Some WCDMA Tutorial

What is Ec/Io (and Eb/No)?
If someone asks you "Which Signal Level for good call quality: -80 dbm or -90 dBm?"
Beware, if you respond quickly, you might end up missing. This is because the correct answer is ... it
depends! The Signal Strength is a very important and essential measure for any technology (GSM, CDMA,
UMTS, LTE, etc.). However, it is not the only one: let's talk a little today about another magnitude, equally
important: the Signal Noise Ratio.
Although this ratio is of fundamental importance to any cellular system, is not well understood by many
professionals. On the opposite side, professionals with a good understanding of this ratio are able for
example, to correctly assess the RF links, and also to perform more extensive optimizations, obtaining the
best possible performance of the system.
So, let's see a little about it?
Eb and No
To begin, we define the basic concepts of Eb and No. They are basic for any digital communication system,
and generally we talk about it when we deal with Bit Error Rate and also Modulation techniques.
Simply put:
Eb: Bit Energy.
No: Noise Spectral Density.
o
o
It represents the amount of energy per bit.

Unit: Watts/Hz (or mWatts/Hz)
Which brings us to the classic definition of Eb/No:
Eb/No: Bit Energy on the Spectral Noise Density.
Unit: dB
It did not help much, does it?

Do not worry. Indeed, only with the theoretical definition is still very difficult to see how this ratio is used,
or
how
it
can
be
measured.
But okay, let's walk a little further.
Okay, so how is Eb/No measured?

To understand how this ratio can be measured, let's imagine a simple digital communication system.
The ratio Eb/No is measured at the receiver, and serves to indicate how strong the signal is.
Depending on the modulation technique used (BPSK, QPSK, etc.) we have different curves for Bit Error
Rate x Eb/No.
These curves are used as follows: for a certain RF signal, which is the bit errors rate that I have? Is this
bit error rate acceptable for my system?
Whereas the gain that digital has, then we can set a minimum criterion of signal to noise ratio, in order to
have each service (Voice/Data) operating acceptably.
In other words, we can theoretically determine how the performance would be for the digital link.
Note: it is worth remembering here that this is a very complex subject. As always, we try to introduce to
you the most simplified possible through the use of examples and simple concepts. Okay?
For example, a concept that could be explored here - since we are talking about digital communication
system - is the Noise Figure. But we do not want to repeat here all the theory explained in the University.
Nor was it to have mentioned the noise figure here, but as we talked about it, just understand as a noise
level that every receiver has, and that it is due to the process of amplification and processing of signal.
Concepts like this, and other even more complex, can be studied, if you wish. But now, let's continue with
our signal to noise ratio.
Eb/No -> Ec/Io

The concept of Eb/No applies to any digital communication system. But today we are talking specifically to
Ec/Io, which is a measure of evaluation and decisions of CDMA and UMTS.
Note: all the technology uses signal-interference ratio. For example, in GSM, we use C/I.
As we are speaking of codes, it becomes easier to understand the concepts by observing a simplified
diagram of Spread Spectrum Modulation.
In red, in transmitter have a narrowband signal with data or voice modulated. This signal is spread and
transmitted. And spreads through the middle (air). In the receiver, the signal is despread - using the same
sequence that was spread - and thus recovering the base narrowband signal.
To proceed, we must know some more definitions. However, this point is quite delicate, as we enter a
conceptual area where we have differences between authors, differences in translations/countries, where
differences in technologies are applied, etc..
Let's try to define in a generic way, and only the main.
No: Spectral Density of Noise;
o Noise generated by the RF components of the system, the air, among others.
Io: Interference is the Broadband; Interfering co-channel, including yourself setor.
E: is the signal (average) energy - do not confuse it with the sinal (average) power.
b, c, s. ..: Energy are the power points in time, therefore related to the measure or 'length' of
the time (the average power is independent of time ).
o Hence it comes Eb, Ec and Es, respectively relating to Bit Chip and Symbol in different
times.
Note: With these concepts, several formulas can be derived with different numerators and denominators.
For example, Es = Eb * k, where k = number of bits per symbol. In QPSK modulation, where k = 2, Es =
2 * Eb. And the derivations of formulas can reach far more complex equations, such as the definitions of
capacity of an AWGN channel, and further deductions for equivalences (Ec/No, Eb/Nt, etc. ...). Again, it is
not our purpose here today. We only mention a few concepts, related.
Then come back to the practical level - noting that theoretical approaches can be done more easily later,
after the basics are understood.
So let's keep today in ratios most common: Eb/No and Ec/Io.
As we defined Eb/No is the Average Energy of a bit signal, on the Spectral Density of Noise. It is primarily
a parameter related to the manufacturer for different bearers (based on the channel model). But it can
also vary with the environment (urban, rural, suburban), speed, diversity, use of power control,
application type, etc..
And now we can begin to define Ec/Io, one of the most important systems in CDMA and UMTS.
Note: An important observation is that often when we refer to Ec/Io, we are actually referring to Ec/(Io +
No). What happens is that for practical purposes, we only have Ec/Io, because the interference is much
stronger and the noise can be neglected. Otherwise: for CDMA interference is like a noise, then both can
be considered the same thing.
Okay, let's stop with the issues and concepts, and talk a little about the values of these indicators and
their use in practice.
Eb/No Positive and Ec/Io Negative?

In terms of values, and talking logarithmicly, if any ratio is less than 1, then the value is negative. If
greater than 1, positive.
We have Ec/Io in the air, which is spread across the spectrum: then we have negative value to the ratio of
energy on the total noise (the energy is lower than the Total Interference). It is measured at the input of
receiver (NodeB, UE, etc).
Regarding Eb/No, it is in the baseband after despreading and decoded only for one user - then we have a
positive amount of energy over the total noise. It is measured at the output of receiver (NodeB, UE, etc).
Why should we use Ec/Io?

A more natural question would be: why we can not simply use the Signal Strength measured by the
mobile as a guide for operations such as handover?
The answer is simple: the measured signal level corresponds to the Total RF power - All cells that the
mobile sees.
So we need another quick and simple measure that allows us to evaluate the contribution of each sector
individually.
We used to measure the pilot channel signal of each sector to assess the quality: if the level of the pilot is
good, then also are good levels for the traffic channels for our call in this sector. Likewise, if the pilot
channel is degraded, so will the other channels (including traffic) be, and it is best to avoid using the
traffic channels in this sector.
UMTS and CDMA systems, we have a pilot channel, some other control channels such as paging, and
traffic channels.
The Ec/Io varies with several factors, such as the Traffic Load and and RF Scenario.
Of course, the Ec/Io is the final composition of all these factors simultaneously (Composite Ec/Io), but it's
easier to understand talking about each one separately.
Change in Ec/Io according to the Sector Traffic Load

Each sector transmits a certain power. Suppose in our example we have a pilot channel power setting of 2
W, and a power of other control channels also fixed at 2 W.
To make it easier to understand, we calculate the Ec/Io (pilot channel power to total power) of this sector
in a situation where we have no busy traffic channel (0 W).
Thus we have:
Ec = 2 W
Io = 0 + 2 + 2 = 4 W
Ec/Io = (2/4) = 0.5 = -3 dB
Now assume that several traffic channels are busy (eg use 6 W for traffic channels). This is a situation of
traffic load, we'll see how is Ec/Io.
Ec = 2 W
Io = 2 + 2 + 6 = 10 W
Ec/Io = (2/10) = 0.2 = -7 dB

Conclusion: As the traffic load in the sector increases, the Ec/Io worsens.
Change in Ec/Io according to the scenario RF

According to the RF scenario - a single server sector, some or many servers sectors - we can also take
various measures to Ec/Io.
Considering first a situation without external interference, with only one server sector (dominant), the
ratio Ec/Io is about the same initially transmitted.
Ec/Io = (2/8) = 0.25 = -6 dB

Whereas a signal coming from this sector in the mobile at level of -90 dBm (Io = -90 dBm), we have Ec =
-90 dBm + (- 6 db) = -96 dBm.
Let us now consider another situation. Instead of one, we have five sectors signal arriving at the mobile
(for simplicity, all with the same level of -90 dBm).
Now have Io = -83 dBm (which is the sum of five signals of -90 dBm). And the power of our pilot channel
remains the same (Ec = -96 dBm).
Thus: Ec/Io = -96 - (-83) = -13 dB
Conclusion: As many more sectors serves the mobile, the Ec/Io worsens.
This situation where we have many overlapping sectors, and with the same level of signal is known as
Pilot Pollution - the mobile sees them all at once - each acting as interferer to each other.
The solution in such cases is to eliminate unwanted signals, by setting power parameters or physical
adjustments (tilt, azimuth), leaving just dominant signals which should exist at this problematic place.
Okay, and what are typical values?

We have seen that for CDMA and UMTS systems, the measurement of Ec/Io which is very important in the
analysis, especially in handover decisions.
And now also understand the measure Ec/Io as the ratio of 'good' energy over 'bad' energy, or 'cleaness'
of signal.
But what are the practical values?
The value of Ec/Io fluctuates (varies), as well as any wireless signal. If the value starts to get too low, you
start to have dropped calls, or can not connect. But what then is a good range of Ec/Io for a sign?
In practical terms, values of Ec/Io for a good evaluation of the network (in terms of this indicator) are
shown in the diagram below.
A composite Ec/Io ~ - 10 db is a reasonable value to consider as good.

Note: See we are talking about negative values, and considering them 'good'. In other words, we are
saying that energy is below the Noise (and still have a good situation).
This is a characteristic of the system itself, and Ec/Io 'most negative' or 'less negative' is going to allow
assessment of the communication.
In situations where Ec/Io is very low (high negative number), and the signal level too (also high negative
number), first we need to worry in enhancing the weak signal.
Another typical situation: if the measured Ec/Io is very low, even if you have a good signal level, you can
not connect, or the call will drop constantly.
I hope you've managed to understand how the Ec/Io is important for CDMA and UMTS. Note, however,
that this matter is very complex, and supplementary reading - books and internet - can further help you
become an expert on the subject.
Anyway, the content displayed serves as an excellent reference, especially if you're not familiar with the
concept of signal over noise for CDMA and UMTS.
And the Signal to Noise Ratio for other technologies?

The ratio Ec/Io is the most commonly used to assess the condition of energy over interference, but applies
only in technologies that use codes (Ec).
But the concepts understood here to CDMA and UMTS are very similar - apply - for any technology, eg
GSM, where we use the C/I.
Anyway, this is a topic for another tutorial, we saw today Ec/Io.
Conclusion
Today we had a brief introduction on the Ec/Io ratio, a measurement for decisions in CDMA and UMTS, and
used togheter with the measured Signal Strength.
We have seen that it represents the ratio of signal energy within the duration of a chip of the pilot
channel, on the Spectral Density of Noise + Interference.
This is a very important measure, which somehow ignores the overall strength of the signal, and focuses
on how best to evaluate the pilot channel signal is desired, in relation to noise that interferes with it.
Returning to our original question: A strong signal level does not necessarily indicate an strong Ec/Io: it
depends on the level of interference.
What is RTWP?
If you work with UMTS,'ve probably heard someone talk about RTWP. Its definition can be found in a
dictionary of acronyms, such as http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/RTWP: Received Total Wideband
Power.
Represents a measure of UMTS technology: the total level of noise within the UMTS frequency band of any
cell.
RTWP is related to uplink interference, and its monitoring helps control the call drops - mainly CS. It also
has importance in the capacity management, as it provides information for the Congestion Control
regarding Uplink Interference.
In UMTS, the uplink interference may vary due to several factors, such as the number of users in the cell,
the Service, Connection Types and Conditions of Radio, etc..
As our goal is to always be as simple as possible, we will not delve in terms of formulas or concepts
involved. We will then know the typical values, and know what must be done in case of problems.
Typical Values
Ok, we know that RTWP can help us in checking the uplink interference, then we need to know its typical
values.
In a network is not loaded, normal, acceptable RTWP Average value is generally around -104.5 and -105.5
dBm.
Values around -95 dBm indicate that the cell has some uplink interferers.
If the value is around -85 dBm, the situation is ugly, with strong uplink interferers.
Usually we have High, Low and Medium measures of RTWP. However, the maximum and minimum values
are recommended only as auxiliary or reference, since they may have been caused by a peak of access, or
even been forced to have a momentary value due to some algorithm i.e..
Thus, the value that helps us, and has the most accurate information is the same Mean RTWP!
For cases in which cell has two carriers, the difference between them RTWP should not exceed 6 dB.
Based on these typical values, most vendors have an alarm: RTWP "Very High. "
What to do in case of problems?

We have seen that RTWP can cause performance degradation, mainly CS Call Drops. Note: Actually, it's
not RTWP that causes performance degradation. What happens is that when its value is 'bad', it's actually
indicating the presence of interference - the latter being responsible for degradation.
But what can we do when we find bad values?
If RTWP is not at acceptable levels, some actions should be taken.
The first thing to do is check if there is a configuration issue with the RNC or NodeB. This is the most common
case, especially in cases of new activations.
Once verified the parameter settings, the next step is the physical examination, especially jumpers and cables,
often partially reversed. It also should be checked if there is faulty transmitters, or any other problem that
could generate intermodulation between the NodeB and the antenna.
If the parameter settings and hardware are ok, the chance is very high that we have external interference,
such as a Interferer Repeater.
In cases where there may be external interference, we must begin to act after such a prioritization based
on how much this is affecting the cell KPI's across the network, if it carry high traffic, major subscribers,
etc..
Note: There are many forms of interference in the uplink, both internal and external. Only a few are listed
above. The deepening of all possibilities is beyond the goal of being simple to teach the concepts, but this
is a suggestion for whoever wants to deepen the study, identification and elimination of interference.
In practice
to find - and eliminate - problems of interference is one of the biggest challenges in our area. For being
such a complex problem, we recommend that be collected enough data for each investigation. Insufficient
data collected can lead to erroneous conclusions, further worsening the problem.
The uplink interference may appear only in specific periods. Thus, it is recommended that data be
collected from at least one week (7 days) for every 24 hours. Usually this amount of data is sufficient. In
the figure below, we see different days and times - colorful - a fictional example where the interference
occurred.
Data should be collected for the suspicious cell, but also for its adjacent cells, allowing it to make a
triangulation increasing the chances of locating the source of interference.
Another way to locate the source of interference is to do a test in field. An antenna guy must gradually
change the azimuth of the antenna, while another professional do RTWP measurements. That is, through
the information directing the antenna and the respective values of RTWP, you can draw conclusions very
good.
It is obvious that changing the online system may not be a good practice, and tests can be made with a
Yagi antenna and a Spectrum Analyzer.
Vendors offer several ways to measure RTWP, using the OSS, performance counters and logs.
Conclusion
In this brief tutorial, we learn what is RTWP, and that the ideal typical value is about -104.5 dBm and
-105.5 dBm.
As the RTWP is directly related to Uplink Interference - and we know that interference is the main cause of
performance degradation - have concluded that improving RTWP, ie making is as close as possible to -105
dBm, improving the Call Drop Rate!
IMPORTANT : Seizing the opportunity, see what was stated at the start of this tutorial - dictionary - by
describing RTWP. Remember that this site has been the subject of a very interesting tutorial in
the TipsSection. If you have not visited this section of the portal yet , I strongly recommend, because it
has many issues that help in our growth in telecom and IT area.
What is Retransmission, ARQ and HARQ?

It's very important to use solutions that improve the efficiency of the adopted model in any data
communication system. If the transmission is 'Wireless', this need is even greater.
In this scenario we have techniques that basically checks, or verify if the information sent by the
transmitter correctly arrived in the receiver. In the following example, we have a packet being sent from
the transmitter to the receiver.
If the information arrived properly (complete), the receiver is ready to receive (and process) new data. If
the information arrived with some problem, corrupted, the receiver must request that the transmitter sent
the packet again (retransmission).
Let's understand a little more about these concepts increasingly used (and required) in the current
systems?
Note: All telecomHall articles are originally written in Portuguese. Following we translate to English and
Spanish. As our time is short, maybe you find some typos (sometimes we just use the automatic
translator, with only a final and 'quick' review). We apologize and we have an understanding of our effort.
If you want to contribute translating / correcting of these languages, or even creating and publishing your
tutorials, please contact us: contact.
Error Checking and Correction

We start talking about errors. Errors are possible, and mainly due to the transmission link. In fact, we can
even 'expect' errors when it comes to Wireless Data Transmission.
If we have errors, we need to take some action. In our case, we can divide it into two steps: error
checking and error correction.
Error checking is required to allow the receiver to verify that the information that arrived is correct or not.
One of the most common methods of error checking is the CRC, or 'Cyclic Redundancy Check', where bits
(CRC) are added to a group of information bits. The CRC bits are generated based on the contents of the
information bits. If an error happens with the information bits, the CRC bits are used to verify and help
recover the degraded information.
The level of protection provided is determined by the ratio: number of CRC bits by the number of
information bits. Above a certain error level, the process is eliminated. CRC protection is used practically
in all existing Voice and Data applications.
The following diagram shows a simplified demonstration of how the CRC is used.
And the CRC is directly connected to the Error Correction methods. There are various ways of Foward
Error Correction (FEC), but the main idea is, given a level of quality in the link, try to get the lowest
number of required retransmissions.
Minimizing the number of retransmissions we ended up having a more efficient data flow result, including
- mainly - the 'Throughput'.
In simplified way: the CRC lets you know if a package arrived 'OK' or 'NOT OK'. Every packet that is sent
has a CRC, or a 'Signature'. As an analogy, it's like when we send a letter to someone, and in the end we
sign: 'My Full Name'. When the other person receives this letter (information), he checks the signature:
'My Wrong'. In this case, he tells the Messenger: 'I don't know 'My Wrong', this information has some
problems. Please ask sender to send it again!'.
I.e. I do CRC checks. If the CRC is 'wrong', the information is 'wrong'. If the CRC is 'correct', probably the
information is 'correct'.
Retransmissions
Retransmissions are then: send information again (repeat) to the receiver, after it make such a request.
The receiver requests that the information be retransmitted whenever it cannot decode the packet, or the
result of decoding has been an error. That is, after checking that the information reached the receiver is
not 'OK', we should request it to be retransmitted.
Of course, when we have a good link (SNR), without interference or problems that may affect data
integrity, we have virtually no need for retransmissions.
In practice, in real World, this is very difficult to happen, because the links can face the most different
adversities. Thus, an efficient mechanism to enable and manage the retransmission is essential.
We consider such a mechanism as efficient when it allow data communication in a link meet quality
requirements that the service demands (QoS).
Voice for example, is a service where retransmission does not apply. If a piece of information is lost, and is
retransmitted, the conversation becomes intelligible.
On the other hand, data services practically rely on retransmission, since most have - or allows - a certain
tolerance to delays some more, some less. With the exception only for 'Real Time' services.
But it is also important to take into account that the greater the number of needed retransmissions, lower
the data transmission rate that is effectively reached: If the information have to be retransmitted several
times, it will take long for the receiver to obtain the complete - final - information.
ARQ
Till now we talked in a generic way about data retransmissions, error checking and correction. Let's now
see some real and practical schemes.
The simplest way (or more common) control using what we described above is known as ARQ, or
'Automatic Repeat Request'.
In ARQ, when we have a 'bad' package, the system simply discards it, and asks for a retransmission (of
the same package). And for this, it sends a feedback message to the transmitter.
These feedback messages are messages that the receiver uses to inform whether the transmission was
successful or not: 'ACKnowledgement' (ACK) and 'Non-ACKnowledgement' (NACK). These messages are
transmitted from the receiver to the transmitter, and respectively informs a good (ACK) or bad (NACK)
reception of the previous packages.
If in the new retransmission the packet keep arriving with errors, the system requests a new
retransmission (still for this same package). That is, sends another 'NACK' message.
The data packets that are not properly decoded are discarded. The data packets or retransmissions are
separately decoded. That is, every time a packet that arrives is bad, it is discarded, and it is requested
that this same package be retransmitted.
But see that if there were no retransmissions, the performance of the data flow would be much better. In
the example below, compared with the previous, we transmit more information - 3 times in the same time
interval.
Unfortunately we don't have much to do about the link conditions. Or better, we are able to improve the
links performance, for example with configuration parameters optimization, but we'll always be subject to
face adverse conditions. In this case, our only way out is to try to minimize retransmissions.
And that's where arise other techniques or more 'enhanced' schemes for retransmission. The main one is
HARQ.
Hybrid ARQ (HARQ)

The HARQ is the use of conventional ARQ along with an Error Correction technique called 'Soft Combining',
which no longer discards the received bad data (with error).
With the 'Soft Combining' data packets that are not properly decoded are not discarded anymore. The
received signal is stored in a 'buffer', and will be combined with next retransmission.
That is, two or more packets received, each one with insufficient SNR to allow individual decoding can be
combined in such a way that the total signal can be decoded!
The following image explains this procedure. The transmitter sends a package [1]. The package [1]
arrives, and is 'OK'. If the package [1] is 'OK' then the receiver sends an 'ACK'.
The transmission continues, and is sent a package [2]. The package [2] arrives, but let's consider now
that it arrives with errors. If the package [2] arrives with errors, the receiver sends a 'NACK'.
Only now this package [2] (bad) is not thrown away, as it is done in conventional ARQ. Now it is stored in
a 'buffer'.
Continuing, the transmitter send another package [2.1] that also (let's consider) arrives with errors.
We have then in a buffer: bad package [2], and another package [2.1] which is also bad.
Does by adding (combining) these two packages ([2] + [2.1]) we have the complete information?
Yes. So we send an 'ACK'.
But if the combination of these two packages still does not give us the complete information, the process
must continue - and another 'NACK' is sent.
And there we have another retransmission. Now the transmitter sends a third package [2.2].
Let's consider that now it is 'OK', and the receiver sends an 'ACK'.
Here we can see the following: along with the received package [2.2], the receiver also has packages [2]
and [2.1], that have not been dropped and are stored in the buffer.
In our example, we see that the package arrived 2 times 'wrong'. And what is the limit of these
retransmissions? Up to 4. IE, we can have up to 4 retransmission in each process. This is the maximum
number supported by 'buffer'.
Different HARQ Schemes

Going back a little in the case of Conventional ARQ, whenever we send a package and it arrives with
problems, it is discarded.
Taking the above example, when we send the package [2], and it arrives with errors, it is discarded. And
this same package [2] is sent again.
What happens is that we no longer have the concept of 'package version' - [2.1], [2.2], etc. We do not
have the 'redundancy' version, or the gain we get in HARQ processing.
To understand this, we need to know that information is divided as follows:
[Information + Redundancy + Redundancy]
When we transmit the packet [2] we are transmitting this:
When retransmit the same package [2] we are retransmiting it again:
But when we use HARQ, and retransmit packet [2.1] or [2.2], we have the possibility of:
Or retransmit that same information again;

Or retransmit only the redundancy.
And then, if we retransmit less information (only redundancy), we spend less energy, and that will run
much faster. With this we have a gain!
That is, we work with different 'versions of redundancy', that allows us to have a gain in the
retransmission. This is called 'Redundancy Version', or what version of redundancy.
The redundancy version, or HARQ scheme with 'Soft Combining' can be 'Chase Combination' or
'Incremental Redundancy'.
HARQ Chase Combination

Chase Combination: when we combine the same information (the retransmission is an identical copy of
the original packet).
We transmit an information, which arrived wrong, and we need to do a retransmission. We retransmit the
same information - and there we don't have much gain.
HARQ Incremental Redundancy

Incremental Redundancy: where we retransmit only the portion that we didn't transmitted before.
Thus we retransmit less information. Less information means fewer bits, less energy. And this gives a
gain!
Redundancy bits are retransmitted gradually to the receiver, until an ACK is received.
With this, we adapt to changes in the condition of the link. The first retransmission can, for example,
contain or not bits of redundancy. If necessary, a small number of these bits is retransmitted. And so on.
Finishing for today: what are the 2 steps of HARQ? Why it gives me a Gain?
First because from wrong packets 1 and 2 we can get a correct one, since we do not discard erroneous packets
anymore.
Second because we can - also in retransmission - send less information, and streamline the process.
The use of HARQ with 'Soft Combining' increases the received Eb/Io effective value for each
retransmission, and therefore also increases the likelihood of correct retransmissions decoding, in
comparison to conventional ARQ.
We send a package, and it arrives with errors: we keep this package. Receive the retransmission and then
we add or combine both.
HARQ Processes (Case Study)
What we have seen so far clarifies the concepts involved. In practice, in retransmission, this type of
Protocol is called 'Stop And Wait' (there are other kinds of similar protocols).
What would be: send the information and stop. Wait for the response to send other information. Send,
wait for response. Send, wait for response ...
No! Not so in practice. In practice, we work with a number of 'processes', which may vary for example
from 4, 6 or 8. The following image illustrates this more clearly.
Other types of HARQ

New schemes are constantly being developed and used, as the type III HARQ, which uses self-decodable
packages.
But enter these variations, terminology and considerations, is not the scope of our tutorial, which was
simply to introduce the concept of Retransmission, ARQ and HARQ.
Based on the key concepts illustrated here today, you can extend your studies the way you want, however
we believe that the most important thing was achieved understand how it works and what are all the
cited concepts.
JAVA Applet
Below, you can see how some retransmission schemes work. There are several Applets available, for the
many possibilities (ARQ, HARQ, With Sliding Windows, Selective, etc).
The next is a link for a JAVA Applet that simulates a 'Selective Repeat Protocol transmission'.
http://media.pearsoncmg.com/aw/aw_kurose_network_4/applets/SR/index.html
Conclusion
This was another tutorial on important issues for those who work with IT and Telecom: data Transmission
and Retransmission techniques, ARQ and HARQ.
ARQ is used for applications that allow a certain delay, as Web Browsing and Streaming Audio/video. It is
used widely in Wimax and WiFi communication systems. However, it cannot be used in Voice transmission,
as for example in GSM.
HARQ for example is used in HSPA and LTE, and therefore must be a well-understood concept for those
who work or want to work with these technologies.
We hope you enjoyed it. And until our next tutorial.
What is RRC and RAB?

To work with modern wireless networks such as UMTS and LTE, it is essential that the telecom professional
has full understanding of its basic concepts, such as those that control the call establishment and
maintenance, whether it is voice (CS) or data (PS).
In this scenario, RAB and RRC are two of the most important concepts because they are responsible for all
the negotiation involved in those calls.
In addition to RAB and RRC, we still have some other terms directly involved in context, as RB, SRB, TRB,
among others. These terms are also important concepts, since without them RAB and RRC could not exist.
So lets try to understand today - the simplest possible way - what is the RRC and RAB role in the calls of
these mobile networks in practice. As it become necessary, we will also talk about other concepts.
Introduction
To start, we can divide a call into two parts: the signaling (or control) and data (or information). Already
ahead of key concepts, we can understand the RRC as responsible for the control, and the RAB as
responsible for the information part.
As mentioned, other auxiliary concepts are involved in calls, but our goal today is to learn the most basic
concepts - RRC and RAB, allowing us to evolve in our learning later.
Oddly enough, even professionals who already work with UMTS-WCDMA and LTE networks have trouble to
fully understand the concepts of RRC and RAB. And without this initial understanding, hardly they can
evolve with clarity and efficiency in their daily work.
Without further introduction, let's go straight to the point and then try to understand once and for all
these so important concepts.
Analogy
As always, and as usual the telecomHall, let's make an analogy that helps us to understand the
functioning of the RRC and RAB in practice.
Let's start imagining the following scenario: two people are cut off by a cliff. On the left side, a person (1)
want to buy some things that are for sale in a store (2) or deposit on the right side. In the right side, in
addition to the deposit, we also have a seller (3), which will help the buyer to contact (negotiable) with
the deposit.
As additional or auxiliary objects (4), we have some iron bars with different sizes, and some cars - some
like train wagon, others like remote control cars.
In short, we have the situation outlined in the image below.
And so, how this situation can be solved?

Let's continue with a possible solution: the buyer on the left write his request in a note, tie on a small
stone that he found on the floor, and send (1) it to the seller on the other side. So, the stone carry the
information or initial request.
The seller receives the request, but she need to send it to the deposit, in order for the shopping to be
sent. She sends the request on a remote control car (1), which run a previously demarcated path to the
deposit.
Some time later, the deposit response arrives to seller (1), which then checks to see whether she will be
able to send the data or not.
So that we can proceed with our call, let's consider a positive response. That is, what the buyer is willing,
or the 'resources' are available.
Seller realizes that to fulfill the request, and be able to send the purchases, she will need to build a 'path'
(1) between the two ends of the cliff, so the wagons could carry over with the orders/receipts and
purchases. Then, the seller uses some of its iron bars and creates a link between the two sides.
Once established all the way between those involved, requests can be sent from both sides as well as the
purchases or any other information can be transferred by different paths and wagons/cars!
If you managed to understand how the above problem was solved, congratulations, you just understand
how the most common form of UMTS-WCDMA and LTE communication happens!
Although analogies are not perfect, it help us a lot to understand the complex functioning of these
networks, especially in relation to new concepts such as RRC and RAB, but also a very often used, the
'bearer' so much that it's worth talking a little bit about it.
What is Bearer?
If we search the word 'bearer' in the dictionary, we'll find something like trasnporter, or carrier. In a simple
way: one who carries or conveys something from some point to another point. In a restaurant, we can
compare the 'bearer' to a waiter.
But from the telecommunications point of view, 'bearer' is best understood as a 'pipe' that connects two or
more points in a communication system, through which the data flows.
Technically speaking, it is a channel that carries Voice or Data, a logical connection between different
points (nodes) that ensures that the packets that are traveling have the same QoS attributes. Explaining
better: for each 'bearer' we have several associated parameters, such as the maximum delay and packet
loss limit and these attributes that make sure each packet going in the same channel have the same
QoS attributes.
General Flowchart - RRC, RAB and Others

Now that we know what is bearer, let's go back to the analogy presented earlier, but now bringing it to the
real, more technical side.
All that we'll talk can be summarized in a single figure, having all the concepts seen today, and that will be
detailed from now on.
Note: If you manage to understand the concepts that will be explained in the figure below, you will be
with a great base for both WCDMA and LTE networks. This is because, in order to facilitate we use WCDMA
nomenclatures, but the principle is pretty much the same in LTE. Just do the equivalent replaces, like
NodeB for eNB.
On that ficticious scenario, the seller is the UTRAN, responsible for creating and maintaining the
communication between the UE (buyer) and CN (deposit) so that the QoS requirements of each are met.
UTRAN: UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
o
o
NodeB
RNC
UE: User Equipment

CN: Core Network
o
o
MSC: for switched voice services

SGSN: for packet-switched services
The cliff is the Uu Interface between the UE and the UTRAN, and the road through the remote control car
goes until the deposit is the Iu Interface, between the UTRAN and CN.
Sending requests and receipts is part of signaling, or the RRC. The shipment of purchases is the data part,
or the RAB. In our scenario, the RRC are the Rails, and RAB is the full service of sending data between the
UE and the CN.
RRC: Radio Resource Control

RAB: Radio Access Bearer
Note: the RRC is in Layer 3 - control plane, while the RAB occurs between the UE and CN, in the user
plane.
The railcars are the RBs, and convey the information in the radio path. These wagons define what type of
thing will be transported, and in what quantity. Similarly, the RBs define what type of data will in the RRC,
which can be Data or Signaling. When the QoS attributes change, then the Rbs associated with that RRC
connection need to be reconfigured.
The remote control cars are the Iu bearer, and carry information on Iu Interface (between the UTRAN and
the CN), either CS or PS.
RB: Radio Bearer

Iu bearer: Iu Bearer Interface
Note: RAB is the combination of RB and Iu bearer.

As examples of RAB for some services and different rates we have:
The Conversational RAB and the Interactive RAB can be used together, and in this case we have a case of
MultiRAB.
The RB is a layer 2 connection between the UE and the RNC, and can be used for Signalling and control
User Data. When it is used for Signalling or Control Messages is called SRB. And when it is used for user
data is called TRB.
SRB: Signalling Radio Bearer (Control Plane)

TRB: Traffic Radio Bearer (User Plane)
Note: in an optimized network, we can find much of the traffic being handled by HSPA bearers, even
MultiRAB. This option frees resources from CE (Channel Elements), relieving the load on R99 (that can
only use these resources). However, it should be done with caution, because if improperly configured it
can degrade the Performance Indicators with Blockage (Congestion) and Failures.
As you've probably noticed, we're talking about several new technical terms, but these terms are what
you'll find for example when reading UMTS or LTE call flowcharts. But if you can understand at least in
part the concepts presented today, everything will be much easier.
Let us then take a look again on our figure, and continue our analogy.
As we saw, in telecom we work with the concept of layers. And this way of seeing the network brings us
many advantages, mainly because we were able to 'wrap' physical access. In this way, any modification or
replacement can be made with less complexity.
We don't need to tell you how much the radio path is complex, continuously changing, right? This
structure using beares ensures this simplification: the RNC and CN bother with QoS requirements in the
path between them (Iu Interface); and only the RNC have to worry about meeting the complex radio path
QoS.
Sure, but why we have two types of carriers - wagons and remote control cars? The answer to this is in
the very characteristic of the two existing paths. Being the Iu a more robust interface, and also because
we have major changes in RABs during connections, it is normal that these bearers are also different for
the paths. it's like using a 4x4 pickup truck to climb a mountain, and a race car to an asphalt race.
Regardless the carriers, with the RAB the elements of the CN has the impression of a physical path to the
UE, so don't need to be worrying about the complex aspects of radio communication.
For example, a UE can have 3 RABs between he and the RNC, and these RABs may be changing, as in the
case of soft handovers, while the RNC has only 1 Iu bearer for this connection.
From the point of view of the carriers, the main task of the UTRAN is managing these services on these
interfaces. She controls the Uu interface, and along with the CN, controls the provision of services in the
Iu interface.
Remember that in a communication between the UE and the CN, several other elements are involved,
mainly to negotiate QoS requirements between both parties. These requirements are mapped in the RABs,
that are visible to both (UE and CN), where the UTRAN is responsible for creating and maintaining these
RABs so that all of this is served in all aspects.
A little bit more details...
A RRC connection exists when an UE performs the call establishment procedure, and get resources from
the UTRAN. When a RRC connection is established, the UE will also get some SRBs. (If for some reason
the initial request is not accepted, the UE can make a new request after some time).
Since the SRB was established between the UE and the CN, the RNC checks a series of information such
as the UE identity, what is the reason for the request and whether the UE is able to handle the requested
service.
The RNC that maps the requested RABs into RBs, to transfer between the UE and the UTRAN. In addition
it is also check the attributes of the RABs: if they can be met by the available resources, and even
whether to activate or reset radio channels (reconfiguration of lower layers services ) based on the
number of Signaling Connections and RABs to be transferred.
This way, it creates the impression that there is a physical path between the UE and the CN. Remembering
again that no matter how many signaling and RABs connections there are between the ue and the CN there is only a single RRC connection used by the RNC to control and transfer between the UE and the
UTRAN.
Now that we have seen a lot about RRC and RAB, let's learn only a few more concepts today after all,
we already have enough information presented. Let's talk about the AS and NAS.
AS Access Stratum is a group of specific protocols of access network

NAS NON Access Stratum: so, are the other protocols, or those that are not access network
At this point of view, the AS provides the RAB to the NAS, or information transfer service.
The UE and CN need to communicate (events/messages) with each other to perform several procedures
with many purposes. And the 'language' of this conversation between them is called protocols.
The protocols are then responsible for allowing this conversation between the UE and CN, and cause the
CN do not worry about the method of access (be it GSM/GPRS, UTRAN, LTE). In our case the RNC acts as
a protocol - between the UTRAN and CN.
According to what we learned today, the RAB is carried:
Between the UE and the UTRAN: within the RRC connection. The RRC Protocol is responsible for negotiating the
(logical) channels of Uu and IuB interfaces, and for the establishment of signaling dedicated channels as SRBs
and RBs among these interfaces.
Between the RNC and the CN: after being negotiated and mapped, in the RANAP protocol connection, through
Iu interface (CS/PS).
o RANAP: Radio Access Network Application Part
As we have seen above, the RNC maps requested RABs into RBs using current radio network resources
information, and controls the services of lower layers. To optimize the use of these resources, as well as
the network band and physical resource sharing between different entities, the UTRAN can also perform
the function of CN messages distribution.
For this, the RRC Protocol transparently transfers messages from CN to the access network through a
direct transfer procedure. When this occurs, a specific indicator of CN is inserted in these messages, and
the entities with the distribution function in RNC use this same indicator for direct messages to the
appropriate CN, and vice versa.
But now it started to get more complex, and we have already reached our goal today, which was to learn
the basics of RRC and RAB.
Everything we just talked about above can be seen again in the same figure below, the same from the
beginning of the explanations.
RRC and RAB in GSM?

Okay, we understand how RRC and RAB works in UMTS-WCDMA and LTE networks. But in GSM, does we
have these concepts as well?
At first, the answer is NO. However, with what we learned today, we can make a comparison with some
GSM 'equivalent' parameters.
We can compare the SDCCH phase and TCH phase of a GSM call with RRC and RAB in UMTS.
RRC is the Radio Resource Control that works as Control Plane in Layer 3. Is used primarily for Signaling in
UMTS. Then we can compare with the signaling in GSM, as the Immediate Assignment process for SDCCH
resource allocation.
RAB is the radio access 'transporter' that works as the User Plane to provide data for the services
requested by the user. Then we can compare with the user part in GSM, as the TCH Assignment.
For each service requested by the user we have only 1 RAB. For example, if the requested service is a
Voice Call (CS-AMR), then 1 CS RAB will be generated and provided to the user. The same is true for PS.
So our equivalence table would be:
Control
User
UMTS / LTE
RRC Connection
RAB Assignment (RNC-CN)
GSM
Immediate Assignment
Assignment (BSC-MSC)
RRC Connection and RAB example

To complete for today, let's see (always in simplified form) a simple RRC connection and RAB.
Whenever the UE needs the UTRAN resources, he asks. So that these resources are allocated, it
establishes a RRC connection with some SRBs.
In this case, a RAB connection is created to enable the transfer of user data. We remind you that the RAB
consists of RB + Iu bearer. The RAB is created by CN, with a specific QoS request.
For a single UE, there may be multiple RAB for NAS service (CS or PS).
But let's just stick to the initial procedure, that is, how is performed the 'RRC Setup' procedure, from the
UE's request.
The following figure shows this more straightforward.
The RRC has always 3 steps:

1.
2.
3.
The UE requests a new connection in the Uplink (RRC CONNECTION REQUEST);

With sufficient resources available, the 'RRC Downlink CONNECTION SETUP' message is sent, including the
reason, along with the SRB configuration; (Note: otherwise, if the RRC connection cannot be established, the
message sent is 'RRC CONNECTION SETUP REJECT').
If all goes well, the UE sends the message in the Uplink: RRC CONNECTION SETUP COMPLETE.
And after this, the MEASUREMENT CONTROL message are being sent in the Downlink, for the
communication continuity.
After the RRC connection is established, the UTRAN makes the checks between the CN and the UE, for
example the authentication and security operations.
And so, the CN informs the RAB to UTRAN in accordance with requirements of the service requested by
the UE. As we have seen, RAB occurs after the RRC, and without a RRC connection no RAB may be
established.
Conclusion
We have seen today a simplified explanation that covers a number of concepts involved in the
communication of the most modern existing mobile networks, primarily related to RRC and RAB.
With this conceptual base, we will continue to evolve in the next tutorials with examples that make the
assimilation of these complex concepts in a task far less exhaustive than normal.
We hope that you have enjoyed, and we count on your participation, which can be for example suggesting
new topics, or sharing our site with your friends. If possible, leave also your comments just below.
What is MIMO?
New technologies are increasingly present in our lives, evolving towards modern - and complicated networks!
To enable this 'Revolution', new techniques must be developed, and existing ones need to be improved.
Here in telecomHall 'Course' we'll talk about these techniques, as always trying to explain each subject in
the simplest possible way, allowing to understand how these innovations may have become reality.
We begin today with: MIMO. Have you heard?
Even if you already know, we invite you to read this brief summary we prepared to you.
SISO, MISO, SIMO

Before we talk specifically about MIMO, let's know, or remember what it also means SISO, SIMO and
MISO.
Although it may sound like some sort of lock tongues, in fact these letters correspond to different types of
a radio channel use. That is, refer to the access modes of the radio channel, any transmitting and
receiving system.
Let's start with SISO - "Single Input, Single Output ', as this model more intuitive. As the name implies,
we only have one input in the radio channel, and only one output.
In the figure below is easier to understand: we use a Transmitter (TX) to transmit data through a single
antenna, and receive it in the Receiver (RX), also through a single antenna.
When the system has multiple inputs and only one output, we have MISO - 'Multiple Input, Single Output'.
In this case we have multiple entries, and only one output.

Note: in practice, we can have more than one antenna. Just to simplify the demonstration we will limit
ourselves to a maximum of two antennas in the illustrations.
Remember we are talking about the radio channel, the figure below helps to better understand this
nomenclature.
So pretty much opposed to MISO, we also have SIMO - 'Single Input, Multiple Output'.
MIMO
Once this nomenclature is understood, we can talk about MIMO.
As mentioned, although in practice we may have multiple antennas at the transmitter and multiple
antennas at the receiver, we're representing our system with only two antennas on each side.
At first glance, and comparing with the previous access, MIMO seems to be simple, but unfortunately it's
not.
Its operation is much more complex than the others: we now have multiple inputs and multiple outputs.
The biggest challenge is how to recover the original information correctly?
See illustration of a more realistic scenario, showing what happens in practice.
Although more complex, it brings is a huge performance gain, or spectrum use efficiency, as discussed
below.
And again, the way MIMO works, with its variations, is very complex. We will try to show here just simply
how it works, that is, as is possible.
A good analogy to learn the concept of MIMO is to imagine that we have two 'mouths' and use the two
mouths to ask someone:
'How old are you?'
Note that we use 'four' words. As we have two mouths, we can use one to say 'How old' and and another at the same time - to 'are you'.
With two mouths talking at the same time, if the other person's ears are well cleaned, and it's a smart
person, he/she'll be able to understand.
That is, we speak 'four words' in the 'same time' that we would speak 'two words'.
What does this mean? In terms of data, assume that each word has 100 KB. So we're sending 400 KB.
But since we are transmitting two streams in parallel, each with a piece of data. That is, we pass the 400
KB in half the time it would take to transmit typically with a stream.
Simply put, this is what makes MIMO possible, and enables attaining high rates of 300 to 600 Mbps!
Thus, MIMO is used to improve wireless access in a large number of applications. Several access standards
such as LTE, WiMax, HSPA and WiFi use this gain to achieve the significant improvements that each one
has.
And now we have a concept that seems to be against everything we learned: MIMO is based on
interference at line of sight (LOS), ie, the signal path between the station and mobile.
To MIMO present some advantage, we need a good diversity in the signal.
In other words, anything that interferes with the signal path such as buildings, cars, people, etc.. are
actually contributing to the overall system efficiency, and effectiveness of MIMO applications.
The diversity of the signal - that doesn't take a direct path between the transmitter - once viewed as a
problem, is now making it possible for the data streams to be combined and recovered!
As seen in the analogy above, MIMO allows the sending of more than one stream of data on a single
channel. It effectively doubles the speed that he have on that channel - considering the use of two
antennas.
But okay, how does it work?
In the past, DSP's, or Digital Signal Processors were very hard to be developed, due to a lot of past
limitations. Currently however, DSP development have evolved a lot - and are still evolving. This kind of
processors today are very powerful, able to recover our transmitted signal when it arrives at the receiver
at different time intervals.
The DSP's then have the responsibility to take the data, 'separate' in different parts, send each part via
different antennas, at the same time, at th same channel. And do the reverse process at the receiver.
The result is obvious: we are able to send a certain amount of data in half the time it would normally take.
Each antenna has its own stream of data, both in transmission and reception. In the end, then we have
the data received.
Remember, the Multipath varies according to location, and this variation is very dynamic - difficult to
predict. Still, the multipath makes it possible for the receiving antenna to differentiate between data that
was transmitted on the same channel at the same time.
OFDM
Then enter the access via OFDM - 'Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing'. Let's talk more about this
type of multiplexing / access in another tutorial, but OFDM is very important to MIMO for new generations
of cellular technologies.
It is easier if we make a comparison.
In a single carrier systems have symbols (or 'pieces of information') transmitted over broadband, each
transmitted sequentially, and for a relatively short period of time.
Symbols transmitted in Series

Broadband
Short Symbol Period
In the OFDM symbols are transmitted in parallel, each using a relatively very narrow spectrum. However,
each symbol is transmitted by a much greater period of time!
Symbols transmitted in Parallel

Narrow Band
Long Symbol Period
This scenario represents an advantage in signal reception, since it is much easier for the receiver to check
each of the symbols - even if they suffer some degradation - because they are transmitted over a much
longer period.
In wideband transmission, during the short time interval in which each symbol is transmitted, we may
have problems with data loss, making it difficult to recover information. If there is interference in the
signal, a significant part of it can be degraded and may end up making it impossible to receive certain
symbols (pieces of information) correctly.
In the OFDM, while the bandwidth is narrower, each transmitted symbol stands for a much longer time,
and the chances of successfully recovering are higher.
The following sequence helps us understand this concept.
Comparing OFDM with a single carrier, OFDM methodology have multiple frequencies transmitted in
parallel - the symbols are transmitted in parallel!
And each symbol is being transmitted over a much longer time period. And even when we have a problem
of fading at some point we're probably still able to retrieve information.
Thus, with transmission of the symbols in parallel and for a longer period of time, the greater the chances
of success at the reception!
Another new fact concerning what we understand about transmission and reception of data: the known
and common scenario for us is to have one antenna on the transmitter, transmitting at a certain
frequency, and another antenna on the receiver, receiving at this this same frequency.
MIMO introduces a new concept in terms of this known operation, and as we have seen, in terms of
spectral efficiency through the use of two or more antennas to transmit and two or more antennas to
receiving.
And perhaps the most innovative concept: all the antennas transmit at the same frequency with different
data transmitted by each one!
Surely, this is different from everything we learned in school, because we learned that the frequencies will
certainly interfere with each other, and end up losing all our data.
Antennas operating in the same operating frequency and transmitting different data generates
interference, and interference generates losses?
No more. Fortunately, using new advanced technologies of DSP's we can, for the same frequency, transmit
different data on different antennas - and simultaneously. And the receiving antennas, we can differentiate
between these streams of data.
It is not difficult to understand that this represents a huge advantage in terms of spectrum use efficiency.
If for example we have two antennas, we double efficiency. If we use more antennas, triple or quadruple
this efficiency. But it is obvious that the greater the number of antennas, and the greater the complexity
of the system.
MIMO Example
In conclusion, we show an example of packets decoding by a MIMO receiver.
Returning to our initial example, suppose a transmitter with two antennas. Using the nomenclature 'hij' for
the channel 'h' of the transmitter antenna 'i' to receiver antenna 'j'.
That is, when a packet 'p1' is transmitted from the antenna of a transmitter, the receiver receives 'h11*p1'
in its first antenna, and also receives 'h12*p1' in his second antenna. In other words, the receiver receives
a vector whose direction is determined by the channel.
But remember that our example has two transmitter antennas, that is, while we can send another packet
'p2' through its other antenna.
The receiver receives 'h21p2' in its first antenna, and 'h22p2' in his second antenna.
With this, we have a vector at the receiver end, defined by the sum of all vectors.
Sure, but how the receiver can decode these two packages? Once the two packages are sent concurrently,
they represent interference to each other. To decode a packet, the receiver projects on a direction
orthogonal to the interference of another package.
To eliminate the interference of the package 'p2', and so be able to decode the packet 'p1', the receiver
projects on a direction orthogonal to it (package 'p2').
Similarly, to decode the packet 'p2', the receiver eliminates interference from the other package 'p1',
projecting a direction orthogonal to the interference of it.
Then, with two antennas can decode two competing packages! Following the same reasoning, we can
understand that the MIMO decoding allows competitors and how many packets as the number of
antennas.
Conclusion
Today we had a brief introduction to MIMO, which as mentioned, is much more complex than shown,
because we are just doing an introduction to even allow you to understand its basic operation.
However, the benefits it pays back the efforts of its complexity.
Hope you enjoyed, and if you liked, please share the telecomHall with your friends. Below you have a few
quick ways to do this.
What is Rake Receiver?

Have you ever heard of "Rake Receiver"? Surely you've heard of Receiver (Receiver in English), and you
probably have heard of Rake (Rake in English).
With the pictures bellow, can you imagine what a Rake Receiver can be?
Ok, if the analogy does not help much, let's go.
In a wireless communication system, the signal can reach the receiver via multiple distinct pathways.
In each path, the signal can be blocked, reflected, diffracted and refracted. The signal of this many routes
reach receivers faded. The Rake receiver is used to correct this effect, selecting the correct / stronger
signals, bringing great help in CDMA and WCDMA systems.
Okay, but what is the Rake Receiver, and how it does it?
Definition
The Rake Receiver is nothing more than a radio, whose goal is to try to minimize the effects of the signal
fading due to multipath suffers when he travels. In fact, we can understand a set of Rake Receiver subradios, each lagged slightly, to allow the individual components of the multipath can be tuned properly.
Each of these components is decoded completely independently, but are combined in the final. It is as if
we took the original signal, and adicionssemos other copies of the original signal reaching the receiver
with different amplitudes and arrival times. If the receiver knows the amplitude and arrival time of each of
these components, it is possible to estimate the channel, allowing the addition of components.
Each of these sub-radios Rake Receiver is called Finger. Each finger is responsible for collecting the energy
of bit or symbol, hence the analogy with the groomer that we use in the garden, where each branch of the
rake collecting twigs and leaves!
To ease some of the understanding, imagine two signal components arriving at the mobile unit as seen in
the previous figure, with a lag t among them.
Notice how each Finger works:
The first with component g1 and time reference t;

The second with component g2, but with the time reference t - t.
The Fingers are so receptors that works independently with the function of demodulating the signal, ie,
receive and remove the RF components from the information.
The big idea behind the methodology of combining multiple copies of the transmitted signal to obtain a
better signal is that if we have multiple copies, probably at least one must be in good condition, and we
have more chance of a better decoding!
Key Benefits
The main advantage of Rake Receiver is that it improves the SNR (or Eb / No). Naturally, this
improvement is observed in larger environments with many multipaths than in environments without
obstruction.
In simplified form: we have a better signal than we would have without using Rake Receiver! This is
already a sufficient argument, isn't it?
Disadvantages and Limitations

The main disadvantage of Rake Receiver is not necessarily technical, and is not as problematic. This
disadvantage is primarily because the cost of the receivers. When we insert one more radio receiver, we
need more space and also increase complexity. Consequently, we increase costs.
The greater the number of multipath components supported by the receiver, the more complex is the
algorithm. As we always do here, we will not be deducting formulas involved, but the complexity increases
almost exponentially.
And in the real world, the amount of multipath components that arrive at the receiver is quite large, there
is not a 'limit'. Everything will depend on the environment.
The threshold number of fingers in a mobile unit is determined by each technology standard, which for
example in CDMA is 6, corresponding to the maximum number of channels to direct traffic that can be
processed by the mobile unit at once (Active Set).
However, in cellular environments, most of the CDMA mobile units need only actually 3 of demodulators
(WCDMA uses 4). More than that would be a waste of resources, and an additional cost to manufacture
the phone.
Searcher
An important detail in the CDMA and WCDMA systems is the use of one finger of the Rake Receiver as a
'Searcher'. It is so called because of its function of seeking pilot signals being transmitted by any station
(BS) in the system. These pilot signals can be understood as beacons used to alert the mobile, the
presence of a BS.
Thus, in the UMTS UE(User Equipment), we have a simplified form of the configuration of the Rake
Receiver as below.
Fingers on BS and UE
To conclude, the number of Rake Fingers used in the BS and the UE is generally different. That's because
we saw that to have more fingers, the physical size of the receiver increases, as their power requirements.
This can be a problem for the UE but not a problem for the BS, since it is able to offer more space and
power for new fingers. It is only the criterion of cost to be taken into account in the BS.
Anyway, the only critical issue is with UE. But the current three/four fingers ensure excellent gain proven
in practice (CDMA/WCDMA).
Conclusion
We saw today that the Rake receiver is used in CDMA and WCDMA as an efficient way of multipath signal
reception, where several recptores are able to reconstruct the signal with different time-codes, amplitude
and phase.
Channel Element (CE) Resource

CE resources are a type of NodeB hardware resource. The number of CEs supported by single NodeB
indicates the channel demodulation capabilities resource of the NodeB. The more CEs a NodeB supports,
the more powerful the channel demodulation and service processing capabilities for serving the
customers. Services at different rates require different numbers of CEs to ensure proper channel
demodulation.
In a RAN, CE resources are managed by both the RNC and NodeB. The NodeB reports its CE capacity to
the RNC. The RNC determines whether to admit a new service based on the number of CEs that need to
be consumed and controls CE resources during CE congestion. This ensures the proper use of CE
resources. The NodeB dynamically manages CE resources and rapidly adjusts the number of CEs that can
be consumed based on the actual service rate. This increases CE resource usage.
A proper use of CE resources increases the number of UEs that can be admitted and improves the service
quality of the admitted UEs.
Basic Channel Element Concepts
CE is a basic unit that measures the channel demodulation capabilities of a NodeB. CEs are classified into
uplink (UL) CEs and downlink (DL) CEs.
1.
One UL CE needs to be consumed by a UL 12.2 kbit/s voice service (SF = 64) plus 3.4 kbit/s
signaling.
2.
One DL CE needs to be consumed by a DL 12.2 kbit/s voice service (SF = 128) plus 3.4 kbit/s
signaling.
If only 3.4 kbit/s signaling traffic is carried on a DCH or HSPA channel, one CE still needs to be consumed.
The number of CEs that need to be consumed by services of other types can be calculated by analogy.
The number of UL and DL CEs supported by a NodeB is determined by the NodeB hardware capabilities
and the licensed CE capacity. The number of UL and DL CEs supported by the NodeB hardware is called
the physical CE capacity. The licensed CE capacity may differ from the physical CE capacity. The smaller
determines the number of CEs that can be used by an operator.
CE is a concept of the NodeB side. On the RNC side, it is called NodeB credit. The RNC performs admission
and congestion control based on the NodeB credit. In the UL, the number of Node credit resources is twice
that of CEs. In the DL, the number of NodeB credit resources equals that of CEs.
CE Sharing in a Resource Group

To facilitate baseband resource management, NodeB baseband resources fall into UL and DL resource
groups. The UL and DL resource groups are independent with each other.
UL Resource Group
UL resource group is a UL resource pool shared on a per-channel basis, more than one cell can be setup in
one UL resource group, One UL resource group can have multiple baseband boards, but one board can
belong to only one UL resource group. CE resources in one UL resource group can be shared by baseband
boards. This means that UEs in a cell in a UL resource group can set up services on any board in the
group. The physical CE capacity of a UL resource group is the total CE capacity of baseband boards in the
group.
DL Resource Group
Different from a UL resource group, a DL resource group is shared on a per-cell basis. Resources in a DL
resource group are allocated to each baseband board based on cells; one board can be configured to
multiple DL resource groups. DL CE resources for UEs in the same cell can be provided by any baseband
board in the DL resource group. CE resources in one DL resource group can be shared only within a
baseband board.
NodeB CE Capacity Specifications
Typically different baseband boards of a NodeB have their own CE capacity specifications. For exampled,
the detailed CE capacity specifications supported by each type of baseband board, see the BBU3900
Hardware Description product by Huawei
CE capacity here refers to the number of CEs that can be consumed by UL and DL R99 services and
HSUPA services. It does not include CE resources reserved by the NodeB for common and HSDPA
channels.
Rules for Calculating CE Consumption

The RNC determines the number of CEs required for a service based on the SF that matches the service
rate. When an RAB connection is set up or released for a service, CE resources must be allocated or taken
back and the number of CEs must be deducted or added accordingly. Different rules for calculating CE
resource consumption apply to channels or services of different types.
CE resources reserved by the NodeB for common and HSDPA channels are shown in gray.
CE resources that need to be consumed by R99 and HSUPA services are shown in pink.
Common Channels CE Consumption

CE resources required on the UL and DL common channels are reserved by the NodeB. Therefore, they do
not occupy the licensed CE capacity. These CEs do not need to be considered in the calculation of CE
consumption.
HSDPA Channels CE Consumption
Similarly, the NodeB reserves CE resources for the high-speed downlink shared channel (HS-DSCH) and
the related control channels if HSDPA is used. These CEs also do not need to be considered in the
calculation of CE consumption.
Note that the signaling of an HSDPA UE that is not performing an R99 service occupies one DCH and
needs to consume one DL CE. If the SRB over HSDPA function is enabled, the signaling of an HSDPA
service does not consume additional CE resources. For an HSDPA UE that is performing an R99 service, its
signaling and the R99 service occupy the same DCH. Therefore, only the CEs consumed on R99 traffic
channels need to be calculated.
R99 Service CE Consumption

For an R99 service, the RNC determines the number of CEs and NodeB credit resources that need to be
consumed based on the SF that matches the maximum bit rate (MBR) of the service.
Direction
UL
DL
Rate
(kbit/s)
SF
Number of CEs
Consumed
Corresponding Credits
Consumed
3.4
256
13.6
64
64
16
64
32
32
1.5
64
16
128
10
144
10
256
10
20
384
10
20
3.4
256
13.6
128
128
16
128
32
64
64
32
128
16
144
16
256
384
HSUPA Service CE Consumption

For an HSUPA service, the RNC determines the number of CEs and NodeB credit resources that need to be
consumed based on the SF that matches the service rate. The RNC determines the SF based on a certain
rate in the following ways:
If the UL enhanced L2 function is disabled and the NodeB indicates in a private information element
(IE) that dynamic CE resource management has been enabled in the cell, the RNC calculates the SF based
on the larger of the bit rate of one RLC PDU and the guaranteed bit rate (GBR).
If the UL enhanced L2 function is disabled, the RLC PDU size is fixed. The bit rate of one RLC PDU is
determined by the RLC PDU size and transmission time interval (TTI).
If the UL enhanced L2 function is enabled and the NodeB indicates in a private IE that dynamic CE
resource management has been enabled in the cell, the RNC calculates the SF based on the larger of the
bit rate of the smallest RLC PDU and the GBR.
If the UL enhanced L2 function is enabled, the RLC PDU size is flexible. The bit rate of the smallest
RLC PDU is determined by the minimum RLC PDU size and the TTI. The minimum RLC PDU size can be
specified by the RlcPduMaxSizeForUlL2Enhance parameter.
If the NodeB reports that dynamic CE resource management has been disabled, the RNC calculates
the SF based on the MBR.
If the NodeB does not report whether dynamic CE resource management has been enabled, the RNC
calculates the SF based on the value of the HsupaCeConsumeSelection parameter and whether the UL
enhanced L2 function is enabled.
o
o
If HsupaCeConsumeSelection is set to MBR, the RNC calculates the SF based on the MBR.
If HsupaCeConsumeSelection is set to GBR:
If the UL enhanced L2 function is disabled, the RNC calculates the SF based on the larger of the bit
rate of one RLC PDU and the GBR.
If the UL enhanced L2 function is enabled, the RNC calculates the SF based on the larger of the bit
rate of the smallest RLC PDU and the GBR.
After determining the SF, the RNC searches the CE consumption mapping listed below
Direction
UL
Rate
(kbit/s)
SF
Number of CEs
Consumed
Corresponding
Credits Consumed
64
16
64
32
32
64
32
128
16
144
16
256
384
16
608
16
1450
2SF4
16
32
2048
2SF2
32
64
2890
2SF2
32
64
5760
2SF2+2SF4
48
96
CE Consumption of 4-Way Receive Diversity

The use of 4-way receive diversity does not affect DL CE consumption but doubles UL CE consumption.
The use of 4-way receive diversity can be configured by resource group. UL CE consumption of a resource
group doubles if the resource group is configured with 4-way receive diversity. CE consumption of an
common resource group remains unchanged.
examples of CE Consumption
UE A, which performs a UL 64 kbit/s and DL 384 kbit/s service on the DCH, consumes three UL CEs
and eight DL CEs.
UE B, which performs a UL 64 kbit/s and DL 1024 kbit/s service on the DCH and HS-DSCH
respectively, consumes three UL CEs and one DL CE if the DL signaling radio bearer (SRB) is carried on
the DCH.
UE C, which performs a UL 608 kbit/s and DL 1024 kbit/s service on the E-DCH and HS-DSCH
respectively and at the same time performs an AMR speech service, consumes nine UL CEs and one DL
CE.
First to create an idea for channel elements:
"A band Channel Element is the resource base required in the Node-B to Provide for one voice channel
capacity, the control plane, including the control plane signaling, compressed mode, the transmit diversity
and softer handover.
Factors affecting Capacity in WCDMA UL and DL, sorted by descending level of Importance as Follows:
- UL: No. CE support on each Node B, interference, Node B sensivity, ..
- DL: No. CE support on each Node B Iub interface capacity, power DL, OVSF, ...
Thus, CE can be viewed as a license for each NodeB capacity (not more).
Each service will need some different CE UL and DL, such as:
AMR 12.2 k: Uplink 1, downlink 1
CS / PS 64 K: 3 Uplink, downlink 2
PS 128/144k: Uplink 5, downlink 4
384 k PS: Uplink 10, downlink 8
AGAIN
Traffic Model
AMR12.2 (Erl) 0.035 0.035
CS64 (Erl) 0.000 0.000
PS64 (kbit) 144.00 96.00
PS128 (kbit) 0.00 192.00
PS384 (kbit) 0.00 288.00
HSPA (kbit) 576.00 2304.00
Total 720.00 2880.00
Assumptions
Subscriber per site (S111) is 586
SHO overhead 20%
Retransmission for PS 1%
Burst Ratio 40%
Traffic of voice
0.035*586*(1+20%) = 24.612 Erl
GoS=2% do =33 Erl
CE for voice peak traffic
33 * 1=33 CE
CE for UL R99 PS64k
((144*586)/(64*0.2*3600))*3*(1 20%)*(1 1%)*(1 40%) = 10CE
Same you can calculate for other RAB Services and HSUPA.
If you are wondering why UL CE is bigger than DL CE?
in UL, HSUPA uses a lot of CE, PS R99 uses CE, voice uses CE
in DL, HSDPA does not use CE, PS R99 uses CE, voice uses CE.
3G Erlang convert to DATA (Mbps)

Convert erl to data (Mbps)... you nee to do the follow:
For example you has 1472.8725 erl and you want to convert in Mbps
Mbps = (Erl * 64) / 1024
Mbps = (1472.8725 * 64)/1024 = 92 Mbps
Traffic (erl)*12.2 kbit/sec.*3600/8 = Kbyte
12.2 AMR bit rate
if video
eraling *64 k bit/sec *3600/8 = Kbyte
Channel Concepts in UMTS

[B]WCDMA is the main air interface standard for the 3G UMTS mobile network. The mobile station and
base station communicate by means of several physical channels that are transmitted on a given
frequency assignment.
The "Downlink" refers to a radio link for the transmission of signals from the base station to a UE (mobile
station) while the "Uplink" refers to a radio link for the transmission of signals from a UE (mobile station)
to the base station.
There are three types of channels in the WCDMA technologies:
1. Physical Channel
2. Transport Channel- Interface between MAC & Layer 1
3. Logical channel- Interface between MAC & RLC
The logical and transport channels define WHAT data are transported, while the physical channels define
HOW and with what physical characteristic the data are transport.
TRANSPORT CHANNELS
Transport channels are interface between MAC & Layer 1. It can be further subdivided into Common
Transport Channels; and dedicated transport channels.
Common transport channel types are as given below:
Random Access Channel (RACH): A contention based uplink channel used for transmission of relatively
small amounts of data, e.g. for initial access or non-real-time dedicated control or traffic data.
Common Packet Channel (CPCH): A contention based channel used for transmission of bursty data
traffic. This channel only exists in FDD mode and only in the uplink direction. The common packet channel
is shared by the UEs in a cell and therefore, it is a common resource. The CPCH is fast power controlled.
Forward Access Channel (FACH): Common downlink channel without closed-loop power control used for
transmission of relatively small amount of data.
Downlink Shared Channel (DSCH): A downlink channel shared by several UEs carrying dedicated control
or traffic data.
Uplink Shared Channel (USCH): An uplink channel shared by several UEs carrying dedicated control or
traffic data, used in TDD mode only.
Broadcast Channel (BCH): A downlink channel used for broadcast of system information into an entire
cell.
Paging Channel (PCH): A downlink channel used for broadcast of control information into an entire cell
allowing efficient UE sleep mode procedures. Currently identified information types are paging and
notification. Another use could be UTRAN notification of change of BCCH information.
High Speed Downlink Shared Channel (HS-DSCH): A downlink channel shared between UEs by allocation
of individual codes, from a common pool of codes assigned for the channel.
Dedicated transport channel types are:
Dedicated Channel (DCH): A channel dedicated to one UE used in uplink or downlink.
LOGICAL CHANNELS
A general classification of logical channels is into two groups; Control Channels (for the transfer of control
plane information) and Traffic Channels (for the transfer of user plane information).
1) Control Channels:
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): A downlink channel for broadcasting system control information.
Paging Control Channel (PCCH): A downlink channel that transfers paging information. This channel is
used when the network does not know the location cell of the UE, or, the UE is in the cell connected state
(utilising UE sleep mode procedures).
Common Control Channel (CCCH): Bi-directional channel for transmitting control information between
network and UEs. This channel is commonly used by the UEs having no RRC connection with the network
and by the UEs using common transport channels when accessing a new cell after cell reselection.
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): A point-to-point bi-directional channel that transmits dedicated
control information between a UE and the network. This channel is established through RRC connection
setup procedure.
Shared Channel Control Channel (SHCCH): Bi-directional channel that transmits control information for
uplink and downlink shared channels between network and UEs. This channel is for TDD only.
2) Traffic Channels:
Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH): A Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) is a point-to-point channel,
dedicated to one UE, for the transfer of user information. A DTCH can exist in both uplink and downlink.
Common Traffic Channel (CTCH): A point-to-multipoint unidirectional channel for transfer of dedicated
user information for all or a group of specified UEs.
UTRA Channels
UTRA FDD radio interface has logical channels, which are mapped to transport channels, which are again
mapped to physical channels. Logical to Transport channel conversion happens in Medium Access Control
(MAC) layer, which is a lower sublayer in Data Link Layer (Layer 2).
Logical Channels:
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH), Downlink (DL)
Paging Control Channel (PCCH), DL
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH), UL/DL
Common Control Channel (CCCH), UL/DL
Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH), UL/DL
Common Traffic Channel (CTCH), Unidirectional (one to many)
Transport Channels:
Dedicated Transport Channel (DCH), UL/DL, mapped to DCCH and DTCH
Broadcast Channel (BCH), DL, mapped to BCCH
Forward Access Channel (FACH), DL, mapped to BCCH, CCCH, CTCH, DCCH and DTCH
Paging Channel (PCH), DL, mapped to PCCH
Random Access Channel (RACH), UL, mapped to CCCH, DCCH and DTCH
Uplink Common Packet Channel (CPCH), UL, mapped to DCCH and DTCH
Downlink Shared Channel (DSCH), DL, mapped to DCCH and DTCH
Physical Channels:
Primary Common Control Physical Channel (PCCPCH), mapped to BCH
Secondary Common Control Physical Channel (SCCPCH), mapped to FACH, PCH
Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH), mapped to RACH
Dedicated Physical Data Channel (DPDCH), mapped to DCH
Dedicated Physical Control Channel (DPCCH), mapped to DCH
Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH), mapped to DSCH
Physical Common Packet Channel (PCPCH), mapped to CPCH
Synchronization Channel (SCH)
Common Pilot Channel (CPICH)
Acquisition Indicator Channel (AICH)
Paging Indication Channel (PICH)
CPCH Status Indication Channel (CSICH)
Collision Detection/Channel Assignment Indication Channel (CD/CA-ICH)
3G RRC Reporting Events

RRC Reporting events or Handover events are sent from RBS or UE to trigger the different handover
procedures in the RNC. The generation of handover events depends on the different RF parameters and
thresholds.
Event 1A: A Primary CPICH enters the reporting range; addition of a radio link.
Event 1B: A primary CPICH leaves the reporting range; removal of a radio link.
Event 1C: A non-active primary CPICH becomes better than an active primary CPICH; replacement of the
worst cell in AS.
event 1D: Change of best cell
event 1E: A Primary CPICH becomes better than an absolute threshold
event 1F: A Primary CPICH becomes worse than an absolute threshold
event 1G: Change of best cell (TDD)
event 1H: Timeslot ISCP below a certain threshold (TDD)
event 1I: Timeslot ISCP above a certain threshold (TDD)
Event 2a: Change of best frequency
Event 2b: The estimated quality of the currently used frequency is below a certain threshold and the
estimated quality of a non-used frequency is above a certain threshold; handover to inter-freq neighbors
Event 2c: The estimated quality of a non-used frequency is above a certain threshold
Event 2d: The estimated quality of the currently used frequency is below a certain threshold; start
compressed mode to measure inter-freq WCDMA or GSM neighbors.
Event 2e: The estimated quality of a non-used frequency is below a certain threshold
Event 2f: The estimated quality of the currently used frequency is above a certain threshold; stop
compressed mode & stop measure inter-freq WCDMA or GSM neighbors
Event 3a: The estimated quality of the currently used UTRAN frequency is below a certain threshold and
the estimated quality of the other system is above a certain threshold; handover to GSM neighbors
Event 3b: The estimated quality of other system is below a certain threshold
Event 3c: The estimated quality of other system is above a certain threshold
Event 3d: Change of best cell in other system
event 4 A: Transport Channel Traffic Volume becomes larger than an absolute threshold
event 4 B: Transport Channel Traffic Volume becomes smaller than an absolute threshold
event 5A: A predefined number of bad CRCs is exceeded
event 6A: The UE Tx power becomes larger than an absolute threshold; start compressed mode
event 6B: The UE Tx power becomes less than an absolute threshold; stop compressed mode
event 6C: The UE Tx power reaches its minimum value
event 6D: The UE Tx power reaches its maximum value
event 6E: The UE RSSI reaches the UE's dynamic receiver range
event 6F: The UE Rx-Tx time difference for a RL included in the active set becomes larger than an absolute
threshold
event 6G: The UE Rx-Tx time difference for a RL included in the active set becomes less than an absolute
threshold
Event 7a: The UE position changes more than an absolute threshold
Event 7b: SFN-SFN measurement changes more than an absolute threshold
Event 7c: GPS time and SFN time have drifted apart more than an absolute threshold
IuB Utilization for over IP interface in Huawei

IuB Bandwidth Utilizing Ratio (UL/DL) = 100 %*(IuB Real UL/DL Traffic)/(IuB UL/DL Configured
Bandwidth)
For Huawei vendor, the NodeB measures the used UL/DL bandwidth on the physical port every 5s for 15m
and then caculates the averaging value.
So the IuB BW Utilizing Ratio (UL/DL) for Node equal:
UL:
[(VS.IPUlAvgUsed.1+VS.IPUlAvgUsed.2+VS.IPUlAvgUsed.3+VS.IPUlAvgUsed.4)/(VS.IPUlTotal.1+
VS.IPUlTotal.2+VS.IPUlTotal.3+VS.IPUlTotal.4)] x 100%
DL:
[(VS.IPDLAvgUsed.1+VS.IPDLAvgUsed.2+VS.IPDLAvgUsed.3+VS.IPDLAvgUsed.4)/(VS.IPDLTotal.1+
VS.IPDLTotal.2+VS.IPDLTotal.3+VS.IPDLTotal.4)] x 100%
Soft-and-Softer-Handover-in-WCDMA
Slide 2:
1. Soft Handover Concepts Definition
2. Macro diversity
3. Advantages
4. Disadvantages
5. Soft Handover Events
6. Soft Handover Event Triggering and related parameters
7. Soft Handover Factor (Ratio)
Slide 3:
Definition 1: Soft handover refers to the process that allows a Mobile connection to be served
simultaneously by several cells, adding and dropping them as needed. This feature is possible in WCDMA
because all cells use the same frequency and are separated only by codes. Definition 2: Soft handover
means that the radio links are added and removed in a way that the UE always keeps at least one radio
link to the UTRAN. Soft handover is performed by means of macro diversity, which refers to the condition
that several radio links are active at the same time.
Slide 5:
Macro-diversity: Q: What is the difference between SHO and macro-diversity? A:Note the difference in
these concepts: a SHO is a procedure. Once it is performed, the result is a macro-diversity situation.
Signals are transmitted over the air interface on the same frequency, from several base stations separated
by considerable distances. This scheme is called the soft handover (SHO). In a SHO all the participating
base stations use the same frequency, and the result is a macro-diversity situation. In macro-diversity the
mobiles transmission is received by at least two base stations, and similarly the downlink signal is sent by
at least two base stations.
Slide 6:
Macro-diversity in the DL: In the downlink the UE can receive, at most, as many macro- diversity
components as it has fingers in its RAKE receiver. Thus the more RAKE fingers the UE has, the better
performance it has, providing that all fingers find a separate diversity component. However, from the
system point of view this case is not so clear. Each new transmission may also increase the system
interference. If too many base stations are used in an SHO, the system interference level increases
instead of decreasing and preserving the usefulness of an SHO.
Macro-diversity in UL: In the uplink the effects of macro-diversity are only positive, as the more base
stations that can receive the signal from a UE, the better the probability that some of them will receive it
successfully. This does not generate more transmissions or interference. Indeed, the opposite is true, as
the UE transmission power level can probably be lower if macro-diversity is used.
Slide 7:
Huaweis implementation of Macro-diversity in RNC: MDC Module in DSP( DPUb ) MDC: Macro Diversity
Combining (MDC) processes the uplink combining and downlink distribution of the macro diversity for a UE
during soft handover, thus improving the transmission quality.
Slide 8:
Best Time of gain during Soft Handover: The gain from macro- diversity is highest when the path losses of
the SHO branches are about equal. If one of the participating base stations is clearly stronger than the
others, then macro-diversity cannot provide Much gain.
Slide 9:
Soft Handover Combining Gain: Effective Signal to Interference Increases when UE is in soft Handover. If
the SIR increases means the transmit power can be decreased. If Transmit power can be decreased means
less interference
Description: On the DL, the UE can combine the different received signals to increase the reliability of
demodulation. By combining the signals from different links, the effective SIR increases, which reduces
the transmit power even when compared to the power required over the best link only. This is termed soft
combining gain.
Slide 10:
On the UL, if macro-diversity gain is observed, the same is not always true for the soft combining gain. If
the cells in soft handover do not belong to the same Node B, it is not possible to combine the signals
before they are demodulated. Instead, all the demodulated frames are sent to the RNC, which decides
which one to use. This process still provides a gain compared to a single link, since it increases the
probability of having at least one link without error. This is the selection gain, also a macro-diversity gain.
Slide 11:
Soft handover advantages: It increases the reliability of transmission Reduces the transmit power
requirement for each link used. UE at the boundary among several cells uses the minimum transmit power
on either link
Soft handover drawbacks: Since information must be sent over multiple links, that repetition decreases
the efficiency of resource utilization. More transmitted signals may mean more energy in the air, which
means more interference to the radio environment in the downlink direction. The control procedure in the
UTRAN has to be very clever indeed to meet the conflicting demands of mobility and low interference
levels. SHO branches should be added to a connection only when the estimated resulting total interference
level is less than it would be without the SHO.
Slide 12:
Gain in Downlink transmission power due to Soft Handover
Positive value = gain, Negative value = loss Gain in TX Power Relative path Loss between two Node B cells
For large signal value difference we can see that transmission power even is raised, because of signaling
errors on downlink (power control commands). Best results are achieved when signal levels from two
Node Bs has equal values Gain= 2.5 dB When the signals of two cells are more than 4.5 dB apart, it starts
to have negative impact.
Slide 13:
Gain in uplink transmission power due to Soft Handover Positive value = gain, Negative value = loss Gain
in TX Power Relative path Loss between two Node B cells Best results are achieved when signal levels from
two Node Bs has equal values When the signal of two cells are more than 5 dB apart, it starts to have
negative impact. For large signal value difference we can see that transmission power even is raised,
because of signaling errors on downlink (power control commands).
Slide 14:
Typical handover parameters Window to add Window to drop 13 dB 25 dB
Slide 15:
Effect of No Soft Handover Without SHO, a communicating base station would have to transmit at a
higher power level to reach the UE, which would probably increase the overall system interference level.
Additionally, if a UE is in SHO, the connection is not lost altogether if one branch gets shadowed.
Slide 16:
Soft Handover Zone (Overlap Zone): A SHO is typically employed in cell boundary areas where cells have
overlap. It has many desirable properties. In the cell edges, a UE can collect more signal energy if it is in
SHO than if it has only a single link to a base station.
Slide 17:
Softer handover softer handover is a special case of soft handover where the radio links that are added
and removed belong to the same Node B (i.e. the site of co-located base stations from which several
sector-cells are served. A softer HO is a HO between two sectors of a Node B. From a UEs point of view, it
is just another SHO. The difference is only meaningful to the network, as a softer HO is an internal
procedure for a Node B (a UTRAN base station has the curious name Node B), which saves the
transmission capacity between Node Bs and the RNC (a UTRAN base station controller). The uplink softer
HO branches can be combined within the Node B, which is a faster procedure, and uses less of the fixed
infrastructures transport resources than most other types of HOs in WCDMA systems
Slide 18:
Soft Handover in HSDPA
1. Only on the control channel(R99) and not on the dedicated channel
2. The HS-DSCH does not support soft handovers
Slide 19:
Soft Handover Combining Methods:
During soft handover, a mobile simultaneously communicates with two (2-way SHO) or more cells
belonging to different Node Bs of the same RNC (intra-RNC) or different RNCs (inter-RNC). Two active
power control loops participate in soft handover, one for each BS. In the softer handover situation, a
mobile is controlled by at least two sectors under one BS, the RNC is not involved and there is only one
active power control loop. In UL, the combining is done in Node B itself and not the RNC.
Slide 20:
Combining method in DL:
In the downlink (DL), the mobile receives both signals for maximal ratio combining. Maximum ratio
combining is assumed to be applied in the mobile terminal. Therefore, to a user inside the soft handover
zone, the received Eb /I0 are the sum of the Eb /I0 from all the BSs in the active set. In the downlink, we
model macro diversity to sum together the signal received from active BSs. Thus, we realize maximal ratio
combining by summing measured SIR values Combining method in the uplink The mobile code channel is
detected by both BSs (2-way SHO), and is routed to the RNC for selection combining.
In the uplink, selection combining among active BSs takes place to use the frame with the highest average
SIR for statistics collecting purposes, while the other frames get discarded.
Slide 22:
Intra-frequency reporting events for the FDD mode: 1A. A primary CPICH enters the reporting range. 1B.
A primary CPICH leaves the reporting range. 1C. A non-active primary CPICH becomes better than an
active primary CPICH. 1D. Change of best cell. Simplest way to define SHO Event: Any Modifications to
the active sets is referred as soft handover Event.
Slide 23:
Event 1A: Serving (Best Cell) [NBR + CIO (NBR)] <= 3 dB Where; Hystfor1A = 0
INTRARELTHDFOR1ACSNVP=6 ~ (3 dB) Means: If the difference between source and neighbour cell is less
than or equal to 3 dB for a set time [TRIGTIME1A=D320], then the neighbour will be added to the active
set. CIO Consideration: This parameter can be defined at cell level and per Neighbour relation. + ve value
of CIO will help trigger the Soft Handover event 1 A earlier than if we have the CIO=0. - ve value of CIO
will introduce delay in the Soft Handover event 1 A .
Slide 24:
3dB NBR cell B which is in monitored set is going to enter the reporting Range. The reporting range is 3
dB down below the best cell A in active set . Reporting Range Plot for 1A
Slide 25:
Event 1B: Serving (Best) [Serving (old) + CIO (old)]>= 6 dB Where; Hystfor1B = 0
INTRARELTHDFOR1BCSNVP=12 ~ (6dB) Means: If the difference between best cell and 2 nd or 3 rd best
cell in active set is greater than or equal to 6 dB for a set time [TRIGTIME1B=D640], then the 2 nd or 3 rd
best cell will be removed from the active set. CIO Consideration: This parameter can be defined at cell
level and per Neighbour relation. - ve value of CIO will help trigger the Soft Handover event 1 B earlier
than if we have the CIO=0. + ve value of CIO will introduce delay in the Soft Handover event 1 A .
Slide 26:
6dB Reporting Range Plot for 1B NBR cell B which is in Active set is going to leave the reporting Range.
The reporting range is 6 dB down below the best cell A in active set.
Slide 27:
Event 1C: Event 1c combines the functionality of Event 1a and 1b by replacing an Active Set cell. The
triggering condition occurs if: NBR + CIO (NBR) Worst Server (In AS) + CIO (Worst Server in AS)
+H1c/2 NBR Worst Server(In AS) 2 dB [Considering the CIO values to be 0] Means: If the New cell in
the monitored Set is stronger than Worst Cell in the Active Set by 2 dB for a time period of 640 msec
[TRIGTIME1C=D640], Event 1C will be triggered. Where: NBR: is the measurement value of the cell in the
reporting range. CIO (NBR): is Cell offset of the cell in the reporting range. Worst Server (In AS): is the
measurement value of the worst cell in the active set. CIO (Worst Server in AS) is Cell offset of the worst
cell in the active set. H1c is the hysteresis parameter for Event 1c = 8 ~ 4 dB
Slide 28:
A: Best Cell in the Active Set B: 2 nd Best Cell in the Active Set C: Worst Cell in the Active Set D: NBR Cell
in the monitored set 2dB D: NBR Cell in MS is 2dB stronger than the worst cell in the Active Set. E:
Hysteresis line 2dB above the worst cell.
Slide 29:
Event 1D: M(Not best)+ CIO(Not Best) M(Best) + CIO(Best) +H1d/2 Where: M NotBest is the
measurement value of a cell that is not on the list of the best cells. CIO NotBest is the cell offset of a cell
that is not on the list of the best cells. The offset is not used. M Best is the measurement value of the best
cell in the active set. CIO NotBest is the cell offset of the best cell. The offset is not used. H 1d is 1D
hysteresis, the hysteresis value of event 1D. Means: If the New cell either in Active Set OR Monitored
Set is stronger than Best Cell in the Active Set by 2 dB for a time period of 640 msec
[TRIGTIME1D=D640], Event 1D will be triggered. H1d = Hystfor 1d = 8 ~ 4dB
Slide 30:
2dB A: Best Cell in the Active Set C: Hysteresis line 2dB above the best cell. B : A new cell either in Active
Set OR Monitored Set is approching to the best cell in the Active Set.
Slide 31:
Summary o f Parameter Settings:
Slide 32:
General Discussions: Q: What is the function of CIO? A: The sum of this parameter value and the actual
measured value is used in UE event evaluation. In handover algorithms, this parameter is used for moving
the border of a cell. It is configured according to the actual environment. Q: What is difference between
Event 1C and 1D? A: In event 1C, the monitored set cell is compared with Worst Cell in Active Set
whereas in 1D, the Monitored set cell OR Active Set Cell is compared with Best Cell in the Active Set.
Q: Which all events from 1A, 1B, 1C & 1D are parts of soft handover? A: All. Q: Consider our Active Set
size is 3. Is it possible if there are only two cells in the Active Set, and event 1C can be triggered? A: No.
Slide 33:
Q: Why the Measurement Report is not sent in UL likewise in GSM and A: In WCDMA, the OTA (Over the
air transmission) is designed to be kept minimum and thus keeping the interference level minimum. Q:
Who calculates the Intra-frequency Events (UE, Node B or RNC)? A: Events are calculated in UE based on
Thresholds, Hysteresis and CIO sent in MC. Q: What is the signaling procedure during the soft Handover?
A: UE RNC Event 1x Active Set Update Active Set update complete Failing to reach to the UE will lead to
call drop Reason for Fail: DL interference failing to reach to the RNC will lead to call drop Reason for
Failure: UL Interference
Slide 34:
Q: What is the difference between SHO and Multipath? A: An important difference between a multipath
component and a SHO branch is that each SHO branch is coded with a different spreading code, whereas
multipath components are just time-delayed versions of the same signal. Q: Why the threshold for event
1B should be more than event 1A? A: This prevents the premature removal of base stations from the
active set. The value of the drop threshold 1B is 6dB and for 1A is 3dB in our case.
Slide 35:
Soft Handover Ratio - RNC: It tells the consumption of extra network resources due to soft handover in
one RNC Means: It is nothing but a simple ratio of No. of Radio Links used over the No. of UEs in an RNC.
Formula:
Soft Handover Ratio (RNC) = [(A1+B1*2+C1*3 +D1*4+F1*5+F1*6)/ (A1+B1+C1 +D1+E1+F1) - 1]*
100%
A1: Number of UEs with 1 RL;
B1: Number of UEs with 2 RLs;
C1: Number of UEs with 3 RLs;
D1: Number of UEs with 4 RLs;
E1: Number of UEs with 5 RLs;
F1: Number of UEs with 6 RLs.
Soft Handover Ratio(RNC)={[ VS.SHO.AS.1 +( VS.SHO.AS.2Softer + VS.SHO.AS.2Soft )*2+
( VS.SHO.AS.3Soft2Softer + VS.SHO.AS.3Soft + VS.SHO.AS.3Softer )*3+ VS.SHO.AS.4 *4+ VS.SHO.AS.5
*5+
VS.SHO.AS.6
*6]/(
VS.SHO.AS.1
+
VS.SHO.AS.2Softer
+
VS.SHO.AS.2Soft
+
VS.SHO.AS.3Soft2Softer + VS.SHO.AS.3Soft + VS.SHO.AS.3Softer + VS.SHO.AS.4 + VS.SHO.AS.5 +
VS.SHO.AS.6 )-1}*100%
Soft
Handover Overhead (Cell)=[(VS.SHO.AS.1RL+VS.SHO.AS.2RL+VS.SHO.AS.3RL+VS.SHO.AS.4RL+VS.SHO.
AS.5RL+VS.SHO.AS.6RL)/
(VS.SHO.AS.1RL+VS.SHO.AS.2RL/2+VS.SHO.AS.3RL/3+VS.SHO.AS.4RL/4+VS.SHO.AS.5RL/5+VS.SHO.A
S.6RL/6)-1]*100%
Slide 36:
The soft handover overhead versus the soft handover parameter Window add for a hexagonal cell grid
with three sector sites, and two different cell radius.
1. Soft handover overhead increases approximately linearly when Window-add and Window-drop are
increased.
2. For the same soft handover parameter settings, the soft handover overhead is typically larger for the
scenario with small cells, compared to large cells. This behavior is observed because UEs in the large cell
grid can only synchronize to a few Node Bs, while UEs in the small cell grid typically can synchronize to
many Node Bs.
EcNo, RSCP, RSSI, CPICH

RSSI: recieved signal strength indicator.
RSSI= RSCP-Ec/Io
EcNo: energy per chip over the noise, a measure of the quality of the signal
RSCP: Energy after processing ie with gain from coding etc
RSCP = RSSI + EcNo
RSSI: A dB measure of the signal arriving at the antenna before gain from processing
CPICH: Pilot Channel of the cell.
You have to measure two parameter on pilot ch (Ec/No & RSCP) to verify P-CPICH detection to minimise
coverage holes,
Ex: (RSCP > -100dBm (sufficient) & Ec/No > -14 (sufficient))
& by correlation between low Ec/No & high RSCP you can find the interference & pilot pollution.
CQI: Channel Quality Indicator

CQI stands for Channel Quality Indicator. As the name implies, it is an indicator carrying the information
on how good/bad the communication channel quality is. This CQI is for HSDPA. (LTE also has CQI for its
own purpose).
CQI is the information that UE sends to the network and practically it implies the following two
i) Current Communication Channel Quality is this-and-that..
ii) I (UE) wants to get the data with this-and-that transport block size, which in turn can be directly
converted into throughput
In HSDPA, the CQI value ranges from 0 ~ 30. 30 indicates the best channel quality and 0,1 indicates the
poorest channel quality. Depending which value UE reports, network transmit data with different transport
block size. If network gets high CQI value from UE, it transmit the data with larger transport block size
and vice versa.
What if network sends a large transport block even though UE reports low CQI, it is highly probable that
UE failed to decode it (cause CRC error on UE side) and UE send NACK to network and the network have
to retransmit it which in turn cause waste of radio resources.
What if UE report high CQI even when the real channel quality is poor ? In this case, network would send
a large transport block size according to the CQI value and it would become highly probable that UE failed
to decode it (cause CRC error on UE side) and UE send NACK to network and the network have to
retransmit it which in turn cause waste of radio resources.
How UE can measure CQI ? This is the most unclear topic to me. As far as I know, there is no explicit
description in any standard on the mechanism by which the CQI is calculated, but it is pretty obvious that
the following factors play important roles to CQI measurement.
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
signal-to-interference plus noise ratio (SINR)
signal-to-noise plus distortion ratio (SNDR)

It is unclear how these factors are used and whether there is any other factors being involved. I was told
the detailed CQI measurement algorithm is up UE implementation (chipset implementation).
In LTE, there are 15 different CQI values randing from 1 to 15 and mapping between CQI and modulcation
scheme, transport block size is defined as follows (36.213)
If you are an engineer in Network (eNodeB) programming, you need to know the number of resource
blocks and MCS for each CQI value to properly allocate the resources for each of UEs. With the modulation
scheme in the table, you would get a certain range of MCS you can use for each CQI index. But you
cannot pinpoint a specific MCS and Number of RBs. You need another condition to get the proper MCS and
N RBs and it is 'Code Rate' shown in the table. But still there is not a single formula that would give you a
single/determined value for MCS and NRB. You have to come up with a set of MCS and N RB that meet the
modulation scheme and Code Rate requirement in the table. One example case can be as follows.
CQI
Modulation
Bits/Symbol
REs/PRB
N_RB
MCS
TBS
Code Rate
QPSK
138
20
536
0.101449
QPSK
138
20
536
0.101449
QPSK
138
20
872
0.162319
QPSK
138
20
1736
0.318841
QPSK
138
20
2417
0.442210
QPSK
138
20
3112
0.568116
16QAM
138
20
12
4008
0.365217
16QAM
138
20
14
5160
0.469565
16QAM
138
20
16
6200
0.563768
10
64QAM
138
20
20
7992
0.484058
11
64QAM
138
20
23
9912
0.600000
12
64QAM
138
20
25
11448
0.692754
13
64QAM
138
20
27
12576
0.760870
14
64QAM
138
20
28
14688
0.888406
15
64QAM
138
20
28
14688
0.888406
Note 1 : Refer to Throughtput Calculation Example for determining N_RB, MCS, TBS determination.
Note 2 : REs/PRB varies depending on CFI value as follows.
CFI
REs/PRB
150
138
126
Note 3: I used the following formula explained in Code Rate section.

v_CodingRate:= (int2float (p_TBSize + 24)) / (int2float (p_N_PRB
v_BitsPerSymbol));
tsc_REs_Per_PRB
CQI is carried by PUCCH or PUSCH depending on the situation as follows.

Carried by PUCCH : When there is no uplink data to be transmitted
Carried by PUSCH : When there is uplink data to be transmitted.
Since you have CQI values less than or equal to 15, you cannot reach modulation 16QAM, but only
QPSK. It means that the user throughput will be affected. Usually we evaluate the percentage of CQI
samples greather than 15 (Good), and less than 16 (bad). CQI values are part of stand for HSDPA
umts. This is the way the quality of signal is measured instead of Ec/No or Ec/Io due these values dont
reflect a valid values of real interference a Ue session may have on air.
CQI values are mapped into TBS (transport block size) and also they to a number of
HS-PDSCH channels and the modulation type used for so.
For instance for a CQI value of 27 which is pretty acceptable for a Data session, you have a matching
value of TBS=21754 bits more or less with a 16QAM. There is also a straight relation with CQI and BLER
formula.
BLER= 10^ [(SIR-1.03CQI+5.26)/3-Log(CQI) + 1 ] ^-1/0.7
Also, it's well known that for HSDPA there is not fast power control & OSVF, instead
, it's used AMR, fast packet scheduling, fast retransmissions.
In live network for HSDPA, Network sends data with different transport block size
depending on CQI value reported by UE. For this mechanism to work properly, there
should be a certain level of agreement between UE and the network about "which
CQI value means which transport block size". These agreement is defined in the
following tables of TS 25.214.
Table 7A: CQI mapping table A.
Table 7B: CQI mapping table B.
Table 7C: CQI mapping table C.
Table 7D: CQI mapping table D.
Table 7E: CQI mapping table E.
Table 7F: CQI mapping table F.
Table 7G: CQI mapping table G
Then next question is which table do I have to use for which case ? The answer is in
the following table from 24.214. As you see, we use different table depending on UE
Category, Modulation Scheme, MIMO. For example, if a UE is Category 14 device and
uses 64 QAM and does not use MIMO, it use Table G for CQI-Transport Block Size
Mapping as shown below.
I put Table 7G as an example. As you see in the table, the range of CQI value is
0~30. 30 means the best channel quality and lower number indicates poorer channel
quality. And Network has to send the data with the proper transport block size
according to the CQI values.
For example,
i) If UE report CQI value 15, it is expected for Network to send data with transport
block size of 3328 bits/TTI which is equivalent to around 1.6 Mbps.
ii) If UE report CQI value 30, it is expected for Network to send data with transport
block size of 38576 bits/TTI which is equivalent to around 19 Mbps.
One thing you would notice that the transport block size for the highest CQI value is
not amount to the ideal MAX throughput defined in 25.306 Table 5.1a. It implies that
you wouldn't get the ideal Max throughput in any case with live network condition
which may operate according to the CQI table defined in 3GPP. (It would not be any
problem in real communication environment since your device would not report CQI
30 in most case).
However, many UE manufacturer/developer wants to see if their device can really
reach the ideal max throughput. In that case, we normally use a special network
simulator which allows us to set the largest transport block size for each UE category.
It would be even better if the network simulator allows us to define CQI-transport
block mapping table arbitrarily. Fortunately I have access to this kind of the
equipment and I did an experiment as shown below using the network simulator and
a HSDPA Category 10 UE.
First I defined a CQI-transport block size table very similar to Table 7D, but I
changed the tranport block size for high end CQI (30, 29, 28, 27) to allocate larger
tranport block than the ones specified in Table 7D to push the ideal MAX throughput.
I programmed Network Simulator so that I decrease the downlink power by a certain

steps. As downlink power (Cell Power) gets down, UE would report lower CQI and
Network Simulator would transmit lower transport block size.
The result is as follows.
In the upper plot, you see three traces - Green, Red, Blue. Green trace means the
everage CQI value within 500ms that UE reported. Red trace indicates the the
amount of data in Kbps that the network emulator transmitted to UE within a second.
Blue trace indicates the amount of data in Kbps that UE successfully decoded. If the
Red trace and Blue traces overlaps, it implies that UE successfully decoded all the
data transmitted by the network. If the Blue trace is lower than the Red Trace, UE
failed to decode some of the data transmitted by the network. The black line shown
in section A, B, C is the data rate defined in Table 7D, but I intentionally allocated the
higher data rate for section A,B,C to push the data rate closer to the ideal Max
throughput.
In the lower plot, you see three traces - Green, Red, Blue. Green trace means the
everage CQI value within 500ms that UE reported. Red trace indicates the amount of
ACKs within 500 ms and Blue trace indicates the amount of NACKs within 500 ms.
There are a couple of things you may notice (The notes here may be different from
what you observed from your device and test setting)
i) Section A is the only region in which UE shows 100% data decoding without any
failure. It means that you have to make it sure that your test equipment
configuration, cable connection between the test equipment and UE is configured
properly so that the channel quality belongs to this area. (I would say "CQI should be
much higher than 30". I know 30 is the max CQI value. What I mean is that the
channel quality should be much better than the quality in which UE barely reports
CQI 30).
ii) In Section B, you see huge drops in terms of throughput and huge increase in
terms of number of NACKs. Main reason would be that I allocated too large transport
block size for CQI 29, 28. There would also be some UE issues with this range.
Section C,D,E shows a kind of normal trends, but ideally we should expect exact
overlapping of rad trace and blue trace, but reality never goes like ideal -:)
Solution for power congestion

Summary
Power congestion will cause low CSSR of both CS and PS service.
We can check counters as below to find power congestion:
VS.RRC.Rej.Power.Cong+VS.RAB.FailEstPs.Power.Cong+VS.RAB.FailEstCs.Power.Cong
To check whether UL or DL congestion, we have many methods:
Method1
Check the Downlink power congestion counters as below.
VS.RAC.R99.Power.Cong
VS.RAC.HSDPA.Power.Cong
VS.RAC.Total.Power.Cong
Method2
Check the MeanTCP and MeanRTWP:
1. Check the Max Tx power of the congested cell
Add cellsetup:cellid=1111, maxtxpower=430
2.
Check counter VS.MeanTCP and VS.MeanTCP.NonHS and calculate the utility ratio to check
3.
whether the utility ratio is very high.

Monitor the RTWP to check whether RTWP is very high.
By this check then we can know the uplink and downlink power status.
Method3
Open both uplink and downlink LDR then through the counters as below to check.
VS.LCC.LDR.Time.ULPower
VS.LCC.LDR.Time.DLPower
VS.LCC.LDR.Num.ULPower
VS.LCC.LDR.Num.DLPower
Currently for uplink we use Equivalent Number of User to do CAC; for downlink we use
TCP to do CAC. According to our CAC strategy, first make sure some basic parameters
should be configured as follows:
ADD
CELLALGOSWITCH:
CellId=0,
NBMUlCacAlgoSelSwitch=ALGORITHM_SECOND,
NBMDlCacAlgoSelSwitch=ALGORITHM_FIRST;
ADD CELLCAC: CellId=0, UlTotalEqUserNum=150;
Solution
If the configuration is correct and power congestion still happen, we recommend
solutions as follows:
Uplink power congestion:
If RTWP is always very high (more than -90dBm), most probability it was caused
by uplink interference. Then first check whether interference problem, if uplink
interference problem, then solving interference is the recommended method.
If not interference problem. We can:
1. For single carrier cells or F1 cells, use LDR algorithm:

Switch on the LDR switch:
MOD CELLALGOSWITCH: CellId=0, NBMLdcAlgoSwitch=UL_UU_LDR-1;
Setting LDR action:

MOD
CELLLDR:
CellId=0,
GoldUserLoadControlSwitch=ON;
UlLdrFirstAction=BERateRed,
UlLdrBERateReductionRabNum=1;
Downlink power congestion:

If TCP ratio is very high, it means downlink power congestion. Then we can:
2. For single carrier cells, we can use downlink LDR:
MOD CELLALGOSWITCH: CellId=0, NBMLdcAlgoSwitch=DL_UU_LDR-1;
MOD CELLLDR: CellId=0, DlLdrFirstAction=BERateRed, DlLdrBERateReductionRabNum=1;

GoldUserLoadControlSwitch=ON;
3. For F1 cell, Setting LDR as follows:
MOD CELLALGOSWITCH: CellId=0, NBMLdcAlgoSwitch=DL_UU_LDR-1;

MOD CELLLDR: CellId=0, DlLdrFirstAction=BERateRed, DlLdrSecondAction=InterFreqLDHO,
DlLdrBERateReductionRabNum=1, GoldUserLoadControlSwitch=ON;
Then we can monitor the counters as follows to check the effect of LDR action:
VS.LCC.LDR.InterFreq
VS.LCC.LDR.BERateDL
VS.LCC.LDR.BERateUL
For downlink power congestion, if LDR cant solve the problem, we can reconfigure the
related congestion threshold:
1. Start DL LDR algorithm earlier
MOD CELLLDM: DlLdrTrigThd=55, DlLdrRelThd=45;
2. Raise the power congestion threshold

MOD CELLCAC: CellId=0, DlConvAMRThd=85,
DlOtherThd=83, DlHOThd=87, DlCellTotalThd=93;
DlConvNonAMRThd=85,
DSP BBPTC Command: To query physically installed WBBP boards on

NodeB. Depending on the model of the board, the supported UL and DL CE
resources changes.
DSP LICENSE: To display the current software license used on NodeB. Note
that, the supported CEs for UL and DL are limited with the license
1. Many times some engineers are looking for formula to calculate

UARFCN.
The UARFCN (UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number) is
the channel number representing the full 5 MHz UMTS carrier. Only
3.84MHz is used for transmission, while the 116 kHz acts as a built-in
guard-band to adjacent UARFCN's (580kHz + 3840kHz + 580kHz =
5MHz). If an operator owns the adjacent frequency bands, it is
possible to reduce the size of the UMTS carrier from 5MHz to 4.4 or
4.2 MHZ, but this is not recommended.
The UARFCN channel number is calculated according to it's
frequency. If no offset is used, the frequency is simply multiplied by 5
to get the UARFCN (ex: 2132.8 MHZ * 5 = UARFCN 10664) If an
offset is used the offset must be first subtracted from the frequency.
RSCP RSSI EC/NO CQIPresentation Transcript
1. Why CQI?Some Questions answered

2. Why CQI
Several times weve asked ourselves these questions:
Q: Why do we get poor Ec/No when conducting HSDPA Drive Test?
Q: What is the calculations behind Ec/No going low when HSDPA session is
initiated?
Q: Why do we consider CQI as a Quality Metric when conducting HSDPA Drive
Test instead of Ec/No?
Take a look at the following slides
3. Why CQI
Note the CQI value is 27 (good) while EcNo is about to explode (-12db)
4. Lets start by establishing some basics:
Ec/No for most of you is a Quality & Capacity measuring Metric. It generally gives
us the idea how good or bad the link Quality is. However, by definition, its quite
confusing
CPICH Ec/No = Pilot channel quality energy per chip over total received power
spectral density
OR
RSCP = RSSI + Ec/No
EcNo = RSCP - RSSI
Lets go back to developing Basics
WHAT?!?!?
Ok..
5. RSCP: The Received Signal Code Power: That's the power level the pilot
channel of a cell is received with and usually expressed in dBm (mW on a
logarithmic scale). With this parameter, different cells using the same carrier can
be compared and handover or cell reselection decisions can be taken.
RSSI: In UMTS that's the signal power over the complete 5 MHz carrier which
includes all components received, including the signals from the current and
neighboring cells on the same frequency. In an isolated cell having only CPICH
power to transmit and with none of the other channels utilized, the effective RSSI
as seen by the UE would be (fraction of) PCPICH power. However, the RSSI
changes when the 5Mhz carrier will carry power for other dedicated or control
channels. In that case, the effective power perceived by the UE would be the
transmitted power of the serving cell + the power transmitted by neighbor cells
over the same carrier frequency.
EcNo: That's the received energy per chip (Ec) of the pilot channel divided by the
total noise power density (No). In other words the EcNo is the RSCP divided by
the RSSI. And again in other words: The better this value the better can a signal
of a cell be distinguished from the overall noise. The EcNo is usually expressed
in dB as it's a relative value. The value is negative as the RSCP is smaller than
the total received power. As the RSCP this value can be used to compare
different cells on the same carrier and handover or cell reselection decisions can
be taken.
Lets go back to developing Basics
6. It is believed that Ec/No is an expression of signal-to-noise ratio and is
therefore, an indicator of signal quality.
IT IS NOT (just that)!
The N0 consists of three things: interfering (non-orthogonal) power, thermal
noise, and, non-interfering (orthogonal) power.
In situations where N0 consists mainly of "in-cell" power (e.g., during HS-DSCH
bursts), Ec/N0 can be "low", whereas the objective signal quality is high. This will
be shown in the following slides
Misconceptions about Ec/No
7. Further, Ec is an expression of power in the CPICH, not in the downlink
DPxCH.
Though the dynamic range of downlink DPxCH power is often expressed relative
to the CPICH, downlink power control will do its best to ensure that downlink
SNR is whatever it needs to be to meet the transport channel quality target.
The point being: The traffic channel SNR has almost nothing to do with pilot
Ec/N0.
It is also to be noted that UE is only capable of receiving Pilot RSCP and RSSI
on the carrier. EcNo is calculated by the UE by the formula (RSCP-RSSI) and
sent in the UL.
Misconceptions about Ec/No
8. Dont be shy. I know were still Confused ..
Basics.
9. Then,
Ec/No for a UE is
The measure of PCPICH (code power) over Total Wideband Power on that
particular carrier
Measure of PCPICH = RSCP dBm (right?)
Measure of Total Wideband power = RSSI dBm
So our Ec/No will become Ec/No = RSCP / RSSI (cannot divide dBm values so
we have to apply logarithmic rules)
Ec/No = RSCP RSSI (db) (dBm dBm = value in dB)
For the sake of simplicity, just imagine that youre in a test-bed, being served by
a single cell
10. Hope youre able to make a picture of how Ec/No works.
If yes, proceed further to find what happens when an HSDPA session is initiated
If not, I suggest you discuss this concept first before proceeding.

Are you there yet?
11. Lets take a look at how the POWER of a CELL is distributed among different
channels
For simplicity, check the diagram below.
Notice that HSDPA uses the REMAINING power of the cell after power is
allocated to Common and Dedicated channels (check more detailed figure in the
next slide)
HSDPA
Cell Power Distribution
Dedicated channels (power controlled)
Total available cell power
Common channels (not power controlled)
12. Cell Power Distribution
The figures highlight the following points:
Common Channels have the highest priority for Power. Their power is fixed
DCH come second in priority Power control is applicable
All that remains after DCH utilization can be used up for HSDPA power
So if a cell is less loaded, a single UE HS session can utilize the whole HSDPA
power space which is lying unused.
13. Now imagine yourself conducting a test in Test Bed on a cell having ZERO
DCH or HS Traffic.
Assuming only 10% cell power is dedicated to CPICH (33dBm = 2watt)
Cell MAXTXPOWER is 20W or 43dBm
Ideally, if you have NO traffic on this cell, your UE will calculate the CPICH Ec/No
in the following manner
Ec/No = 10 log (CPICH power / Total Transmit power)
Ec/No = 10 log (2w/2w) = 10 log (1) = 0 dB (VERY high, but thats IDEAL!!!)
OR (in dBm)
Ec/No = RCSP RSSI
Ec/No = 33 (dBm) 33 (dBm) = 0 *
Ec/No Computation No Load
14. Ec/No Computation One HSDPA user
Now assume you start an HS session.Since there is no DCH traffic, all the
REMNANT power is given to HSDPA
Cell Transmit power is now 2W for CPICH and REMNANT power (18W) for
HSDPA so ideally, Cell is utilizing almost 100% power
So UE will measure the Ec/No in the following manner
Ec/No = 10 log (CPICH power / Total Transmit Power)
Ec/No = 10 log (2W / 20W)
Ec/No = 10 log (0.1) = -10dB (Very low again very IDEAL!)
OR (in dBm)
Ec/No = RCSP RSSI
Ec/No = 33 (dBm) 43 (dBm) = -10 dB
15. Why CQI
From above computations, we establish the following:
In Idle mode and with no resources allocated, a UE will measure as low as 0 dB
Ec/No
In HS Mode and with no resources allocated on DCH, a UE will measure as low
as -10dB. It cannot report ANY better than -10dB
Hence, that means, in a live network where resources of cell are shared between
many users, and Interference from other cells also plays its part, the Ec/No will
always give a FALSE value for an HSDPA user. And it will show a very poor value
What you should be asking yourself:
What happens when more users join in to share the REMNANT power?
Will Ec/No improve or degrade further with addition of DCH or HS user?
16. So, we establish that,
The CPICH Ec/No measurements collected during HSDPA Transmission could
mask the true radio conditions
To avoid this, we have to monitor the Ec/No in IDLE mode only, which is a true
reflection of Interference and coverage problems
HSDPA session adds to the overall load of the cell which is taken into
consideration during computing Ec/No. As calculations above proved that this
does not, necessarily, depict the TRUE radio Conditions.
So, what is the ALTERNATIVE to Ec/No in HS session?
Its called Channel Quality Indication
CQI
Why CQI
17. What is CQI
HSDPA utilizes link adaptation techniques to substitute power-control and
variable spreading factor
The HS-DSCH link-adaptation algorithm at the Node-B is very dynamic, and
adjusts the transmit bit rate on the HS-DSCH every 2-ms TTI.
The UE periodically sends a CQI to the serving HS-DSCH cell on the uplink highspeed dedicated physical control channel (HS-DPCCH)
The CQI tells the NodeB scheduler, the data rate the UE expects to be able to
receive at a given point in time.
NOTE: The HSDPA system defines a different CQI mapping table for different
categories of UEs. The category is determined according to the capability of UE
In addition to CQI, UE also sends HARQ on HS-DPCCH
18. Below figure shows the steps how CQI helps in determining the initial
throughput that a UE terminal demands from the system
STEPS
SINRis used to evaluate the channel quality as observed by the receiver, where a
standard single antenna Rake is used because it is the most common in the
SISO HSDPA terminals.
CQI value for a given SINR is done via a linear mapping, as shown in figure
Contd..
HSDPA CQI involvement
19. HSDPA CQI involvement
STEPS
The CQI values are used by the link adaptation algorithm at the Node-B. Every
CQI value reported corresponds to the Transport Block Size (TBS) that can be
granted on a particular Modulation type and Number of codes
Example of a UE category 10 CQI values from 0 to 30 are shown in the figure.
Other UE categories are shown in the following slide
The CQI is further defined as the TBS that can be supported with a BLER no
greater than 10% 20. STEPS
While CQI is sending UEs requirement to the system in UL, there is BLER
calculation going on and UL HARQ (Hybrid Auto Repeat Request) mechanism is

helping in maintaining the BLER to below 10%.
So the system (NodeB) is essentially calculating the Data Rate to be scheduled
to the user based on CQI reports and BLER which it receives from the UE
So DATA RATE (bps) = TBS (bits)/ TTI (sec) * (1-BLER)
HSDPA CQI involvement
21. HSDPA UE Categories 1-12
22. Thank you for reading

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What is Ec/Io (and Eb/No)?

Eb: Bit Energy.

No: Noise Spectral Density.

It represents the amount of energy per bit.

Which brings us to the classic definition of Eb/No:

Eb/No: Bit Energy on the Spectral Noise Density.

It did not help much, does it?

Okay, so how is Eb/No measured?

Eb/No -> Ec/Io

No: Spectral Density of Noise;

Eb/No Positive and Ec/Io Negative?

Why should we use Ec/Io?

Change in Ec/Io according to the Sector Traffic Load

Ec/Io = (2/10) = 0.2 = -7 dB

Change in Ec/Io according to the scenario RF

Ec/Io = (2/8) = 0.25 = -6 dB

Okay, and what are typical values?

A composite Ec/Io ~ - 10 db is a reasonable value to consider as good.

And the Signal to Noise Ratio for other technologies?

What to do in case of problems?

What is Retransmission, ARQ and HARQ?

Error Checking and Correction

Hybrid ARQ (HARQ)

Different HARQ Schemes

Or retransmit that same information again;

HARQ Chase Combination

HARQ Incremental Redundancy

HARQ Processes (Case Study)

Other types of HARQ

What is RRC and RAB?

And so, how this situation can be solved?

General Flowchart - RRC, RAB and Others

UTRAN: UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network

UE: User Equipment

MSC: for switched voice services

RRC: Radio Resource Control

RB: Radio Bearer

Note: RAB is the combination of RB and Iu bearer.

SRB: Signalling Radio Bearer (Control Plane)

AS Access Stratum is a group of specific protocols of access network

RRC and RAB in GSM?

RRC Connection and RAB example

The RRC has always 3 steps:

The UE requests a new connection in the Uplink (RRC CONNECTION REQUEST);

SISO, MISO, SIMO

In this case we have multiple entries, and only one output.

Symbols transmitted in Series

Short Symbol Period

Symbols transmitted in Parallel

The following sequence helps us understand this concept.

What is Rake Receiver?

Ok, if the analogy does not help much, let's go.

Notice how each Finger works:

The first with component g1 and time reference t;

Disadvantages and Limitations

Channel Element (CE) Resource

CE Sharing in a Resource Group

Rules for Calculating CE Consumption

Common Channels CE Consumption

R99 Service CE Consumption

HSUPA Service CE Consumption

CE Consumption of 4-Way Receive Diversity

3G Erlang convert to DATA (Mbps)

Channel Concepts in UMTS