilities
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toward society, especially with respect to designing machine parts and structures to
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prevent failure.
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Experiment content (themes, concepts, issues and skills)

1. Aircraft Structure is nothing but advanced Strength of materials. Strength of materials is
the main foundation for both Mechanical and Civil Engineering in the upcoming design
courses.
2. Engineering design concepts are integrated into the Strength of Material course.
3. Methods are learned for determining the stresses, strains and deflections produced in
various members produced by applied loading.
4. To provide training in a fundamental subject (mechanics and structural) necessary for
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careers mechanical, civil and Aerospace related engineering fields.
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INTRODUCTION
1. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
(Common to experiment 1, 2 & 3)
1.1 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Different materials possess different properties in varying degree and therefore behave in
different ways under given conditions. These properties include Mechanical properties, Electrical
properties, Thermal properties, Chemical properties, Magnetic properties and Physical
properties. A design engineer is interested in the behavior of materials under load which is
mechanical in nature, for the design of machines & structures. Any material subjected to a load
either deforms, yield, or break, depending upon the magnitude of the load. We are basically
interested in knowing as to how a particular material will behave under applied load i.e. in
knowing the mechanical properties.
1.2 STRESSES-STRAIN DIAGRAMS

The internal resistance of the material to counteract the applied load is called stress, and
the deformation as strain. There are three types of stresses:
Tensile stress: force acts to pull materials apart;
Compressive stress: the force squeezes material;
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Shear stress: the force causes one part to slide on another part.
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There are three types of corresponding strains.

The metals are tested on a Universal Testing Machine. The stress-strain diagram is a diagram with values
of stress (load) as ordinate and strain (elongation, compression, deflection, twist etc.) as abscissa.
Mechanical properties depend upon the crystal structure, its bonding forces, and the imperfections which
exist within the crystal.
The stress-strain diagram for steel is shown in Fig. 1.1(a). The salient points are:
Point a: Limit of proportionality. 0-a is a straight line and stress is proportional to strain. The
slope of the line gives the value of Youngs Modulus of Elasticity; E. Point b gives the yield point of the
material and is called the elastic limit. This is the greatest stress that the material can endure without
taking up permanent set after load is removed. Point c is called lower yield point. Point d gives the
maximum or ultimate stress. Point e is called the breaking point and material fails. The various
mechanical properties can be defined or understand with the help of the above diagram. This is drawn
with data obtained from a test on Universal Testing Machine (UTM). The stress-strain ( ) diagram for
high carbon steel, cast iron and other brittle materials are shown in Fig. 1.1(b). Point a is the limit of
proportionality and point b is the breaking point. The curve does not have a yield point.
1.3 PRINCIPAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Those characteristics of the materials which describe their behaviour under external loads are
known as Mechanical Properties. The most important and useful mechanical properties are:
1.3.1 Strength
It is the resistance offered by a material when subjected to external loading. So, stronger the
material the greater the load it can withstand. Depending upon the type of load applied the strength can be
tensile, compressive, shear or torsional. The maximum stress that any material will withstand before
destruction is called its ultimate strength. (Point d)
1.3.2 Elasticity
Elasticity of a material is its power of coming back to its original position after
deformation when the stress or load is removed. Elasticity is a tensile property of its material.
The greatest stress that a material can endure without taking up some permanent set is called
elastic limit (Point a).
1.3.3 Stiffness (Rigidity)
The resistance of a material to deflection is called stiffness or rigidity. Steel is stiffer or
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of the Youngs modulus, the stiffer the material. E is the ratio of stress over strain and is given
by the slope of line 0-a.
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more rigid than aluminium. Stiffness is measured by Youngs modulus E. The higher the value
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1.3.4 Plasticity
The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without failure. Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range has
been exceeded, beyond point b. Plasticity is an important property and widely used in several
mechanical processes like forming, shaping, extruding and many other hot and cold working
processes. In general, plasticity increases with increasing temperature and is a favourable
property of material for secondary forming processes. Due to this properties various metal can be
transformed into different products of required shape and size. This conversion into desired
shape and size is effected either by the application of pressure, heat or both.
1.3.5 Ductility
Ductility of a material enables it to draw out into thin wire on application of the load.
Mild steel is a ductile material. The wires of gold, silver, copper, aluminium, etc. are drawn by
extrusion or by pulling through a hole in a die due to the ductile property. The ductility decreases
with increase of temperature. The per cent elongation and the reduction in area in tension is often
used as empirical measures of ductility.
1.3.6 Malleability
Malleability of a material is its ability to be flattened into thin sheets without cracking by
hot or cold working. Aluminium, copper, tin, lead, steel, etc. are malleable metals. Lead can be
readily rolled and hammered into thin sheets but can not be drawn into wire. Ductility is a tensile
property, whereas malleability is a compressive property. Malleability increases with increase of
temperature.
1.3.7 Brittleness
The brittleness of a material is the property of breaking without much permanent
distortion. There are many materials, which break or fail before much deformation take place.
Such materials are brittle e.g., glass, cast iron. Therefore, a non-ductile material is said to be a
brittle material. Usually the tensile strength of brittle materials is only a fraction of their
compressive strength. A brittle material should not be considered as lacking in strength. It only
shows the lack of plasticity. On stress-strain diagram, these materials dont have yield point and
value of E is small.
The toughness of a material is its ability to withstand both plastic and elastic
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deformations. It is a highly desirable quality for structural and machine parts to withstand shock
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1.3.8 Toughness
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and vibration. Manganese steel, wrought iron, mild steels are tough materials. For Ex: If a load is
suddenly applied to a piece of mild steel and then to a piece of glass the mild steel will absorb
much more energy before failure occurs. Thus, mild steel is said to be much tougher than a glass.
Toughness is a measure of the amount of energy a material can absorb before actual fracture or
failure takes place. The work or energy a material absorbs is called modulus of toughness
Toughness is also resistance to shock loading. It is measured by a special test on Impact Testing
Machine.
1.3.9 Hardness
Hardness is closely related to strength. It is the ability of a material to resist scratching,
abrasion, indentation, or penetration. It is directly proportional to tensile strength and is
measured on special hardness testing machines by measuring the resistance of the material
against penetration of an indentor of special shape and material under a given load. The different
scales of hardness are Brinell hardness, Rockwell hardness, Vickers hardness, etc. Hardness of a
metal does not directly relate to the hardenability of the metal. Hardenability is indicative of the
degree of hardness that the metal can acquire through the hardening process. i.e., heating or
quenching.
1.3.10 Hardenability
Hardenability is the degree of hardness that can be imparted to metal by process of
hardening. A metal capable of being hardened throughout its structure is said to have high
hardenability. The material is heated above a certain temperature and then suddenly quenched in
a cold oil or water bath.
1.3.11 Impact Strength
It can be defined as the resistance of the material to fracture under impact loading, i.e.,
under quickly applied dynamic loads. Two standard tests are normally used to determine this
property.
1. The IZOD impact test.
2. The CHARPY test.
1.3.12 Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of material to absorb energy elastically. On removal of the load,
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up to elastic limit is called the proof resilience. The quantity gives capacity of the material to
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the energy stored is released as in a spring. The maximum energy which can be stored in a body
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bear shocks and vibrations. The strain energy stored in a material of unit volume gives proof
resilience and is measured by work stretching.
1.4 FATIGUE AND FATIGUE TEST

The fatigue strength of a material is the maximum stress at which failure may occur after
a certain number of cyclic load applications. A component is designed to give a certain length of
service under a specified loading cycle. Many components of high speed aero and turbine
engines are designed for fatigue strength. The fatigue strength or endurance limit of material is
used in the design of parts subjected to repeated alternating stresses over an extended period of
time. Specimens are tested to failure using different loads. The number of cycles is noted for
each load. The results of such tests are plotted as graphs of applied stress against the logarithm of
the number of cycles of failure. The curve is known as S-N curve. The tests are carried out on
special fatigue testing machines.
1.5 CREEP AND CREEP TESTING

The slow and continuous elongation of a material with time at constant stress and high
temperature below elastic limit is called creep. At high temperatures, stresses even below the
elastic limit can cause some permanent deformation on stress-strain diagram. There are three
stages of creep. In the first stage the material elongates rapidly but at a decreasing rate. In the
called creep strength. Creep test is carried out at high temperature. A creep curve (Fig. 1.4) is a
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rapidly until the material fails. The stress for a specified rate of strain at a constant temperature is
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second stage, the rate of elongation is constant. In third stage, the rate of elongation increases
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plot of elongation of a tensile specimen versus time, for a given temperature and under constant
stress. Tests are carried out for a period of a few days to many years.
The test can be carried out on Universal Testing Machine with special attachments.
Creep curve shows four stages of elongation:
(a) Instantaneous elongation on application of load.
(b) Primary creep: Work hardening decreases and recovery is slow.
(c) Secondary creep: Rate of work hardening and recovery processes is equal.
(d) Tertiary Creep: Grain boundary cracks. Necking reduces the cross-sectional area of
the test specimen.
The creep strength is used for the design of blades and other parts of steam and gas turbines
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working at high temperatures.
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1.6 VARIOUS GRAPHS
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1.7 Uses
Earthquake zones/ buildings/ civil engineering: Comparing the stretchability of

reincorcement diagonal cables to the stability required by masonry or concrete existing
structures to prevent cracking in predicted strength earthquake tremors.
Medicine/bone/ replacement body parts/ medical engineering: Determining weight/
force limits on temporary-glued-in artificial joints, before bone growth makes much
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stronger bonding to the stub-mounts
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Aerospace/ aeroplanes/ aeronautical engineering: Calculating an overall ruggedness

model of foldable wing-mounts on aircraft deployed to carrier ships.
The Young's modulus calculates the change in the dimension of a bar made of an
isotropic elastic material under tensile or compressive loads.
For instance, it predicts how much a material sample extends under tension or shortens
under compression.
Young's modulus is used in order to predict the deflection that will occur in a statically
determinate beam when a load is applied at a point in between the beam's supports.
1.8 Possible Viva Questions

(Common to Experiment 1, 2 & 3)
1. What is meant by mechanical properties of materials? State their importance in the design
of a machine or structural element.

2. Explain the difference between malleability and ductility. Toughness, stiffness and
strength.
3. Explain the term fatigue. Also explain the term fatigue strength and fatigue limit related
to fatigue.
4. Explain the difference between hardness and brittleness, strength and stiffness, elasticity
and creep, malleability and ductility.

5. What do you understand from the term Mechanical Properties of Materials? On which
factors do these properties mainly depend?

6. Explain the following in brief: Impact strength, Plasticity, Fatigue & Elasticity
7. Draw a typical creep test curve, showing different stages of elongation for a long time,
high temperature creep test. State how the information is useful to the design engineers.
8. Differentiate between:
(a) Hardness and impact resistance

(b) Hardness and toughness
9. Explain: Brittleness, Stiffness and Ductility.
10. What property is dependent on time and temperature?
13. Differentiate among strength, stiffness and toughness.

14. Explain (i) Elasticity (ii) Plasticity (iii) Toughness. (iv) Malleability
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12. Briefly explain what do you understand by: Toughness, Fatigue, Creep, Hardness
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11. On what factors does the hardness of steel depend?
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2. STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

(Experiment: 9)
2.1 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

2.1.1 Definitions:
A statically indeterminate system means that the reactions and internal forces cannot be analyzed
by the application of the equations of static alone. The indeterminacy of the structure may be
either external, internal, or both. The space structure is externally indeterminate if the number of
the reaction components is more than six. The corresponding number in a plane structure is
three.
Some structures are built with intermediate hinges, each hinge provides on additional equation of
static equilibrium and allows the determination of additional reaction component. For instant, the
frame given in figure with three intermediate hinges is a statically determinate structure with six
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reaction components.
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Thus, for structures with intermediate hinges, the degree of externally indeterminacy depends on
the difference between the number of reactions and the available equations of static equilibrium.
Let us consider structures which are externally statically determinate but internally
indeterminate. For instance, closed plane frames given in the figure, each closed part gives three
degrees of indeterminacy. The number of indeterminacy decreases by introducing intermediate
hinges. Each intermediate hinge removes the bending moment at the respective point. The space
frame given in the figure (2-4) has six unknown reactions at each support (total 24 reactions
acting at the four supports). The frame is 18 times externally indeterminate. If the reactions are
known, then the internal forces in the four columns can be computed, but the beams forming the
closed frame (e,f,g,h) cannot be analyzed.
Cutting one of the beams at any section makes it possible to determine the internal forces in all
members of the frame (e,f,g,h). The number of the releases in this case is six, then the structure is
internally six times statically indeterminate, and the total degree of indeterminacy is 24. The
truss is called a statically determinate truss, if the reactions and the forces in the entire member
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can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium alone.
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It is called statically indeterminate if these forces can only be determined by taking into account
the deformation of the truss. If no equilibrium is possible between external and internal forces
the truss is called unstable.
Statically indeterminate trusses are obtained from a statically indeterminate set. Once by the
addition of one or more members or components of the reaction without increasing the number
of joints, these additional elements are the redundant elements of the truss. Unstable trusses are
obtained from statically determinate or indeterminate trusses by taking of one or more necessary
members so that at certain joints no equilibrium is possible between external and internal forces
as shown in figure (2-5).
2.1.2 Degree of Indeterminacy
Consider any statically indeterminate plane truss; the unknown forces are the reaction
components R and the forces in the members m. At each joint two equations of equilibrium can
be written:
X = 0, Y = 0
For a statically determinate system, the number of equations of static is the same as the number
of unknowns, i.e.,
2j = m + R
In statically indeterminate trusses, the (2j) equations of equilibrium are not sufficient to find the
reactions and the forces in all the members. The degree of indeterminacy is then,
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i = (m + R) 2j
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To get these values we must consider the elastic deformation of the truss from which additional
equations are derived. In the case of space trusses, three equations of equilibrium can be written
at each joint, i.e.,
X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0
Thus, the total number of the equations of equilibrium that can be written is (3j). For statically
determinate trusses we get,
3j = m + R
For statically indeterminate trusses the degree of indeterminacy is,
i = (m + R) 3j
2.2 ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

2.2.1 Introduction
In statics, a structure is statically indeterminate (or hyper static) when the static
equilibrium equations are insufficient for determining the internal forces and reactions on that
structure. Based on Newton's laws of motion, the equilibrium equations available for a twodimensional body are
: The vectorial sum of the forces acting on the body equals zero. This
translates to
H = 0: the sum of the horizontal components of the forces equals zero;
V = 0: the sum of the vertical components of forces equals zero;
: The sum of the moments (about an arbitrary point) of all forces equals
zero.
The object of the analysis is to determine the external and internal forces of the structure. These
forces must satisfy the conditions of equilibrium and produce deformations compatible with the
continuity of the structure and the support conditions. Two general methods of approach can be
used.
Force or flexibility method
Second is the displacement or stiffness method.
is small, say two or three times, the solution can be done by hand. For larger numbers it is
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method regards the nodal displacements as the basic unknowns. If the number of indeterminacy
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The force method treats the member forces as the basic unknowns, whereas the displacement
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essential to develop and use matrix notation in order to keep control of the very large amount of
data.
2.2.2 Description of Methods:
To solve statically indeterminate structures by the flexibility or stiffness methods, the
following procedures are considered.
Flexibility Method:
Release the indeterminate constraints, and the resulting deformation discontinuity calculated.
Then redundant actions are then replaced to restore the continuity and the resulting compatibility
equations solved for the redundant force actions.
Stiffness Method:
Additional restrains are added to fix all the degrees of freedom and the values of these restraints
calculated. The restraints are then removed to allow deformations and restore equilibrium. The
resulting equilibrium equations are solved for the displacements and subsequently the force
actions are determined
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2.2.3 Example:
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2.3 USES
These include the design of lighter and more rigid structures.

With added redundancy in the structural system, there is an increase in the overall factor
of safety.
This experiment gives visualization and understands the phenomenon involved statically
indeterminate system, a system which exist when the valency of the support is greater
than the number of degree of freedom of the system.

(Experiment: 9)
1. Differentiate Truss and Frame?

2. Explain with examples the statically determinate structures.
3. What are the assumptions made in the analyze of a truss?
4. What are the types of frames?
5. Differentiate the perfect and imperfect frames?
6. Differentiate the deficient frame and redundant frame
7. Define Plane truss and Space truss? Give some examples
8. What are the methods used to analyze the plane & space frames?
9. What are the assumptions made in the analyze of a truss?
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10. What is meant by order of indeterminacy? Explain with example.
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3. BEAMS
(Common to Experiment: 4 & 5)
3.1 BEAMS
3.1.1 Definitions:
A beam may be defined as a member whose length is relatively large in comparison with
its thickness and depth, and which is loaded with transverse loads that produce significant
bending effects as oppose to twisting or axial effects.
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements,

but smaller structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other mechanical
or structural systems contain beam structures that are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion.
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3.1.2 Types:
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3.2 DEFLCETIONS
The deformations or movements of a structure and its flexural members from their
original positions. Deflection is caused by many sources, such as, loads, temperature,
construction error, and settlements .It is important to include the calculation of deflections into
the design procedure to prevent structural damage to secondary structures (concrete or plaster
walls or roofs) or to solve indeterminate problems.
The deflections of a beam are an engineering concern as they can create an unstable
structure if they are large. People dont want to work in a building in which the floor beams
deflect an excessive amount, even though it may be in no danger of failing. Consequently, limits
are often placed upon the allowable deflections of a beam, as well as upon the stresses. When
loads are applied to a beam their originally straight axes become curved. Displacements from the
initial axes are called bending or flexural deflections. The amount of flexural deflection in a
beam is related to the beams area moment of inertia (I), the single applied concentrated load (P),
length of the beam (L), the modulus of elasticity (E), and the position of the applied load on the
beam.
Deflections are most often caused by internal loadings such as bending moment and axial
force. Usually, before the slope and deflection are calculated, it is important to sketch the shape
of the structure when loaded. To do this, we need to know how different connections rotate, ,
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and deflect, , as a response to loading.
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3.2.1 Examples for deflection of beams
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3.3 THEOREMS
3.3.1 Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem
Maxwell theorem states that for any linear elastic body (also called a Hookean
body), that the movement at a d.o.f. A, caused by the application of a force/moment F at a d.o.f.
B, is exactly the same as the movement at a d.o.f. B, caused by the application of a force/moment
F at a d.o.f. A. To illustrate, consider a cantilever with a location A and a location B. When we
apply a force at B, the displacement at A is . When we apply a force at A, the displacement at B
is . Maxwell said that AB=BA . Imagine that! Maxwell based this on a general theory for
elastic bodies called Castiglianos Theorem. Maxwells theorem is actually a corollary of
Castiglianos.
By considering elastic energy can show that Maxwells theory works. We start by assuming that
for elastic bodies, the stored energy depends on the deformed shape, which depends on the total
set of loads. The shape, and the stored energy do not depend on which load was applied first.
(elastic energy is path independent) . With this we next consider our beam with two equal
forces at A and B.
The elastic energy stored in the beam comes from the work done by the forces as they were
A first, then a B. In the second way, we apply F to B first, then to A. We calculate the work done
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by the forces, and compare the two results.
38
applied to the beam. We will apply the forces in two ways. In the first way, we apply the force at
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3.3.2 Principle of Superposition

For a linearly elastic structure, the load effects caused by two or more loadings are the
sum of the load effects caused by each loading separately.
For a linearly elastic structure, load, P, and deformation, , are related through stiffness,
K, as shown:
For an initial load on the structure we have:

P1 = K 1
If we instead we had applied P we would have gotten:
P = K
Now instead of applying P separately to P1 we apply it after P1 is already applied. The final
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forces and deflections are got by adding the equations:
which is a result we expected.

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This result, though again deceptively obvious, tells us that:

Deflection caused by a force can be added to the deflection caused by another force to
get the deflection resulting from both forces being applied;
The order of loading is not important (P or 1 P could be first);
Loads and their resulting load effects can be added or subtracted for a structure.
Note that the principle is limited to:
Linear material behaviour only;
Structures undergoing small deformations only (linear geometry).
3.3.2.1Example
If we take a simply-supported beam, we can see that its solutions can be arrived at
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by multiplying the solution of another beam:
Thus the principle is very flexible and useful in solving structures.

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1. Explain what is meant by distribution factor
2. Explain the use of Clampeyrons three moment theorem?
3. State Castiglianos theorems.
4. Define distribution factor in moment distribution method.
5. Write down the Clapeyrons three moment theorem in general form.
6. State Maxwells reciprocal theorem.
7. What is linearly elastic structure?
8. Define: Stiffness factor.
9. Define Flexural Rigidity of Beams.
10. Draw deflection curve for a simply supported beams subjected to a
(a) UDL over its entire length and
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(b) Moment at the center.
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4. COLUMN
(Common to Experiment: 6 & 7)
4.1 DEFNITIONS
If a beam element is under a compressive load and its length if the orders of magnitude
are larger than either of its other dimensions such a beam is called a columns.
Column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that
transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements
below, in other words a column is a compression member. The term column applies especially to
a large round support with a capital and base and made of stone or appearing to be so. A small
wooden or metal support is typically called a post, and supports with a rectangular or other nonround section are usually called piers.
For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist
lateral forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns" because of the similar
stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper
parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a structural element that
element not needed for structural purposes; many columns are "engaged", that is to say form part
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of a wall.
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also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column might also be a decorative
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4.2 BUCKLING OF COLUMNS

If a beam element is under a compressive load and its length if the orders of magnitude
are larger than either of its other dimensions such a beam is called a columns. Due to its size its
axial displacement is going to be very small compared to its lateral deflection called buckling.
Quite often the buckling of column can lead to sudden and dramatic failure. And as a result,
special attention must be given to design of column so that they can safely support the loads.
In science, buckling is a mathematical instability, leading to a failure mode.
Theoretically, buckling is caused by a bifurcation in the solution to the equations of static
equilibrium. At a certain stage under an increasing load, further load is able to be sustained in
one of two states of equilibrium:
Un-deformed state
Laterally-deformed state.
In practice, buckling is characterized by a sudden failure of a structural member subjected

to high compressive stress, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than
the ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of withstanding. For example,
during earthquakes, reinforced concrete members may experience lateral deformation of the
longitudinal reinforcing bars. This mode of failure is also described as failure due to elastic
instability. Mathematical analysis of buckling makes use of an axial load eccentricity that
introduces a moment, which does not form part of the primary forces to which the member is
subjected. When load is constantly being applied on a member, such as column, it will ultimately
become large enough to cause the member to become unstable. Further load will cause
significant and somewhat unpredictable deformations, possibly leading to complete loss of loadcarrying capacity. The member is said to have buckled, to have deformed.
In discussing the analysis and design of various structures in the previous chapters, we
had two primary concerns: (1) the strength of the structure, i.e. its ability to support a specified
load without experiencing excessive stresses; (2) the ability of the structure to support a specified
load without undergoing unacceptable deformations.
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4.2.1 Slenderness Ratio

The ratio of the effective length of a column to the least radius of gyration of its cross
section is called the slenderness ratio (sometimes expressed with the Greek letter lambda, ).
This ratio affords a means of classifying columns. Slenderness ratio is important for design
considerations. All the following are approximate values used for convenience.
4.2.2 Columns Types
A short steel column is one whose slenderness ratio does not exceed 50; an intermediate
length steel column has a slenderness ratio ranging from about 50 to 200, and are dominated by
the strength limit of the material, while a long steel column may be assumed to have a
slenderness ratio greater than 200.
A short concrete column is one having a ratio of unsupported length to least dimension
of the cross section not greater than 10. If the ratio is greater than 10, it is a long column
(sometimes referred to as a slender column).
Timber columns may be classified as short columns if the ratio of the length to least
dimension of the cross section is equal to or less than 10. The dividing line between intermediate
and long timber columns cannot be readily evaluated. One way of defining the lower limit of
modulus of elasticity and the allowable compressive stress parallel to the grain, it can be seen
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sectional area that would just exceed a certain constant K of the material. Since K depends on the
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long timber columns would be to set it as the smallest value of the ratio of length to least cross
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that this arbitrary limit would vary with the species of the timber. The value of K is given in most
structural handbooks.
If the load on a column is applied through the center of gravity of its cross section, it is
called an axial load. A load at any other point in the cross section is known as an eccentric load.
A short column under the action of an axial load will fail by direct compression before it buckles,
but a long column loaded in the same manner will fail by buckling (bending), the buckling effect
being so large that the effect of the direct load may be neglected. The intermediate-length
column will fail by a combination of direct compressive stress and bending.
The maximum load, sometimes called the critical load, causes the column to be in a state
of unstable equilibrium; that is, the introduction of the slightest lateral force will cause the
column to fail by buckling. The formula derived by Euler for columns with no consideration for
lateral forces is given below. However, if lateral forces are taken into consideration the value of
critical load remains approximately the same
where
= maximum or critical force (vertical load on column),
= modulus of elasticity,
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= area moment of inertia,

= unsupported length of column,
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= the effective length of the column.

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= column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end
support of the column, as follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate),
For both ends fixed,
= 1.0.
= 0.50.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned,
= 0.699....
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally,
= 2.0.
4.4.4 Compression Members

Compression members, such as columns, are mainly subjected to axial forces. The
principal stress in a compression member is therefore the normal stress,
The failure of a short compression member resulting from the compression axial force looks
like,
However, when a compression member becomes longer, the role of the geometry and
stiffness (Young's modulus) becomes more and more important. For a long (slender) column,
buckling occurs way before the normal stress reaches the strength of the column material. For
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46
example, pushing on the ends of a business card or bookmark can easily reproduce the buckling.
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For an intermediate length compression member, kneeling occurs when some areas yield
before buckling, as shown in the figure below.
In summary, the failure of a compression member has to do with the strength and stiffness of the
material and the geometry (slenderness ratio) of the member. Whether a compression member is
considered short, intermediate, or long depends on these factors. More quantitative discussion on
these factors can be found in the next section.
4.4.5 Design Considerations
In practice, for a given material, the allowable stress in a compression member depends on the
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slenderness ratio Leff / r and can be divided into three regions: short, intermediate, and long.
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Short columns are dominated by the strength limit of the material. Intermediate columns are
bounded by the inelastic limit of the member. Finally, long columns are bounded by the elastic
limit (i.e. Euler's formula). These three regions are depicted on the stress/slenderness graph
below,
The short/intermediate/long classification of columns depends on both the geometry (slenderness

ratio) and the material properties (Young's modulus and yield strength). Some common materials
used
for
columns
are
listed
below:
In the table, Leff is the effective length of the column, and r is the radius of gyration of the crosssectional area, defined as
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Figure shows the first three buckling modes (n = 1, 2 and 3 respectively).

4.4.6 South well plot
Practical columns have some imperfections in the form of initial curvature and the
buckling of loads of such struts is of real practical value. The experiment aims at measuring the
buckling loads of columns and construction of South Well Plot. The imperfection amounts to
initial curvature, which shows up in this plot.
The Southwell Plot method enables you to test a column in a non-destructive manner so
that its buckling behaviour can be determined.
If we look at the Southwell Plot equation:
P/y = 1/Pcr * y + a/Pcr
Here we have:
P
= Applied load
y
= mid-height displacement
Pcr
= Critical buckling load
a
= initial mid-height deformation (or imperfection as you called it)
Using test data, you can plot a graph with P/y along the y-axis and y along the x-axis.
This will give you a slope of 1/Pcr and an intercept at y=0 of a/Pcr. From there the value of 'Pcr'
and 'a' can be determined. It is interesting to see how the slope of this curve is often very linear,
49
especially for elastic buckling cases. It is for this reason that you do not need to test a column to
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failure.
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4.5 USES
1.
To test a column in a non-destructive manner.

Define: Column
2.
What are the types of column failure?
3.
What is slenderness ratio (buckling factor)? What is its relevance in column
4.
What are the factors affect the strength column?
5.
Differentiate short and long column
6.
What are the limitations of the Eulers formula?
7.
Define: Equivalent length of the column.
8.
What are the uses of south well plot? (column curve)
9.
Write Euler s formula for maximum stress for a initially bent column
10.
What is beam column? Give examples.
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1.
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5. RIVETED JOINTS
(Experiment 8)
5.1 DEFNITIONS
A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed a rivet consists of a
smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite the head is called the buck
tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled hole, and the tail is upset, or
bucked (i.e., deformed), so that it expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter, holding
the rivet in place. To distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the original head is called the
factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail.
Because there is effectively a head on each end of an installed rivet, it can support tension loads
(loads parallel to the axis of the shaft); however, it is much more capable of supporting shear
loads (loads perpendicular to the axis of the shaft). Bolts and screws are better suited for tension
applications.
Fastenings used in traditional wooden boat building, like copper nails and clinch bolts,
work on the same principle as the rivet but were in use long before the term rivet came about
and, where they are remembered, are usually classified among the nails and bolts respectively.
5.2 RIVETS AS PERMANENT JOINTS

Often small machine components are joined together to form a larger machine part.
Design of joints is as important as that of machine components because a weak joint may spoil
the utility of a carefully designed machine part. Mechanical joints are broadly classified into two
classes viz., non-permanent joints and permanent joints.
Non-permanent joints can be assembled and dissembled without damaging the
components. Examples of such joints are threaded fasteners (like screw-joints), keys and
couplings etc. Permanent joints cannot be dissembled without damaging the components. These
etc, where two components are joined by applying mechanical force. The components can also
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can be of mechanical origin, for example, riveted joints, joints formed by press or interference fit
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joints can be of two kinds depending upon the nature of force that holds the two parts. The force
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be joined by molecular force, for example, welded joints, brazed joints, joints with adhesives etc.
Not until long ago riveted joints were very often used to join structural members permanently.
However, significant improvement in welding and bolted joints has curtained the use of these
joints. Even then, rivets are used in structures, ship body, bridge, tanks and shells, where high
joint strength is required.
5.3 RIVETS AND RIVETING

A Rivet is a short cylindrical rod having a head and a tapered tail. The main body of the rivet is
called shank (see figure shown below). According to Indian standard specifications rivet heads
are of various types. Rivets heads for general purposes are specified by Indian standards IS:
2155-1982 (below 12mm diameter) and IS: 1929-1982 (from 12 mm to 48 mm diameter). Rivet
heads used for boiler works are specified by IS: 1928-1978. To get dimensions of the heads see
any machine design handbook.
Riveting is an operation whereby two plates are joined with the help of a rivet. Adequate
mechanical force is applied to make the joint strong and leak proof. Smooth holes are drilled (or
punched and reamed) in two plates to be joined and the rivet is inserted. Holding, then, the head
by means of a backing up bar as shown in figure shown below, necessary force is applied at the
tail end with a die until the tail deforms plastically to the required shape. Depending upon
riveting riveting is done at ambient temperature and (b) hot riveting rivets are initially heated
52
before applying force. After riveting is done, the joint is heat-treated by quenching and
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whether the rivet is initially heated or not, the riveting operation can be of two types: (a) cold
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tempering. In order to
ensure leak-proofness of the joints, when it is required, additional
operation like caulking is done.
5.4 TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS

Riveted joints are mainly of two types
1. Lap joints
2. Butt joints
5.4.1 Lap Joints
The plates that are to be joined are brought face to face such that an overlap exists, as
shown in figure 5.4.1.1 Rivets are inserted on the overlapping portion. Single or multiple rows of
rivets are used to give strength to the joint. Depending upon the number of rows the riveted joints
may be classified as single riveted lap joint, double or triple riveted lap joint etc. When multiple
joints are used, the arrangement of rivets between two neighbor in grows may be of two kinds. In
chain riveting the adjacent rows have rivets in the same transverse line. In zig-zag riveting, on
the other hand, the adjascent rows of rivets are staggered. Different types of lap joints are
sketched in figure 5.4.1.2(a)-(c)
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Fig 5.4.1.1
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Fig 5.4.1.2
5.4.2 Butt Joints

In this type of joint, the plates are brought to each other without forming any overlap.
Riveted joints are formed between each of the plates and one or two cover plates. Depending
single strap butt joint is shown in figure 5.4.2.1 like lap joints, the arrangement of the rivets may
54
be of various kinds, namely, single row, double or triple chain or zigzag. A few types of joints
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upon the number of cover plates the butt joints may be single strap or double strap butt joints. A
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are shown in figure 5.4.2.2(a)-(c).The strength of a rivet joint is measured by its efficiency. The
efficiency of a joint is defined as the ratio between the strength of a riveted joint to the strength
of a un riveted joints or a solid plate. Obviously, the efficiency of the riveted joint not only
depends upon the size and the strength of the individual rivets but also on the overall
arrangement and the type of joints.
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Fig 5.4.2.1
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Fig 5.4.2.2
5.4.3 Important terms used in riveted joints
Few parameters, which are required to specify arrangement of rivets in a riveted joint are
as follows:
a) Pitch: This is the distance between two centers of the consecutive rivets in a single
row. (Usual symbol p)
b) Back Pitch: This is the shortest distance between two successive rows in a multiple
riveted joint. (Usual symbol Pb)
c) Diagonal pitch: This is the distance between the centers of rivets in adjacent rows of
zigzag riveted joint. (Usual symbol Pd)
d) Margin or marginal pitch: This is the distance between the centre of the rivet hole to
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the nearest edge of the plate. (Usual symbol m)
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Fig 5.4.3.1 important design parameters of riveted joint

1. What should be essential qualities of a rivet and its material?
2. What are the uses of snap headed, counter shank headed, conical headed and pan
headed rivets
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6. THIN CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSEL

(Experiment 10)
6.1 OVERVIEW
A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure
substantially different from the ambient pressure. The pressure differential is dangerous and
many fatal accidents have occurred in the history of pressure vessel development and operation.
Consequently, pressure vessel design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering
authorities backed by legislation. For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies
from country to country, but involves parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and
temperature
Thin wall pressure vessels (TWPV) are widely used in industry for storage and
transportation of liquids and gases when configured as tanks. See Figure 3.1. They also appear as
components of aerospace and marine vehicles such as rocket and balloon skins and submarine
hulls (although in the latter case the vessel is externally pressurized, violating one of the
assumptions listed below).
Fig 6.1.1 Pressure vessels used for fluid storage: (a) spherical tanks, (b) cylindrical tank.
Two geometries will be examined in this lecture:
Cylindrical pressure vessels.
Spherical pressure vessels.
The walls of an ideal thin-wall pressure vessel act as a membrane (that is, they are unaffected by
vessel in the sense of being the most structurally efficient shape. A cylindrical vessel is
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somewhat less efficient for two reasons: (1) the wall stresses vary with direction, (2) closure by
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bending stresses over most of their extent). A sphere is an optimal geometry for a closed pressure
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end caps can alter significantly the ideal membrane state, requiring additional local
reinforcements. However the cylindrical shape may be more convenient to fabricate and
transport.
The wall is assumed to be very thin compared to the other dimensions of the vessel. If the
thickness is t and a characteristic dimension is R (for example, the radius of the cylinder or
sphere)
6.2 STRESS ACTING IN CYLINDER

A problem in which combined stresses are present is that of a cylindrical shell under
internal pressure. Suppose a long circular shell is subjected to an internal pressure p, which may
be due to a fluid or gas enclosed within the cylinder, Figure 6.2.1. The internal pressure acting on
the long sides of the cylinder gives rise to a circumferential stress in the wall of the cylinder; if
the ends of the cylinder are closed, the pressure acting on these ends is transmitted to the walls of
the cylinder, thus producing a longitudinal stress in the walls.
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Fig 6.2.1
Fig 6.2.2
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Suppose r is the mean radius of the cylinder, and that its thickness t is small compared with r.
Consider a unit length of the cylinder remote from the closed ends, Figure 6.2.2; suppose we cut
this unit length with a diametral plane, as in Figure 6.2.2. The tensile stresses acting on the cut
sections are 1 acting circumferentially, and 2, acting longitudinally. There is an internal
pressure p on the inside of the half-shell.
Circumferential (or hoop) stress:
Longitudinal stress:
The maximum shearing stress in the plane of 1 and 2 is therefore
The circumferential and longitudinal stresses are accompanied by direct strains. If the material of
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the cylinder is elastic, the corresponding strains are given by
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6.3 USES
Pressure vessels are used in a variety of applications in both industry and the private
sector. They appear in these sectors as industrial compressed air receivers and domestic hot
water storage tanks. Other examples of pressure vessels are diving cylinders, recompression
chambers, distillation towers, pressure reactors, autoclaves, and many other vessels in mining
operations, oil refineries and petrochemical plants, nuclear reactor vessels, submarine and space
ship habitats, pneumatic reservoirs, hydraulic reservoirs under pressure, rail vehicle airbrake
reservoirs, road vehicle airbrake reservoirs, and storage vessels for liquified gases such as
ammonia, chlorine, propane, butane, and LPG.

1. Distinguish between thick and thin cylinders.
Define Principal planes and principal stress.
2.
Define: Thin cylinders.
3.
Name the stresses set up in a thin cylinder subjected to internal fluid pressure.
4.
What is Mohrs circle & name any the situations where it is used?
5.
Define principal planes and principal stresses.
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1.
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Expt. No.: 1
Date:
Determination of Youngs Modulus for various engineering Material

Aim:
To find the defection of given simply supported beam with central point load and to
calculate Youngs modules for given material.
Apparatus Required:
1. Simply supported beam
2. Dial gauge
3. Magnetic stand
4. Weight pan with weights
5. Measuring scale
Formula Used:
Deflection of simply supported beam with central point load
1. Y = wl3/ 48 EI
2. E = wl3/ 48 yI
Where,
E- Youngs Modules in N/mm2
I- Moment of Inertia in mm4
l- Length of the beam in mm
w- Load in N
Procedure:
First considering mild steel as test specimen, the weight pan is placed at its center.
The first load is placed and the deflection for beam is noted.
Various steps of loading are done and different values of deflection are noted.
Now, loads are removed in steps and values are noted.
Length, breadth and depth of mild steel is measured.
Youngs Modules is calculated using formula.
Same procedure is repeated wooden beam
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TABULATION
S.NO
MATERIAL
LOAD
DEFLECTION
DEFLECTION
AVG
USED
In kg
(LOADING)
(UNLOADING)
in
In
in mm
in mm
mm
N/mm2
Result:
The values of Youngs modules for given,
1. Mils steel beam =..
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2. Wooden Beam = ..
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Expt. No.: 2
Date:
Determination of fracture strength and fracture pattern of brittle material

Aim:
To determine the fracture strength and study of fracture pattern of the given mild steel
specimen.
Theory
Types of fracture in tension:
There are two kinds of fracture to the distinguished in tension of a single critical
specimen with a material such as rock salt, we have brittle fracture without substantial plastic
deformation and fracture occurs when the magnitude of normal n anyone of the principle planes
reach critical values. This is called cohesive fracture. Single critical specimens of metal usually
show large plastic deformations along certain crystal planes. This is known as shear fracture.
The relation between resistance to separation and resistance to sliding do not remain
constant for the same material. It depends on temperature of specimen at which the test made.
In case of polycrystalline specimen there are two kinds of fracture as given as,
Brittle fracture
Shear fracture
In the first case fracture occur practically without plastic deformation over a cross section
perpendicular to the cross sectional axis of the specimen. In the second case the fractured
occurs with plastic deformation.
These are two kinds of fracture can again be forwarded based on the two characteristics
the resistance to sliding and the resistance to separation. The up and low fracture occurs only
after a considerable uniform stretching and subsequent local reduction of the cross sectional
of the specimen.
The stress distribution in the neck has been increased and it will be found that near the
tensile force in longitudinal fiber has directional indication by arrows. The horizontal
component produces radial and tangent stresses so as to the decimal elements having
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maximum stress distribution as shown in figure by shaded area. The magnitude of Imax and
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maximum shear stresses the constant tension test of plastic flow axially. The specimen has
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Imin depends on radius of minimum cross section and radius of curvature R. of the neck and
are given by formula.
Apparatus Required:
1. UTM (Universal Testing Machine )
2. Mild steel Specimen
Formula Used:
1. Ultimate Stress = Ultimate load / Cross section of the specimen
Procedure
1. Fix the mild steel specimen in the UTM.
2. Apply the tensile load gradually.
3. Carefully observe the various stages of specimen after it getting stretched.
4. Note down the load at which fracture occurs. This load is called ultimate
load. The corresponding stress point is called ultimate stress.
5. Draw the fracture pattern of the mild steel specimen.
Observations:
1. Ultimate load for mild steel =
2. Diameter of mild steel specimen=
Result:
The fracture pattern of the given cast iron specimen is observed ,
The ultimate strength of mild steel specimen = ..
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Expt. No.: 3
Date:
Determination of fracture strength and fracture pattern of ductile material

Aim:
To determine the fracture strength and study of fracture pattern of the given mild steel
specimen.
Theory
Brittle fracture
Shear fracture
of the specimen.
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Apparatus Required:

2. Mild steel Specimen
Formula Used:
Procedure:

3. Carefully observe the various stages of specimen after it is getting stretched.
4. Note down the load at which fracture occurs. This is called ultimate load and
corresponding stress is called ultimate stress.
Observations:
1. Ultimate load for mild steel =
2. Diameter of mild steel specimen=
The fracture pattern of the given mild steel is observed,

1. The ultimate strength of mild steel specimen = ..
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Result:
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Expt. No.: 4
Date:
Deflection of beam subjected to eccentric point load
Aim:
To find the deflection of simply supported beam when a point load is applied
eccentrically.
Apparatus Required:
1. Simply supported Beam
2. Dial gauge with magnetic stand
3. Weight span with weights
4. Measuring scale
Formula Used:
Deflection of simply supported beam with eccentric point load is given by,
1. Yc = Wa2b2 / 3EIl
Where,
E= 1.8 *105N/mm2
I = bd3 / 12 mm4
b= breadth of the beam in mm
d= depth of the beam in mm
I= Moment of inertia in mm4
E= Youngs Modules N/ mm2
Procedure:
1.Measure the length, breadth, depth of the given beam.
2.The youngs Modules value can assumed to be 1.8 *105N/mm2, through our early
equipment on beams.
3.Mark a point on the beam at a distance a from one end and b from other end.
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5.Also find the theoretical equation value for the given load by using formula and
compare the experimental value with the theoretical value.
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4.Add weights and note the deflection at marked while loading and unloading.
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TABULATION
S.NO
LOAD
DEFLECTION
DEFLECTION
AVG
THEORETICAL
In kg
(LOADING)
(UNLOADING)
in mm
VALUE
in mm
in mm
(DEFLECTION)
in mm
Result:
The deflection of the simply supported beam with eccentric point load has been found out
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thus and has been compared with theoretical value
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Expt. No.: 5
Date:
Verification of Maxwell Reciprocal theorem
Aim:
To verify the Maxwells reciprocal theorem using given beam
Apparatus Required:
1. Dial; gauge
2. Vernier caliper
3. Measuring scale
4. Weight pan with weights
5. Simply supported Beam
Theory
Maxwell Reciprocal theorem:
In an beam, the deflection at any point D due to a point load w at a point C other
than D in the beam will be same as the deflection at c due to the load at D.
Procedure:
1. First the points D and C are marked on the beam at equal distances from the ends.
2. The loads are first applied at a appoint D and the deflections corresponding to the load
are measured at point C
3. Similarity readings are noted for unloading the loads
4. The average deflections are calculated
5. Note the loads and dial gauge is interchanged between the points and deflections at D
are noted.
6. A graph between applied load and deflection is drawn.
Tabulation
S.NO
LOAD
DEFLECTION AT POINT C in
DEFLECTION AT POINT D in
mm
mm
LOADING UNLOADING AVG
LOADING UNLOADING AVG
1
2
70
3
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4
5
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Result:
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1. The Maxwell Reciprocal theorem was verified for given beam

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2. Slopes of two graphs ate found to be same.
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Expt. No.: 6
Date:
Buckling of columns
Aim:
To determine the critical load of a column using south-well plot.
Theory:
The need to make use of materials with high strength to weight ratio in aircraft design has
resulted in using of slender structure components that fail more often by instability the simplest
example is a slender column. Ideal column under small compressive load is slightly disturbed
and return to original position after removal for particular loading, it takes neighboring column
equilibrium position this is neutral equilibrium. The instability occurs at Euler load or critical
load.
The ideal column deflection occurs suddenly, but in actual column it appears as
soon as load applied.
South well should have a relation between applied load and corresponding
deflection, which can be used to determine critical load, eccentrically by a
graphical procedure without destroying the specimen.
The well known formula for critical load is,

Pcr= 2 E I / K2 L2
Where,
K is a const. depending on the end condition of the column
E- Youngs modulus of the material,
I- Moment of Inertia,
L- Length of section.
For a column which is always imperfect, the deflections are determinate at all loads. For
the deflection are determinate at all loads, for Example, the deflection of a simply supported
beam ( SSB ) column at its middle due to load P can be written as
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It can be written as .
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Apparatus Required:
1. Column testing apparatus
2. Specimen
3. Screw Gauge
4. Vernier Caliper
5. Weights
Procedure:
1. The given column is aligned on the column testing apparatus with its longitudinal axis
vertical.
2. The dial gauge is placed at the mid point of the column.
3. New loads are applied gradually in steps.
4. The corresponding deflections of a dial gauge are noted and tabulated.
5. New . Ration is calculated and the graph of Vs... Plotted.
6. The inverse slope of the load curve gives the critical load of the material for given
dimensions.
TABULATION
S.NO
LOAD (P) in kg
DEFLECTION in
LOAD /
mm
DEFLECTION in
kg/mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Copy the tabulation for different materials.
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Result:
Thus the crippling load was determined experimentally and the theoretical value was
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verified for mild steel aluminum and Brass.
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Expt. No.: 7
Date:
Determination of South-well Plot
Aim:
To determine the critical load of column using south well plot
Apparatus required:
2. Specimen
3. Dial gauge
4. Vernier caliper
5. Weights
Theory:
The need to make use of materials with high strength to weight ratio in aircraft design has
resulted in using of slender structure components that fail more often by instability the simplest
example is a slender column. Ideal column under small compressive load is slightly disturbed
and return to original position after removal for particular loading, it takes neighboring column
equilibrium position this is neutral equilibrium. The instability occurs at Euler load or critical
load.
The ideal column deflection occurs suddenly, but in actual column it appears as
soon as load applied.
South well should have a relation between applied load and corresponding
deflection, which can be used to determine critical load, eccentrically by a
graphical procedure without destroying the specimen.
The well known formula for critical load is,

Pcr= 2 E I / K2 L2
Where K is a const. depending on the end condition of the column

E- Youngs modulus of the material,
I- Moment of Inertia, L- Length of section.
For a column which is always imperfect, the deflections are determinate at all loads. For
75
the deflection are determinate at all loads, for Example, the deflection of a simply supported
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beam ( SSB ) column at its middle due to load P can be written as

It can be written as .
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Apparatus Required:
2. Specimen
3. Screw Gauge
4. Vernier Caliper
5. Weights
Procedure:
1. The given column is aligned on the column testing apparatus with its longitudinal axis
vertical.
2. The dial gauge is placed at the mid point of the column.
3. New loads are applied gradually in steps.
4. The corresponding deflections of a dial gauge are noted and tabulated.
5. New . Ration is calculated and the graph of Vs... Plotted.
6. The inverse slope of the load curve gives the critical load of the material for given
dimensions.
TABULATION
S.NO
LOAD (P) in kg
DEFLECTION in
LOAD /
mm
DEFLECTION in
kg/mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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Modal graph:
In X- axis, take deflection column
In Y- axis, take load/deflection column
Result:
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Thus the critical load of column is found using south wells plot.
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Expt. No.: 8
Date:
Testing of Riveted joints
Aim:
To determine the fracture strength and study of fracture pattern of the given Riveted
joints.
Theory

Brittle fracture
Shear fracture
of the specimen.
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Apparatus Required:
2. Riveted Joints
Formula Used:
Procedure
6. Carefully observe the various stages of specimen after it getting stretched.
7. Note down the load at which fracture occurs. This load is called ultimate load.
The corresponding stress point is called ultimate stress.
Observations:
1. Ultimate load for Riveted Joints =
2. Diameter of mild Riveted Joints =
Result:
The fracture pattern of the given cast iron specimen is observed,
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79
The ultimate strength of mild steel specimen = ..
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Expt. No.: 9
Date:
Study of determining force in statically indeterminate force system
Aim:
To Study of determining force in statically indeterminate force system
Theory:
A statically indeterminate system means that the reactions and internal forces cannot be analyzed
by the application of the equations of static alone. The indeterminacy of the structure may be
either external, internal, or both. The space structure is externally indeterminate if the number of
the reaction components is more than six. The corresponding number in a plane structure is
three.
Some structures are built with intermediate hinges, each hinge provides on additional equation of
static equilibrium and allows the determination of additional reaction component. For instant, the
frame given in figure with three intermediate hinges is a statically determinate structure with six
reaction components.
Thus, for structures with intermediate hinges, the degree of externally indeterminacy depends on
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the difference between the number of reactions and the available equations of static equilibrium.
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Let us consider structures which are externally statically determinate but internally
indeterminate. For instance, closed plane frames given in the figure, each closed part gives three
degrees of indeterminacy. The number of indeterminacy decreases by introducing intermediate
hinges. Each intermediate hinge removes the bending moment at the respective point. The space
frame given in the figure (2-4) has six unknown reactions at each support (total 24 reactions
acting at the four supports). The frame is 18 times externally indeterminate. If the reactions are
known, then the internal forces in the four columns can be computed, but the beams forming the
closed frame (e,f,g,h) cannot be analyzed.
Cutting one of the beams at any section makes it possible to determine the internal forces in all
members of the frame (e,f,g,h). The number of the releases in this case is six, then the structure is
internally six times statically indeterminate, and the total degree of indeterminacy is 24. The
truss is called a statically determinate truss, if the reactions and the forces in the entire member
can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium alone.
It is called statically indeterminate if these forces can only be determined by taking into account
the deformation of the truss. If no equilibrium is possible between external and internal forces
the truss is called unstable.
Statically indeterminate trusses are obtained from a statically indeterminate set. Once by the
addition of one or more members or components of the reaction without increasing the number
of joints, these additional elements are the redundant elements of the truss. Unstable trusses are
obtained from statically determinate or indeterminate trusses by taking of one or more necessary
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members so that at certain joints no equilibrium is possible between external and internal forces
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as shown in figure (2-5).
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As in dealing with any structural configuration, the first step here is to draw the Free Body
Diagram (this, of course, helps to show whether or not the configuration is statically
indeterminate).
In the case of a Statically Determinate structure, we then just apply equilibrium
For the Statically Indeterminate case, this is more involved:
--> Approach
1. Apply equilibrium
2. Determine relations between forces and Displacements (use of constitutive relations)
3. Enforce Compatibility of Displacements
Result: Several simultaneous equations
4. Solve simultaneously for unknowns
Result:
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82
Thus the force determination in statically indeterminate force system was studied.
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Expt. No.: 10
Date:
Study of Determination of membrane stresses in a thin cylinder under internal pressure
Aim:
To Study the membrane stresses determination in a thin cylinder under internal pressure.
Theory:
A problem in which combined stresses are present is that of a cylindrical shell under
internal pressure. Suppose a long circular shell is subjected to an internal pressure p, which may
be due to a fluid or gas enclosed within the cylinder, Figure 6.2.1. The internal pressure acting on
the long sides of the cylinder gives rise to a circumferential stress in the wall of the cylinder; if
the ends of the cylinder are closed, the pressure acting on these ends is transmitted to the walls of
the cylinder, thus producing a longitudinal stress in the walls.
Fig 6.2.1
Suppose r is the mean radius of the cylinder, and that its thickness t is small compared with r.
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Consider a unit length of the cylinder remote from the closed ends, Figure 6.2.2; suppose we cut
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Fig 6.2.2
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this unit length with a diametral plane, as in Figure 6.2.2. The tensile stresses acting on the cut
sections are 1 acting circumferentially, and 2, acting longitudinally. There is an internal
pressure p on the inside of the half-shell.
Circumferential (or hoop) stress:
Longitudinal stress:
The maximum shearing stress in the plane of 1 and 2 is therefore
The circumferential and longitudinal stresses are accompanied by direct strains. If the material of
the cylinder is elastic, the corresponding strains are given by
Result:
Thus the determination of membrane stresses in a thin cylinder under internal pressure
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84
was studied.
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SEC

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LAB- I

(For Fourth Semester B.E., / B. Tech. Aeronautical Engineering students)

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LAB- I

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

We are also thankful to our family members for their Cooperation.

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

UNIVERSITY PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

INTERNAL ASSESSMENT [20 Marks]

Tabulation & Observation

Graph & Result

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LAB I

Determination of Youngs modulus of aluminum using

Determination of fracture strength and fracture pattern of

Determination of forces in statically indeterminate force

Deflection of beams with various end conditions.

Verification of Maxwells Reciprocal theorem & principle of

South wells plot.

Testing of Riveted Joints.

Determination of membrane stresses in a thin cylinder under

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Young Modulus of the material

Maximum & minimum Stress

Hoop & Longitudinal Stress

Effective Length factor

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

Total Marks obtained

Signature of staff incharge

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

LABARATORY CLASSES - INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

Students must be fully aware of the core competencies to be gained by doing

Preparedness, conducting experiment, observation, calculation, results, record

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Conducting experiment means making connection, preparing the experimental setup

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

The Laboratory Notebook

: Aircraft Structures Lab - 1

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Notes about the Lab

should not significantly affect the process.

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Intended Outcomes for Experiment

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Experiment content (themes, concepts, issues and skills)

careers mechanical, civil and Aerospace related engineering fields.

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

1.1 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1.2 STRESSES-STRAIN DIAGRAMS

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

There are three types of corresponding strains.

1.3 PRINCIPAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

Aircraft Structures Lab - I

1.4 FATIGUE AND FATIGUE TEST

1.5 CREEP AND CREEP TESTING