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Documente Cultură
BAHAN BUATAN
MANUSIA
CIRI-CIRI
berharga
Tahan Lasak
Ringan
Kukuh
fleksibiliti
Ia biasanya dibuat
daripada beberapa bahan
semula jadi
Tanah
aloi,
Getah
plastik
bahan komposit,
sabun
detergen.
TOPIK 2 : FEUL
Fuel is any material that can be used to generate energy to produce mechanical
work in a controlled manner. The processes used to convert fuel into energy
include chemical reactions, such as combustion, and nuclear reactions, such
as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a
process known as metabolism. Hydrocarbons are by far the most common source of
fuel in current use, but many other substances can be used as well.
Fossil fuel
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid
petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and
animals[3] by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over hundreds of
millions of years[4]. In common parlance, the term fossil fuel also includes
hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from biological
sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly known as mineral
fuels.
Fossil fuels release millions of greenhouse gases into the air, but they do have some
benefits:
Provide electricity
Very cheap
Crude Oil
A mixture of a wide range of molecules which is pumped or mined from underground
reservoirs. As a mixture it has very little value; too runny for paving, too thick for an
engine. Fortunately each molecule boils at a different temperature, which is the basis
of distillation.Fractional distillation of crude oil is the first step in the production of
many of the materials we have come to rely on in modern life.
Petroleum
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules. The molecules have different
sizes and numbers of carbon atoms. The small molecules have few carbon atoms
and low boiling points, while the large molecules have many carbon atoms and high
boiling points. In this form, petroleum is difficult to ignite and therefore is of little use.
It must be refined to make useful fuels and chemicals.
Petroleum is used for:
Heating homes
Fueling cars
Gum
Crayons
Dishwashing liquid
Records
Boiling Point
Carbon Atoms
(C)
Refinery Gas
3 or 4
below 30
Petrol
7 to 9
100 to 150
Naphtha
6 to 11
70 to 200
11 to 18
200 to 300
Name
Kerosene
(paraffin)
Uses
Bottled Gas
(propane or butane).
Fuel for car
engines.
Solvents
and used in petrol.
Fuel for aircraft
and stoves.
Fuel for road
Diesel Oil
11 to 18
200 to 300
vehicles
and trains.
Lubricating Oil
18 to 25
300 to 400
and machines.
Fuel Oil
20 to 27
350 to 450
25 to 30
400 to 500
Bitumen
above 35
above 500
TOPIK 3
Ore
MINERALS
A mineral is composed of the same substance throughout. If you were to cut a
mineral sample, it would look the same throughout. There are about 3000 different
minerals in the world. Minerals are made of chemicals - either a single chemical or a
combination of chemicals.
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Characteristics used in the identification & study of minerals. These
are the most common characteristics used when describing minerals.
Fracture
TOPIC 4
ALLOY
Alloy
Components
Amalgam
Typical uses
Magnets
in loudspeakers and
pickups in electric guitars.
Dental fillings.
Babbitt
metal
Friction-reducing coating
("white
(4-10%).
in machine bearings.
metal")
brass musical
instruments, central
heating pipes.
Cast iron
Decorative statues,
musical instruments.
Cupronickel
(copper
Coins.
nickel)
Duralumin
Gunmetal
Magnox
(0.5-1.5%).
equipment.
Magnesium, aluminium.
Nuclear reactors.
Firework ignition
Nichrome
devices, heating
elements in electrical
appliances.
tableware
antimony.
Connecting electrical
Steel
(general)
other uses.
(stainless)
tableware.
Coating for
Stellite
Sterling
silver
tools, musical
instruments.
White gold
(18 carat)
Wood's
metal
Jewelry.
TOPIC 5
Aromatic compounds where the functional group is present in the sidechain of the
ring are called sidechain substituted compounds. Sidechain substituted compounds
are named as the phenyl derivatives of the corresponding aliphatic compounds.
The melting and boiling points of aromatic hydrocarbons increase with the molar
mass, and are higher than that of the corresponding aliphatic hydrocarbons.
They are soluble in organic solvents,
Insoluble in water, and
Lower densities than water.
USES
As a starting material for dyes, drugs, perfumes and explosives and polymers
TOPIC 6
The manufacture of ethanol from ethene
Ethanol is manufactured by reacting ethene with steam. The catalyst used is solid
silicon dioxide coated with phosphoric(V) acid. The reaction is reversible.
Only 5% of the ethene is converted into ethanol at each pass through the reactor. By
removing the ethanol from the equilibrium mixture and recycling the ethene, it is
possible to achieve an overall 95% conversion.
Uses of ethanol
Drinks
The "alcohol" in alcoholic drinks is simply ethanol.
Industrial methylated spirits (meths)
Ethanol is usually sold as industrial methylated spirits which is ethanol with a small
quantity of methanol added and possibly some colour. Methanol is poisonous, and
so the industrial methylated spirits is unfit to drink. This avoids the high taxes which
are levied on alcoholic drinks (certainly in the UK!).
As a fuel
Ethanol burns to give carbon dioxide and water and can be used as a fuel in its own
right, or in mixtures with petrol (gasoline). "Gasohol" is a petrol / ethanol mixture
containing about 10 - 20% ethanol.
Because ethanol can be produced by fermentation, this is a useful way for countries
without an oil industry to reduce imports of petrol.
As a solvent
Ethanol is widely used as a solvent. It is relatively safe, and can be used to dissolve
many organic compounds which are insoluble in water. It is used, for example, in
many perfumes and cosmetics.
Uses of methanol
As a fuel
Methanol again burns to form carbon dioxide and water.
As an industrial feedstock
Most methanol is used to make other things - for example, methanal (formaldehyde),
ethanoic acid, and methyl esters of various acids. In most cases, these are in turn
converted into further products.
Ether is the general name for a class of chemical compounds which contain an ether
group an oxygen atom connected to two (substituted) alkyl groups. A typical
example is the solvent and anesthetic diethyl ether (ethoxyethane, CH 3-CH2-O-CH2CH3).
An ether has two organic groups (alkyl, aryl, or vinyl) bonded to the same
oxygen atom, ROR
Symmetrical or unsymmetrical
Physical properties
Ether molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds among each other, resulting in
a relatively low boiling point comparable to that of the analogous alkanes.
Ethers are hydrogen bond acceptors- they are more soluble in H2O than are
hydrocarbons
Uses of ether:
TOPIC 7
The net effect is that an oxygen atom from the oxidising agent removes a
hydrogen from the -OH group of the alcohol and one from the carbon to which
it is attached.
R and R' are alkyl groups or hydrogen. They could also be groups containing
a benzene ring, but I'm ignoring these to keep things simple.
If at least one of these groups is a hydrogen atom, then you will get an
aldehyde. If they are both alkyl groups then you get a ketone.
If you now think about where they are coming from, you will get an aldehyde if
your starting molecule looks like this:
In other words, if you start from a primary alcohol, you will get an aldehyde.
TOPIC 8
Uses of Carboxylic Acids:
They are used in several food produce and pharmaceuticals to include flavors. Some
of these families are manufactured for apply as solvents that are acetone and for
prepare materials similar to adhesives, paints, resins, perfumes, plastics, fabrics, etc
ESTERS
Esters are derivatives of the carboxylic acids in which the -OH part of the carboxylic
group has been replaced by -OR group where R may be alkyl or aryl group.
A carboxylic acid contains the -COOH group, and in an ester the hydrogen in this
group is replaced by a hydrocarbon group of some kind. This could be an alkyl group
like methyl or ethyl, or one containing a benzene ring like phenyl.
Esters are compounds formed from the reaction between alcohols and acids. The
word 'ester' alone now signifies by common usage that the acid is an organic acid,
but inorganic acids can also form esters
Uses of Esters
Esters are used as softeners in molding and plastic industries, in artificial fragrances
or scents, as solvents in pharmaceutical industries, as industrial solvents for making
fats, cellulose, paints and varnishes, and used in making artificial food flavors that
are added into food such as ice cream and sweets.
Esters are used in making various products like plastics, polymers, explosives.
They are also used as solvent for oils, fats, cellulose resins etc..,
The salicylic methylester has amazing fragrance, the formula is given below.
AMIDES
Acid amides may be regarded as the derivatives of carboxylic acids in which -OH
part of the carboxylic group is replaced by the -NH2 group.
Acid anhydrides are considered to be derived from carboxylic acids by the removal
of a molecule of water from the two molecules of the acid.
TOPIC 9
Plastics are synthetic chemicals extracted mainly from petroleum and composed
of hydrocarbons (compounds made from chains of hydrogen and carbon atoms).
Most plastics are polymers, long molecules made up of many repetitions of a basic
molecule called a monomer; in effect, the monomers are like identical railroad cars
coupled together to form a very long train.
TOPIC 10
Ammonia (NH3) is an important compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, can take the
form of a strong smelling liquid or gas. It is a colourless gas with a choking smell,
and a weak alkali which is very soluble in water.Most popularly, consumer and
commercial products use the alkaline substance to clean grime or fertilize crops.
an iron catalyst
+ 3H2(g)
ammonia
2NH3(g)
Nitric acid
The most important and useful oxoacid of nitrogen is nitric acid. Its molecular formula
is HNO3 and molar mass 53 g mol-1.
Ostwald's process
The conversion of ammonia into nitric acid in this process is done through the
following steps:
Step1
Oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide
Step 2
Oxidation of NO to NO2
The nitric oxide is oxidised by air at temperature below 100C, to give nitrogen
dioxide (NO2)
Step 3
Formation of nitric acid
Nitrogen dioxide is then converted to nitric acid by absorbing NO2 in water, in the
presence of air.
1) Nitric acid plays a significant role in the manufacture of various products such as:
Explosives like trinitrotoluene (T.N.T.) nitro glycerine, gun cotton, ammonal etc.
3) Nitric acid is used in etching designs on copper, brass, bronze ware etc
.
4) It is used to prepare "aqua regia" to dissolve the noble elements.
Sulphuric acid
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4, is one of the most important industrial chemicals. It is an oily
liquid having a boiling point of 335 C, which evolves much heat on dilution with
water. Millions of tons of sulphuric acid are made every year by the CONTACT
PROCESS, which converts raw sulphur, oxygen and water to sulphuric acid.
Step 1: Melted sulphur is burned in a furnace, using air, producing sulphur
dioxide, SO2.
Step 2: The SO2 gas is passed through a tower called a precipitator in order to
remove dust and other impurities which might interfere with the catalyst.
Step 3: The SO2 is then washed with water, in a scrubbing tower.
Step 4: The SO2 is then dried in a drying tower.
Step 5: After passing through a heating chamber, the SO2, which is still mixed
with air, is passed through a reactor. There, using vanadium pentoxide, V 2O5, as
catalyst, the SO2 is converted to sulphur trioxide, SO3.
Step 6: Finally, the SO3 is absorbed in concentrated sulphuric acid, giving the socalled oleum or pyrosulphuric acid. This is the diluted with water to give about
98% pure H2SO4.
In the manufacture of rayon and nylon and also in the preparation of dyes and
drugs from coal tar derivatives.
In the manufacture of sodium sulphate for glass industry and ferrous sulphate for
ink industry.
TOPIC 11
Types of Composite
Natural Composites
Mud Bricks
One type of very old composite material invented by early humans was the mud
brick. A normal mud brick is sturdy and resistant to compression, but can break if
bent. Straw is a material that has excellent tensile strength, meaning that it resists
stretching. By combining both, early humans were able to create composite mud
bricks that could resist weight and compression as well as stretching.
Concrete
Fiberglass
Fiberglass is a material made of tiny glass shards held together by resin and other
components. In the automotive industry, fiberglass is important for making body kits.
The body shell for a car is made up of different layers of fiberglass, such as a gelcoat layer, tissue layer, matting and cloth. The final product is a complete,
waterproof, lightweight and strong body kit. Fiberglass can also be a less expensive
alternative to other materials.
Ceramic
Ceramics once referred purely to pottery and to articles made by firing materials
extracted from Earth. Today, the term has a much broader definition. Ceramics
are generally thought of as inorganic and nonmetallic solids with a range of useful
properties, including very high hardness and strength, extremely high melting
points, and good electrical and thermal insulation.
The best-known ceramics are pottery, glass, brick, porcelain, and cement. But
the general definition of a ceramica nonmetallic and inorganic solidis so
broad that it covers a much wider range of materials.
- Glass is 100% recyclable and one of the safest packaging materials due to
its composition and properties
TOPIC 12
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like stearic, palmitic
and oleic acids. Fatty acids are organic acids that have more than sixteen carbon
atoms in their molecular structure. The sodium soaps are called hard soaps and the
potassium soaps are known as soft soaps. Soaps are obtained from oils and fats.
For e.g., tristearin is got from beef and mutton tallow, tripalmitin from palm oil and
triolein from lard (pig fat), olive oil and cotton seed oil. In India, soap is commonly got
from coconut, groundnut, til and mahua oils.
Manufacture of Soap Saponification
Saponification is the process where oil or fat (tristearin) is treated with sodium
hydroxide solution called lye, to form soap and glycerine.
Saponification
Oil or fat is taken in a huge iron-pan called soap kettle and heated with open steam.
10% sodium hydroxide solution (lye) is added in a thin stream. The steam keeps the
mass boiling and ensures thorough mixing as well. Saponification is complete after
several hours to give a frothy mixture of sodium salts and glycerine.
The unused alkali solution in the lower layer is called spent lye or sweet lye. This
along with glycerol and salts is drawn from below the reaction vessel. Glycerol can
be recovered from this.
Finishing
The soap obtained after salting out is boiled again with sodium hydroxide for
complete saponificaiton. This converts all the unsaponified fat. The spent lye is then
drawn off. The solid soap is then boiled with water to dissolve excess of alkali. It is
then allowed to settle when the impure soap called nigre forms the lower layer. The
pure soap in the upper layer is transferred through a swing pipe to a steam-jacketed
tank called crutcher.
It is then shredded into small chips, dried to the requisite amount of moisture content
and mixed with colouring substances and perfumes. Some fillers like rosin, sodium
silicate, borax and sodium carbonate are added to laundry soaps. They have
detergent value and are less expensive than soap.
In the next step, the soap is allowed to run into moulds and permitted to solidify. The
bigger blocks are then cut with steel wires into smaller slabs, which are then cut into
smaller cakes and stamped.
Synthetic Detergents
Properties
Some of the synthetic detergents with a branched hydrocarbon chain have very
low biodegradability.
They are resistant to bacterial attack and are not fully degraded in sewage
treatment units. Therefore, they cause water pollution when they are discharged
into a river or any other water body.
Phosphate salts present in synthetic detergents cause rapid growth of algae that
deplete the oxygen content in the water. (A condition known as eutrophication).
Due to this aquatic animals die resulting in the imbalance of the ecosystem as
well.
These detergents lower the surface tension of water and act as cleansing agents
(wetting agents).
They can be used for delicate fabrics because they do not hydrolyze to give
hydroxyl ions.
Soaps
Detergents
acids
soaps are in soluble in water. Therefore detergents are soluble in water. Therefore
cleansing action of soap reduces in
hard water
and fats
hydrocarbons of petroleum
TOPIC 13
. Gelang getah dibuat dari getah, yang merupakan sejenis polimer yang dipanggil
elastomer. Sebagai elastomer, gelang getah berbeza daripada bahan-bahan pepejal
yang lain kerana ia boleh diregangkan lebih daripada empat kali ganda panjang
asalnya dan apabila dilepaskan dengan mudah ia akan kembali ke panjang
asal. Sifat ini dikenali sebagai kekenyalan
Komposisi Getah
Getah Asli ialah polimer tambahan isoprena, C5H8. Nama IUPAC bagi isoprena ialah
2-metilbut-1,3-diena. Sebagai contoh, getah asli adalah sangat kenyal dan dibuat
dariapda monomer isoprena.
isoprena
Poli-cis-isoprena (getah)
Pemvulkanan getah asli merupakan satu proses perangkaian silang yang ditemui
oleh Charles Goodyear pada tahun 1839. Goodyear secara tidak sengaja
mendapati bahawa menambah sulfur kepada getah asli diikuti dengan
pemanasan campuran menjadikan getah lebih kuat dan lebih tahan terhadap
pengoksidaan atau tindak balas yang lain. Dalam getah tervulkan, atom-atom
sulfur membentuk rangkaian silang antara rantai-rantai panjang molekul getah
asli. Apabila diregangkan, rantai getah tervulkan tidak boleh mengelangsor di
antara satu sama lain dan terpaksa balik semula kepada bentuk asalnya oleh
rantai silang atom sulfur. Akibatnya getah tervulkan menjadi lebih keras, lebih
kenyal dan kurang melekit apabila panas.
Sifat-sifat getah
mudah terbakar
tidak telap air. Ini menjadikannya suatu penghalang yang sangat baik
terhadap patogen seperti virus HIV yang menyebabkan AIDS.
Peka kepada penipisan ozon disebabkan oleh kehadiran ikatan berganda dalam s
Getah asli yang digunakan untuk membuat objek adalah seperti berikut:
pemadam
hos air
gelang getah
tumit kasut
kondom
alas kereta
tayar kenderaan
hos radiator
gaskets
tali pengangkut
.
Topic 14
Istilah 'polimer' berasal dari perkataan Greek, 'poli' bermaksud 'banyak' dan 'mer'
bermaksud 'bahagian'.
Sutera merupakan gentian protein semula jadi yang diperolehi dari kokon yang
dibuat oleh larva ulat sutera yang diternak dalam kurungan. Sutera sebenarnya
diperbuat daripada protein yang dirembeskan dalam keadaan bendalir ulat sutera
Kapas adalah serat lembut yang tumbuh di sekitar biji benih pokok kapas, pokok
renek yang berasal dari kawasan tropika dan subtropika di seluruh dunia, termasuk
Afrika, India dan Amerika. Kapas adalah tanaman musim panas, jadi ia mesti
ditanam di kawasan-kawasan yang mempunyai kurang taburan hujan. Gentian yang
paling popular diputar ke dalam benang dan digunakan untuk membuat tekstil yang
lembut, di mana ianya merupakan gentian kain semulajadi yang paling meluas
digunakan dalam pakaian hari ini.
Sifat-sifat kapas adalah seperti berikut:
kuat
tahan Lama
Benang bulu adalah gentian yang berasal dari sel-sel kulit yang khusus, yang
dipanggil folikel. Ia diperolehi dari haiwan dalam keluarga Caprinae, terutamanya
kambing biri-biri, tetapi rambut dari sesetengah spesis mamalia lain seperti kambing,
llamas dan arnab juga boleh dipanggil benang bulu.
beberapa kualiti yang membezakan dari rambut atau bulu: ia kerinting, mempunyai
tekstur yang berlainan, anjal dan tumbuh dalam kelompok
Sifat-sifat dari benang bulu adalah seperti berikut :
bahan-bahan panas
gentian ketat berkerut
Sel-sel luar gentian menangkis air sementara sel-sel dalaman menyerap
lembapan
Keanjalan-wol yang tinggi memiliki keupayaan yang lebih besar untuk kembali
ke panjang asal selepas diregangkan berbanding dengan mana-mana gentian
tiruan.
Topic 15
Kertas adalah bahan yang boleh didapati dalam pelbagai jenis ketebalan dan berat
yang berbeza. Beberapa jenis kertas termasuk:
kertas bank
kertas buku
kertas inkjet
kertas penunjuk pH
kertas fotografi
kertas biasa
kertas kitar semula
kertas beras
kertas tuala
kertas dinding
kertas lilin
kertas pasir
kertas bersalut (permukaan berkilat dan matt)
kertas biasa
Sifat-sifat kertas
Berat Asas (GSM)
Kecerahan, keputihan dan warna
Kestabilan dimensi
Kebolehan dilipat (lipatan Double)
Pembentukan
Kilat (Gloss)
Mesin dan Haluan melintang
Lembapan
Kelegapan
ketelapan (porosity)
pelbagai saiz / Cobb
kelicinan
Kekukuhan
Kenyal (Pemanjangan)
Rintangan mengoyak
Pengeringan
Proses Akhir