Ethics and culture

CULTURAL Values
Verily like a massive tusker
Knows not its own might
The sons of Bharat are quite unaware of the greatness of their culture,
Tolerance and compassion its beauteous form,
Truth above all other rituals strict,
Mother's love and reverence, the very elixir eternal,
Character, true, greater than mere living of comfort,
Unmindful of ones own heritage,
The Bharatiya runs after fashions occidental,
Sad is the sight, sadder the plight.
The Glory of Bharat:
The world to-day is in the grip of a supreme moral crisis. People everywhere are feeling
frustrated and helpless and anxiously wondering what is in store for humanity. The hopes
raised by the advances of science and technology have proved dupes. While science has
overcome the barriers of time, distance and nationality, it has done little to promote better
understanding between man and man and nation and nation. Never has there been so
much distrust, hatred and violence as is witnessed to-day, in almost every country. Men
have forgotten their essential divine nature and have even failed to observe those basic
human qualities which raise them above the level of animals. In the ceaseless pursuit of
material acquisitions and sensuous pleasures, they have forgotten that the real source of
happiness and bliss is the discovery of the Aathma (the true self) that is in each of them.
Without the conquest of one's passions and desires and without realising the divinity that
is immanent in every living thing, man cannot achieve peace, bliss within or harmony
with the outside world. The message of "Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood of
Man," which Jesus Christ proclaimed 2000 years ago, should become a living faith for
the achievement of real peace and the unity of mankind. The oneness of all creation
affirmed by the ancient seers and sages must be expressed in a transcendental love which
embraces all people regardless of creed, community or language. May you all develop
this Divine Love and stand out as the
The history of Bharat is one long saga of sacrifice
In the modern world, Bharat stands for all that is sacred. Since, ancient times, it has been
a model and an ideal for the rest of the world. There is Truth in the air of Bharat. There is
dharma in the dust of Bharat. There is love in the sands of Bharat. And there is
compassion in the water of Bharat. Forbearance is the core of Bharatiya (Indian) culture.
In order to enjoy and experience these values, even foreigners have decided to come and
settle down in Bharat. In ancient times, Bharatiyas were determined to follow the
principle of sacrifice. They were dedicated to righteousness and truth. Having been born
in the sacred land of Bharat, you should not forget this important aspect. If you go
through the history of this sacred land, you will certainly understand that Bharat never
tried to invade or conquer any country. They had to resist foreign invaders. Bharatiyas
stand for selflessness. They were never selfish at any point of time. Bharatiyas never
coveted the lands of others. The history of Bharat is one long saga of sacrifice. Emperor
Harischandra was prepared to give up everything for the sake of Truth. Emperor Sibi

sacrificed his own flesh and blood to save a dove. Bharat has given birth to men and
women who stood for sacrifice. Modern students are trying to change this land of
sacrifice, from a land of spiritual practices into a land of pleasure seekers. But all
pleasure is transient. You should seek the bliss that is enduring by realizing your inherent
Divinity.
Let our education become true education. Education that is not practised is bookish
knowledge.
You should have love for your country also. Rama Said, Motherland is greater than
heaven itself. That spirit of patriotism is very important.
What is culture?
Control of the senses and observance of the accepted code of discipline are the hallmarks
of a cultured man.
Education and culture are like the negative and the positive poles. While education caters
to providing information, culture leads to the transformation.
Education must enthuse youth to understand the precious heritage of Indian culture and
spirituality, and to evoke the higher powers they possess. Though there are perennial
sources and springs of strength within them, they behave like weaklings and
ignoramuses. Patience, tolerance, tranquillity and calmness have to be implanted in the
heart.
According to our culture sanctified thoughts and discovery of inherent divinity are
important ethos of life.
When one lamp lights many lamps, all shine with equal brilliance. The Param jyothi (the
Supreme Effulgence-God) is the origin and source of all the Jeevan jyothis (light of all
the lamps-individuals); it is only 'ONE', without a second. The same wind is referred to as
breeze, whirlwind, storm, typhoon, hurricane, etc. the same God is referred to by different
Names. This is the very foundation of our culture. So, your duty is to emphasize the One,
to experience the One in all that you do and speak. Do not give any importance to
differences in religion, sect, status or colour. Have the feeling of Oneness permeating
every act of yours.
EVERY man has three bodies--the gross or physical (sthoola), the subtle (sookshma) and
the causal (kaarana). When the physical body is rendered pure by taking pure food, the
subtle body consisting of the mind is purified by pure desires, and the causal body
represented by the antahkarana (conscience) is sanctified by sacred thoughts, the
inherent divinity in man can be manifested and fullness in life achieved.

Our country is called Bharath because the people in this land have attachment toward
Bhagawan. "Bha" means Bhagawan (GOD) and "Rathi" means attachment. This is
the Spiritual meaning of the term "Bharath".
Two epics of Bharat: Valmiki wrote Ramayana and e Vyasa wrote Maha Bharatha.

Vedas:

The Knowledge of Indian Culture is enshrined in the Vedas:

Vedas mean "Knowledge about everything." This word has come from the root "Vith"
which means knowledge. Knowledge to understand the significance of human birth
and also to understand the spirit of the divine. So Veda means God's words.

Veda is like the very breath of God Himself. The Sacred 'Rishis' the Seers of this
country when they performed penance and made inquiries into God's Nature,
perceived Veda through various divine sounds that reached them. For such a thing
like what is found by hearing Divine Sounds, there is no other Pramana or authority.
So Vedas are God's words and 'Swara' or 'Vani' or the sound is the origin of Veda. The
'Akshara' "AUM" is the origin for Veda and Creation.

Why are Vedas called "Sruti"?

'Sruti' means a note of sound. These Vedas are the products solely of hearing by seers of
the various Divine sounds. Because they are received through the act of hearing, Vedas
are called "Srutis".
How many Vedas are there?

At the time when they first came out there were an endless number of Vedas but
now after the lapse of centuries there are only four different Vedas (1) Rig Veda: Rig Veda contains small stanzas or Mantras and hence the name
Rig. In addition Rig Veda gives important statements like "Sathyam Vada" (Speak the Truth), "Dharmam Chara" - (act in a righteous manner). It also
contains various rituals and procedures which are intended to help in keeping the
society intact.
(2) Yajur Veda: This Veda helps to fulfil our duties and tells how to conduct
ourselves in addition to looking after the society.
(3) Sama Veda : The words of Sama Veda are set to music while the text gives the
essence of Rig and Yajur Vedas.
(4) Atharvana Veda: This Veda tells us how man should take care of his children,
family, elders and live happily. It also teaches special disciplines and curative
techniques.

Why is Veda called "Nitya" and "Apourusheya"?

Veda is 'Nitya' because it is permanent. Veda is 'Apourusheya' because it is not created by
man. Its origin is divine. It is the very breath of God Himself.

What are the four Divisions of Vedas? They are

1. Samhita or collection of Mantras in praise of God.

2. Brahmanas - Detailed instructions about rites and ceremonies.
3. Aranyakas - enquiries about the highest truth.
Upanishad - Philosophical treatises which form the basis of the great systems of
Indian philosophy.

How has Vedic learning been preserved?

Vedic learning has been preserved through the tradition of transmission from the teachers
to the taught by word of mouth. Hence it is called "Srutis".
Who is a "Mantra-Drashta"?
The Rishis who received the vedic truth and vision of mantras by sight directly from the
Supreme Being, i.e., God, are called "Mantra Drashta". 300 persons are reported to have
had the vision of Vedic Mantra.
Who is called a "Brahmavadini"?
The women seers who had the vision of Mantras and Vedic truth are called
Brahmavadini. There were 32 women seers. Upanishads speak of the following women
sages in particular:1. Vagambhrani; 2. Sarparajn; 3. Uma Haimavathi
4. Maitreyi (Wife of Yagnavalkya); 5. Gargi (Seer at the court of Janaka).
What is Vedantha?
Literally it means the end of the Veda; it comprises the system of philosophy underlying
the Upanishads. Upanishads constitute the essence of the Vedas and therefore are called
"Sruthi Siras", the head of the "Sruthi". It is desired to lead man to the one science, one
wisdom which sees oneself as real and all else as unreal.
How many Mantras and Suktas are there in the Veda? Based on the Vedas what are
the other lores from which we benefit?
The Veda contains 10,581 Mantras and 1,000 Suktas. The (1) Ayur veda, (2) Dhanur
veda, (3) Gandarva veda, (4) Natya veda, these spring up from the Veda. What is not
found in the veda cannot be found anywhere else.

How many Upanishads are there?

Upanishad means the inner or mystic teaching. The term Upanishad is derived from
upa (near), ni (down) and shad (to sit), i.e., sitting down near. Groups of pupils
sit near the teacher to learn from him/her the secret doctrine. In the quietude of the forest
hermitages the Upanishadic thinkers pondered on the problems of deepest concerns and
communicated their knowledge to fit pupils near them.
The name is full of significance. 'Upa' means the process of studying with 'Nishta' or
steadfastness; 'shad' means the attainment of the Ultimate Reality. The name Upa-ni-shad
arose for these reasons. The Upanishads teach not only the principles of Atmavidya; they
indicate also the practical means of realisation. They point out not only the duties and
obligations one has to bear, but also the actions to be done and those to be avoided.
The Upanishads are authentic and authoritative, as they share the glory of the Vedas.
They are 1180 in number, but, through the centuries, many of them disappeared from
human memory and only 108 have now survived. Of these, 13 have attained great
popularity, as a result of the depth and value of their contents.
The sage Vyasa classified the Upanishads and allotted them among the four Vedas; The
Rigveda has 21 branches and each branch has one Upanishad allotted to it. The Yajurveda
has 109 branches and 109 Upanishads. The Atharvanaveda has 50 branches and 50
Upanishads were its share. The Samaveda has a thousand branches and the balance,
namely, 1000 Upanishads were its share. Thus, the 1180 Upanishads were assigned by
Vyasa to the Four Vedas. Sankaracharya raised the status of ten among the Upanishads by
selecting them for writing his commentaries and so they became especially important.
They are Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Thaithiriya, Aithareya,
Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka.
The remaining 98 are: Brahma, Kaivalya, Svethasva, Jabali, Hamsa, Garbha, Aruni,
Paramahamsa, Amrithanada, Narayani, Amrithabindu, Atharvasikha, Atharvasira,
Kasithara, Mathrayani, Nrisimhatapani, Brahmajabala, Maithreya, Kalagnirudra,
Sulabha, Manthrika, Kshithi, Niraalamba, Sarvahara, Vajrasuchika, Subharahasya,
Thejobindu, Nadabindu, Dhyanabindu, Brahmavidya, Atmabodhaka, Yoga, Thathwa,
Naradaparivrajaka,
Brahmana,
Sita,
Yogachudamani,
Nirvana,
Mandala,
Dakshinamurthi, Skandaa, Sarabha, Adwaitha, Thaaraka, Mahanarayana,
Sowbhagyalakshmi, Saraswathirahasya, Mukthika, Bhavaricha, Ramathapana,
Ramarahasya, Mudgali, Vasudeva, Pingala, Sandilya, Mahabhikshuka, Yogasiksha,
Sanyasa, Thuriyathitha, Parmaparivrajaka, Narasimha, Akshamalika, Annapoorna,
Ekakshara, Akshika, Adhathya, Surya, Kundisakhya, Aatma, Savithri, Parabrahma,
Pasupatha, Thripurathapana, Avadhootha, Thripura, Devi, Bhavana, Katha,
Yogakundali, Rudrahrdaya, Rudraksha, Bhasma, Darsana, Ganapathi, Thahasata,
Mahavakya, Panchabrahma, Gopalathapani, Pranagnihothra, Garuda, Krishna,
Datthatreya, Varaaha, Yajnavalkya, Sathyaayana, Avyektha, Hayagriva, and
Kalisantharna.

The Upanishads have also inspired other works on Geography, Astronomy, Astrology,
Economics and Political Theory, as well as the 18 Puranas comprising Skanda, Siva,
Garuda and others. The Vedas and the Upanishads are the very foundation for Sanathana
Dharma.

Ten well-known Upanishads.

1. Isavasya Upanishad. The essence of all the Upanishads are contained in the three
Mantras of Isavasya Upanishad. The first Mantra says "Isavasyam Idam Sarvam Yat
Kinchya Jagatyam Jagat". The meaning of this is everything in this world is enveloped by
God. This teaches us that the highest happiness is got through Thyaga sacrificing for the
sake of other's happiness. The second Mantra teaches us to work in the world and do the
duties in the spirit of renunciation. The third Mantra says, one who sees God everywhere
and in everything and within oneself will know no misery.
2. Kena Upanishad. "Kena" means "by what?" That is to say - by what power does
everything in this universe move? The answer is "God" or "Brahman".
3. Kathopanishad. Kathopanishad narrates the story of Nachiketas who asked Yama, the
God of Death, only for Atma Vidya.
4. Mandukya Upanishad. The Mandukya Upanishad consists of a detailed analysis of the
nature of Atma and its manifestation in the "Omkara" or "Pranava". This analysis is
known in the Upanishad as the "Avasthatraiya Vichara".
The three states of experience in common life are
(1) Jagrat: The term "Jagrat" means the state of awakening that is, all that happens during
our wakeful period. In the Jagrat state the experiencer functions through both the mind
and the five sense organs. We are therefore in immediate contact with the world around
us, with persons and the qualities of external objects. In the Jagrat or awakening stage,
the individual is known as "Viswa" - that is, one who experiences concrete gross objects
with continuous weight and dimension. This makes us enjoyers of gross entities and the
individual is said to be a "Sthula Bhuk".
(2) Swapna: "Swapna" state is the state of dreaming. In the Swapna state of dreaming, the
sense organs cease to function. We have no contact with the objects of the external world,
but in this stage, we have contact only with the subtle ideas and urges of the mind.
The Swapna state is however as rich, real and concrete as the world of awakened
experiences. In this dreaming stage the mind alone is active and so the experience is
called "Tejasa". "Tejasa", means in Sanskrit "Light". So the mind in dream depends upon
the light of the mind itself. It is a self-generating Atmic light which shows up subtle
objects and the experience is called "Pradiviktha Bhuk".

(3) Sushupti: The state of dreamless sleep or "Aswapna Nidra" is called "Sushupti". Here
the mind together with the sense organs does not function. Only the Atma functions by
witnessing this state of Ananda. So we say only Atma or Soul is omnipresent. The
experience of deep dreamless sleep is called "Prajna". But even though the mind and
sense organs cease to function, the person continues to experience the state of Ananda
and he is called Ananda Bhuk.
5. Taitriya Upanishad. The Taitiriya Upanishad declares that in the being there are five
sheaths which can be grouped into three bodies.
The five sheaths are:
1. Annamaya Kosa; 2. Pranamaya Kosa; 3. Manomaya Kosa; 4. Vignana Maya Kosa,
and5. Ananda Maya Kosa.
6. Prashnopanishad: The Prasnopanishad is an annexure of the Atharvana Veda. It is
named so, since it is in the form of questions (Prasna) and answers. By this means, it
discusses more elaborately some topics dealt with briefly in the Mundakopanishad. It has
thus become a commentary on the Mundakopanishad.
For example, the Mundaka says that Vidya is of two types: Para and Apara, and that
Apara Vidya is of two kinds: Karma and Upasana. Of these, the second and third Prasnas
in this Upanishad deal with Upasana. Since the discipline of Karma is fully covered in the
Karma-kanda it is not elaborated here. When both Karma and Upasana are practised,
regardless of the fruits thereof, they promote renunciation and non-attachment. This is the
conclusion arrived at by the First Prasna. So, if the Prasnopanishad is studied after the
Mundaka, the subject would become clearer.
7. Chandogya Upanishad : This Upanishad is incorporated in the Samaveda. It has 8
sections, the first 5 dealing with various Upasanas or Forms of approaching the Ideal and
the last 3 explaining the manner of acquisition of true Knowledge. Purity of the
Consciousness is the essential pre-requisite for Upaasana. Single-minded concentration is
essential for Knowledge of Brahmam. These can be got by Karma and Upasana; thus is
Brahmajnana won. That is the reason why in the Sastras, Karma is first described and
Upasana next and Jnanam last.
In the First Chapter of the Chandogya, the Upasanas which form part of the Sama Veda
are detailed. In the Second, the entire ritual of Sama is described. In the Third, the
Upasana of Surya known as Madhuvidya, the Gayathri Upasana, and the Sandilya Vidya
are all given. In the Fourth, the Samvarga Vidya, and the sixteen-phased Brahmavidya are
taught. In the Fifth, the three Vidyas, Prana, Panchagni and Vaiswanara are elaborated.
8. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: The Brihadaaranyakopanishad is affiliated to the Sukla
Yajur Veda; it has six sections, of which all except the third and fourth, describe Upanasa
or Worship associated with Karma or ritualistic Action. The third and the fourth sections
deal with the teachings of Yajnavalkya on spiritual Truth imparted to Janaka. The
grandeur of the intellectual eminence of that sage is impressively evident in this
Upanishad. For aspirants eager to reach the goal of Liberation, this part of the

Brihadaaranyaka offers the best guide. The sections are therefore referred to as
Yajnavalkya Kanda. It is the last of the famous Ten Upanishads. On account of its size, it
is named Brihath or Big; since it is best studied in the silence of the forest or Aranya, it is
an Aranyaka; it instructs in Brahmajnana and so is classed as an Upanishad.
9. Mundaka Upanishad: The silent witness of the self, which impartially observes both
the presence and the absence of external objects and which is present in all the three
states of experience, namely Jagrat, Swapna and Sushupti, is called in the "Mandukya
Upanishad" "Sakshi" or witness. While the mind and the sense organs vary and change in
their work, the light of the Self remains constant and changeless. It is the reality, the
"Sat", the Atman, and it is the only point of stillness, a passive lamp and an illuminator.
Since all the other three states of experience are temporary and unreal, the Atman or the
witnessing force within us known as "Sakshi" alone is real.
10. Aithareya Upanishad: This Upanishad is incorporated in the Rig-Veda; it has six
chapters which describe the absolute Atmic Principle. It is therefore famous as the Atmashataka, or the Atmic Six. The Vision of the Atma which results from the destruction of
Delusion and Ignorance is made possible for the aspirant by this Upanishad. The term is
used in two ways: Vyavahara and Visishta. Used in the Vyavahara sense it indicates the
Jivi; in every Jivi, the Atma expresses itself through the senses of perception or the
jnanendriyas into the outer world. The word is derived from the root Ath ... which
indicates "expansion, consumption, movement", among other things. So, the word Atma
denotes universal immanence, universal assimilation and perpetual movement. That is to
say, it connotes the Brahmam itself.
In the waking stage, it enjoys all the experiences; in the dream stage, all the senses of
perception and action hold back their activities but, it creates its own forms and names on
the basis of experiences and impressions collected from the outer world; in the "deep
sleep" stage, it becomes immanent everywhere and assumes its basic role of pure bliss,
unaware of any thing outside or inside. The meaning of the world is in conformity with
the experience of the three stages. On account of the apparent limitation in time, space
and condition, the Atma too is taken to be conditioned and limited; but, that is not its real
nature. It is endless, beginningless, changeless. It knows all, can achieve all; it has no
attributes. It is eternal, unsullied, conscious, free. It has no second; it is unique, whole
without parts.
What is the meaning of the word "Upanishad"?

1. That which leads us to the knowledge of Brahman.

2. That which dispels the fear of Samsara.
3. That which destroys sorrow.
4. That which the preceptor teaches the pupil who is sitting near and below him.
The Upanishad embody the secret of Veda.

The Upanishadic tales impart what knowledge?

The Upanishadic tales the knowledge of Brahmavidya.

What is "Upasana"?
Taking of diksha (Spiritual resolve) and doing sadhana with Guru's guidance to ultimately
attain divine power is called Upasana.
How many types of Dikshas are there?
There are 32 types of Dikshas.
What are the important steps in Upasana?
Anunyasa, that is carrying on Japa and feeling the presence of the Divine in one's body
are the important steps in Upasana.
Which is the longest poem in the world's literature?
The Mahabharatha is the longest poem in the world's literature and it contains 18 parvas
or cantos. This epic contains many upakhyanas and episodes.
What is Bhagavad Gita?
Bhagavad Gita forms part of the Mahabharatha. It is the most precious of the gems of
Hindu scriptures. It contains the essence of Vedantha philosophy in the form of the
teachings of Lord Krishna Himself to Arjuna on the battle field of Kurukshetra. It is taken
as the teaching of Lord Himself to the whole Universe. In the word Gita "Gi" stands for
sacrifice and "Ta" indicates spirituality. So Gita teaches us both sacrifice and the real
nature of the soul. There are (18) eighteen Chapters in Bhagavad Gita. The first six
Chapters form Karma Kanda. The second six Chapters form Bhakti Kanda and the last
six Chapters form Gnana Kanda. Thus there are three Kandas in Bhagavad Gita
emphasising ritual, wisdom, devotion and self surrender.
What is the highest form of Bhakthi, taught in Bhagavad Gita?

The highest form of Bhakthi or Prapatti is to give up everything in self-surrender

to God. "Nishkama karma" or Karma Phala Thyaga is considered the highest form
of Bhakthi. 'Nishkama Karma' is doing any action with full self-surrender to God
without aspiring for anything of his own that is having no selfish desire for the
result of the action.
"Karmaphala Thyaga" means surrendering the results of any action undertaken to
God.

What do we mean by "Yaga"?

Yagas are sacrifices performed in accordance with the Veda. Yaga means the giving up of
the material for the sake of the Divine. By so doing the inner power of man blossoms
forth. The Gita suggests many kind of sacrifices. The highest of all is Satya Yajna. God
showers grace on those who perform yaga. If one who performs yaga has no selfish eye
on its fruits, it will bring blessings to the world.
What is Yagna?
The end of Yaga is to bring out an efflorescences of the humanity in man and help the
attainment of divinity is Yagna. Yaga reveals the Yagjneswara, the supreme Lord of the
sacrifice. Though Yaga Gayatri Devi protects the world.
What is Yoga?
The union of Jiva and Atma is Yoga. There are several branches of Yogas like Hatha,
Mantra Laya, Raja and Shabda. Patanjali wrote "Yoga Darshan".
How should Yoga be practised?
Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama and Pratyahara are the five external regulations to be
practised. Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi are the internal disciplines. The process of yoga
involves arresting of the mind from external objects. Some varittis or activities
antagonistic to meditation must be arrested. They can be controlled by abhyasa (Practice)
and Vairagya (detachment). Purification of the Nadis, i.e., nerve centres is also essential.
What are the action prescribed by the Vedas?
Activities prescribed by the Vedas are three fold. They are Nitya, Kamya and Vishuddha obligatory, purposive and pure.
What is Moksha?
"Moha Kshaya" is Moksha i.e. full detachment from worldly desires and considerations.
What do the terms "Purusha" and "Prakriti" mean?
The entire universe consists of two fundamental realities:
1. "Purusha": Purusha" is individual consciousness or intelligence in short.
2. "Prakriti"."Prakriti" is primordial matter, the stuff of the universe in short.
How is the universe evolved?
The universe is evolved through the interaction of Purusha and Prakriti (ref.: Kapila's
Sankhya Darshana).

10

What are the three Gunas or Qualities of Prakriti?

Prakriti or primordial matter has three gunas or qualities namely,
1. Satwa: Satwa is the quality of light.
2. Rajas: Rajas is the quality of activity
3. Tamas: Tamas is the quality of inertia.
How was cosmic evolution set in motion in creation?

In the beginning the qualities of Prakriti, namely, Satwa, Rajas and Tamas are in
equilibrium. When this pre-cosmic equilibrium is upset by the instrumentality of
Purusha, cosmic evolution gets into motion."Mahat" and "Ahamkara" are the two
evolutes during this "Parinama" or evolution.
"Mahat" can be described as Buddhi, the cosmic intellect or world mind.
"Ahamkara" evolves into Satvik Ahankara, Rajasic and Tamasic Ahankara
depending on which guna predominates. Satvik Ahankara undergoes Psychic
evolution resulting in the emergence and functioning of Manas or the mind, the
five sensory organs and the five organs of action. Rajasic Ahankara evolves into
the world of matter perceived by the five elements:

1. Sabta- Hearing- material counter- The sky

2. Sparsha- Touch- material counter- The air
3. Rupa- Vision- material counter- The fire
4. Rasa- Taste- material counter- The water
5. Gandha- Smell- material counter- The earth
What is the difference between mind and matter?
Mind is the subtle Prakriti, and matter is gross Prakriti.
What is the difference between Purusha and Prakriti?
Purusha is passive and Prakriti is active - Purusha is conscious intelligence; Prakriti is
material activity.
Purusha can free itself from the bondage of Prakriti by Vivekakhyati or discrimination.

11

SYSTEMS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Meaning of Dharshana: 'Dharshana' is the Supreme Vision seen by the inner eye.
Asthikas and Nasthikas:
'Asthikas' are believers in the existence of God. They have faith in 'Karma' and rebirth.
Nasthikas are those who do not accept the existence of God. They do not believe in the
existence of Heaven, Hell and rebirth.
Systems of Philosophies in India:
There are six systems of Indian Philosophy (Darshanas). Advaitha Darshana and Dwaitha
Darshana are the two categories into which all Darshanas fall. Under Dwaitha there are
several Darshanas of Asthikas as well as Nasthika school.
Philosophy of "Charvaka Darshana": The 'Charvaka' system of Philosophy does not
accept the existence of God. It considers both body and soul as transient and perishable.
It does not believe in Heaven and Hell. It accepts the goal of life as material enjoyment
only. According to this philosophy the nature of things and chance are the cause for
creation. They do not accept any entity apart from the body. For its followers
consciousness is also a physical property of the body. They belong to Nastika school of
thoughts and they do not have a concept of God.
The 'Sankhya' system of Philosophy: The Sankhyas believe that matter or 'Prakriti' and
spirit or 'Purusha' co-exist. Creation and evolution proceed when 'Prakriti' comes into
contact with 'Purusha'. The self consists of the combination of 'Chaitanya' and
'Anthakarana'. The system of evolution is scientific, but still they do not recognize God.
The 'Yoga system' of ancient India: In the Yoga system, God is recognized because he
is the 'Purusha' or 'Chetana'. Yoga is theistic (Asthika). In Yoga the basic discipline is
proper control of mind. Patanjali describes Yoga aptly as "Chitta Vritthi Nirodhah". Purity
of mind and body is the essential requisite with which a Yogi can meditate on God. To
practise it a competent Guru is very necessary. God is accepted fully in Yoga. God is a
being of the highest excellence and perfection. 'Patanjali's Yoga Sutra' is the main source
for the Yoga system of Philosophy.
The Five Defects an individual possess as per 'Yoga Sutra':
The individual has five defects:
(1) Avidya (ignorance), (2) Asmiti (egoism), (3) Raga (attachment), (4) Dvesha
(disgust), (5) Abhinivesa (infinite aspiration to life).

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Astanga Yoga:
The Yoga Sutra prescribes eight important steps in the practice of discipline for realising
God. They are:
(1) Yama (Good conduct), (2) Niyama (Purity of thought) (3) Asana (Posture),
(4) Pranayama (Breath control), (5) Prathyahara (Mind control), (6) Dharana (Single
pointed concentration), (7) Dhyana (Uninterrupted contemplation on the object), (8)
Samadhi (Dhyana without self-consciousness). These eight fold practices comprise
Astanga Yoga. The first five are external aids and the last three are internal aids to Yoga.
'Yama' in the Yoga:
Yama consists of five practices, they are (1) Ahimsa (non-violence), (2) Sathya (Truth),
(3) Astheya (non-stealing), (4) Brahmacharya (celibacy), and (5) Aparigraha (nonaccepting of gifts).
'Niyama' in Yoga:
Niyama consists of five practices:
(1) Sacha (purity of body), (2) Santosha (happiness, contentment), (3) Tapas (penance),
(4) Swadhyaya (studying), (5) Ishwara Pranidhana (surrender to God).
Nyaya Vaiseshika systems of Philosophy:
The Nyaya and Vaiseshika systems are studied together because of their similarities in
many respects. Both of them say that the self or Atman is a substance independent of
body. It is eternal and allpervasive. Knowledge, will, joy, etc., are external properties of
the self and not the self itself. The Nyaya Vaiseshikas believe in creation and not in
evolution. The agent is Ishwara. Reason is the basis of the Nyaya and Vaiseshika systems
of philosophy.
Four ways laid down by Nyaya Vaiseshika Darshana in order to gather knowledge
Whether it is worldly or spiritual, there are four ways of gathering knowledge. There are:
(1) Direct experience; (2) Reasoning and inference; (3) Analogy; and (4) The Vedas.
Uttara Mimamsa
The Uttara Mimamsa came afterwards and it contains Vedanta. It has developed into
three schools of thought, namely, (1) Advaita; (2) Visishta Advaita; and (3) Dwaita.
Advaita Darshan :What is not two is Advaita, that is Brahman alone, is not two. Among
the six Darshanas Advaita is the only system of philosophy which regards Atman and

13

Paramatman as one and the same Supreme Reality. The Advaita is based on direct
experience. According to Advaita, the seen world of senses is Mithya-that is, neither
Sathya nor Asathya. It is illusory and the unseen Atman is the one and only reality. The
Advaithins believe that the self is a combination of 'Shudha-Chaitanya' and the
'Antahkarana' which comprises the 'Budhi', the 'Manas' and 'Chitta' and the 'Ahankara'.
Here the Chaitanya underlies both the objective and the subjective sides. The concept of
the Pancha-Kosha and the three States of Experience, the waking, Dreaming and
sleeping, the Sthula, Sukshma, and the Karana bodies are elaborated here. They consider
Brahman as the combination of Shuddha chaitanya and Maya. Maya with its Power of
'Avarana' and 'Vikshepa' can project the universe. "Brahma Satyam and Jagath Mithya"
says Advaita.
Three essential principles in Advaita Philosophy:
(1) The first principle says that Brahman alone is real; (2) The second says that the world
is illusory; and (3) The third says that the soul is nothing else but Brahman.
'Mithya': 'Mithya' means illusion. Neither real nor unreal: Adi Sankaracharya says in his
'Advaitha' Philosophy that this world is 'Mithya'. By the term Reality, we mean that
which is not subject to change and contradiction. This everchanging world cannot be
accepted as real. At the same time it is not 'unreal' or empty. It is neither real nor unreal.
Therefore it is indescribable. It is just an appearance such as is found in "Vivartha" or
transfiguration.
"Maya": "Maya" is the cause for the perception of the world we see, in its many forms.
Maya works with two powers, one which enables it to conceal the truth and the other to
protect an illusory image. 'Maya' cannot delude Brahman; but it causes 'Avidya'
(ignorance) in man.
Three levels of reality accepted in 'Advaita Darshana':
Advaita accepts three levels of reality they are as follows:
(1) Brahman the highest reality, (2) Relative truth or Vyavaharika Satya, (3) Appearance
or Pratibhasika Satya. These are only levels of Reality. Truth speaking Reality is only one
that is Brahman.
Method of realising truth prescribed by 'Advaita': JnanaThe method of realising truth as prescribed by 'Advaita' is 'Jnana'. No amount of action or
prayer will help to dispel the ignorance. Karma (work) and Bakthi (Devotion) help to
cleanse the mind. But only Jnana gives the realisation of Truth says the Advaita
Philosophy.

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Ways in which 'Jnana' can be acquired

Jnana can be got in four ways:
(1) By the study of scriptures; (2) By reflecting upon what we study (Manana); (3) By
contemplation; and (4) Lastly, by direct experience or vision.
Beliefs of 'Advaitins' about 'liberation'
It is believed by the 'Advaitins' that 'Liberation' can be had either by sudden revelation in
this life or by gradual development, doing good deeds and worship. They also speak of
individual salvation and the salvation of all stating that unless every soul is liberated no
soul is completely released. The soul has to reach the place from where it has come.
Who propagated 'Advaita' Philosophy?
The 'Advaita' Darsana drawing its essence from Vedas and Vedanta was systematised first
by 'Goudapada' and then latter by Adi Shankara. Adi Shankara established and
propagated Advaita or non-dual philosophy in this world.
What are the authorities for 'Advaita' Darshanam'?
They (1) Sruthi; (2) Yukti; and (3) Anubhava, are the three authorities which Advaita
quotes for establishing its Philosophy. Shankara places 'Anubhava' or common
experience at the top and regards Sruthis only as guides.
'Dwaita' Philosophy:
The Dwaitins believe in dualism. They believe that the self is different from the
Brahman. This self is a prototype of Brahman but not identical. The Dwaita Philosophy is
some what similar to Sankhya and Nyaya Vaiseshikas. To them 'Prakriti' is the material
cause while Purusha is the 'Karta' or creator. They say 'Jiva' and Prakriti always exist and
are always there, but they never become one.
Who propagated Dwaita Philosophy?
Sri Madhavacharya propounded 'Dwaita' Philosophy.
Visistadvaita Philosophy:
Sri Ramanuja propagated Visistadvaita Philosophy. The Visistadvaita accepts the
phenomena of appearance and illusion and says about 'Chit' and 'Achit' in the phenomena
world. It states that both are true and valid. Visishtadvaita has also established the
oneness of Jagat which is 'Jada' or inert and Jiva which is full of consciousness.
Visistadvaita also says that Jada and Chaitanya, i.e., inertness and consciousness are the
manifestations of the same principle of Divinity and therefore equally valid. Jagat the

15

universe, Jiva the consciousness and Purusha the Supreme are not three separate entities
but are the same from the ultimate point of view. Though the appearance may be different
the unifying spirit is the same. For example, though the ornaments may be different gold
is the same. Similarly the forms are different, but there is only one Purusha which is the
unity in the diversity and multiplicity.
What are the two aspects present in illusion or Maya?
There are two aspects present in this illusion. The one is 'Parinama' or evolution and the
other is 'Vivarta'.
'Parinama':'Parinama' is the property of evolution or change, like milk turning into curd.
If there is no milk there is no curd. Parinama is that which changes.
'Vivarta': 'Vivarta' is the property which makes us think that there is a change though the
substance remains the same, for example, sometimes we come across a rope and get
deluded to imagine it as a serpent. The rope does not go, the serpent does not come. It is
Vivarta or illusion. It is the quality which makes us forget the real thing and makes us
impose upon that some other thing which is not there. It is the effect of Maya.
Maya is present both in 'Parinama' and 'Vivarta'.
The influence of 'Vivarta': Though we are Atma Swarupas, we forget the Supreme
Reality and we live in 'Dehabhranti' or bodily illusion. We mistake our ephemeral
existence to be the real existence. We are not afraid of the rope but afraid of the serpent.
Similarly, we are not afraid of "Atma" but are afraid of the "life".
Though we are "Atma Swarupas" and should be free from fear, unfortunately we are lost
in fear and illusion. This is the effect of "Vivarta". It is therefore correct to say that we
live under the influence of "Vivarta".
"Advaita, Visishtadvaita and Dwaita". Though they are different systems of
Philosophy there is an underlying unity in them: Advaita, Visishtadvaita and Dwaita,
though different as systems of Philosophy, all these three talk about the 'Atmatathva'. The
'Atmatathva' is the only permanent thing and it remains eternal and changeless. In
Dwaitha, duality always remains. Visishtadvaita teaches us that there may be differences
of Rupa and Nama, form and name, but the Purusha behind them is the same. They also
accept the permanence of both jada and Chaitanya. Jada is as true as Chaitanya. Because
we have one sided outlook we are not able to recognize the other side of the picture.
When we are able to recognize both, then only will be able to realise the unity. We must
attempt to reach unity through duality. If we want to attain Advaita stage, we have to pass
first through Dwaita state.

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Avoid imitating practices of other countries

There is no meaning in one country simply imitating or copying the management
practices of another. Such imitation often leads to waste of resources and many
undesirable results. This is what is happening in many countries, including India. What is
good or suitable for one country need not necessarily be good for another. We should
have regard to the circumstances, the individual attainments and the specific requirements
of our country. Our culture and values are different from those of others. These different
situations cannot be treated alike. The attempt to combine different sets of values may
result in the loss of values of the less developed country. There is a story which illustrates
how by listening to the views of all and sundry one makes himself a laughing stock and a
loser in bargain. A fruit vendor put up a board over his stall to the effect: "Fruits are sold
here." A passerby told the shopkeeper the word "here" in the sign board was superfluous.
The vendor arranged to get the word erased. Another man came along to say that there
was no need to announce that fruits were being "sold" as that was obvious to anyone. And
so, the word "sold" was erased. A third man said that there was no need to mention that
"fruits" were being sold, as it was patent to any one what was being sold in the shop.
Ultimately, all that remained was a blank board, while the sign painter presented his bill
for painting the board and then erasing the words. The fruit vendor realised the folly of
acting on the opinions of every passerby without relying on his own judgement. In the
sphere of business management, a similar situation has developed in India. By following
the advice of one country or other India has made a hash of its economy and finances. In
ancient times, India served as an example to other countries.
India then and now
A king from Greece came to India to study the conditions here, especially in regard to
education and religion, after visiting other countries in Asia. He was impressed by the
gurukula system of education and the kind of relations that existed between the guru and
the sishyas (students). The ashram of every guru was a veritable university, without any
of the paraphernalia of modern universities. The students were prepared for all kinds of
hardship to acquire knowledge from the gurus. He also noted the discipline and high
character of the students. He collected books like the Upanishads and the Gita and
realised what values Indians attached to truth and integrity. He made a study of the Bible,
the Quran and Buddhist texts and found that all of them laid emphasis on Truth. He noted
that the Bible declared: "Righteousness exalteth a nation." In the Quran he found that
only by adherence to Truth can one be a real man. He noted the essential truth which was
common to all faiths and recognised that in Bharat there was religious toleration and
harmony as part of the people's code of ethics. He decided to follow India's example in
Greece.
Alexander the Great, who came to India at the behest of his teacher, on his way back to
Greece took with him a lump of Indian earth, a vessel full of Ganges water, copies of the
Bhagavad Gita and Mahabharata and the blessings of an Indian sage.
Morality and survival
In the pilgrimage of life, man has to guide his conduct by certain moral principles known
as Neethi. Neethi is derived from the word nitha, which means what is proper or right.
Right conduct is the royal road for man to achieve the highest state in life. When morality
declines in a man, or a society, or a nation, that man, society or nation faces destruction.

17

The loss of morality may even result in the destruction of an entire civilisation built up
through centuries. Without morality, people perish. Morality is the lifebreath of humanity.
It is because of the decline of morals that mankind today is decadent. A man without
morals is worse than a monkey. Darwin attributed to the monkey the claim:
"Without me you man would not exist." Whatever may be the truth (about the evolution
of man from the ape), the monkey does utter a challenge to man in these terms: "I am
present in the human mind and form. I involve you in the affairs of the world. I make you
forget the divine.
Man should strive constantly to cherish good thoughts and act righteously. One is called a
Purusha (Person). Only a man with a personality can be called a person. This
paurushyam (personality) is a term applicable only to a person who leads a model and
truthful life, filled with good deeds. The Latin word "Persona" means one who is a spark
of the Divine. Only by recognising the inherent divinity in him can man become truly
human. The recognition of the divinity in man will lead to the realisation of the unity of
mankind. Every one will then realise that he belongs to one human family just as all
flowers in a creeper belong to the same plant, and all birds in a flock are one. It is this
sense of unity that has been the core of Bharat's age-old culture. It has sought to promote
the well-being of all as a cardinal faith. When Indians realise the value and validity of this
heritage, they will make their lives meaningful.

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Culture and Environmental issues

One of the fundamental aspects of culture is the relationship it prescribes between
individuals and environment. Am I part of the natural environment, or am I separate and
perhaps superior to nature? The answer to this question influences the types of attitudes
that individuals within a given culture are likely to develop, the types of environmental
behaviors that individuals are likely to adopt, and more generally, beliefs about how to
solve environmental problems. This chapter examines differences in attitudes about
environmental issues across cultures. We distinguish between egoistic environmental
attitudes, and biospheric environmental attitudes, and summarize recent cross-cultural
research on the relationship between cultural values and attitudes about the natural
environment.
INTRODUCTION
We live in an era of unprecedented growth and change. The last 100 years have seen the
transformation of the daily lives of millions of people living in industrialized nations,
brought about by scientific discoveries. Every facet of our daily lives has been changed
by technology-from how we work, travel, and obtain food, to recreating and maintaining
social relationships. People living today in industrialized countries spend a large portion
of their lives mediated by technology. We live, work, drive, shop, and do almost every
other daily activity in a built environment. But this is a relatively new phenomenon, and
many of the modern comforts that we take for granted (air travel, supermarkets, cars,
computers, electric lights, telephones, televisions, etc.) were fantasies 100 years ago. Yet
with this growth have come challenges. One in particular is the damaging effect of
consumptive lifestyles on the natural environment. By the dawn of the 21st century, these
effects were becoming readily apparent.
The cumulative result of technology and economic development has wreaked
havoc on the natural environment. This is not to say that damage to the natural
environment did not occur prior to the 21st century, because it did. Throughout history
human activity has impacted surrounding environments (Ponting, 1991). But what has
changed is the magnitude of the effects. The once localized damage that resulted from
production and consumption has reached global proportions. By the end of the 20th
century, it was clear that the lifestyles of those people living in industrialized countries
were not sustainable (Hertsgaard, 1999). Pollution of air, water, and land that resulted
from human activity threatens the very existence of our species.
Problems Associated with Environmental Issues: Two problems in particular deserve
elaboration: consumption and population.
1.Consumption. With the industrial revolution came increasing demands for raw
materials. Coal, oil, wood, and metal ore are needed to manufacture the many products
that we take for granted today. Yet the rate at which we consume these materials is not
sustainable and cannot continue indefinitely. The term sustainability refers to the balance
between the rate at which a particular system is depleted and the rate at which it

19

replenishes itself. Human use of nearly every natural resource is currently occurring at
unsustainable rates. Our use of natural resources must change, and our throw-away
society where products are used only once and then discarded cannot continue for much
longer.
Following is a brief list of some of the environmental problems that have resulted from
human activity and consumption, excerpted from a recent article by Oskamp (2001). For
a more complete description of these problems, see Oskamp (2000; 2001), or the most
recent volume of the State of the World, edited by Lester Brown.

Global warming due to the greenhouse effect. The primary source of human-made
greenhouse gasses is the burning of fossil fuels in cars and to produce electricity.
Loss of the earth's protective ozone layer due to the release of cloroflourocarbons
(CFCs).
Global climate change and loss of biodiversity due to destruction of tropical and
temperate rain forests.
Overfishing and exhaustion of the world's ocean fisheries and decreasing
agricultural productivity due to many unsustainable harvesting practices.
Acid rain, which damages forests and crops and also kills fish, plants, and other
organisms in lakes and rivers.
Toxic pollution of air and drinking water supplies.
Genetic and hormonal damage and cancer due to exposure to dioxin and other
toxic chemicals.

2.Population. A second, and related problem to consumption, is population growth. More

people means more consumption, greater demand for resources, and more pollution and
waste. Population growth over the past 100 years has been staggering. For 99.9% of
human existence on this planet, fewer than 10 million people inhabited the planet. In
1830, less than 200 years ago, the human population reached 1 billion; in 1930 it reached
2 billion, and the growth continued exponentially. As of 2000, there were approximately
6 billion people on the planet. Projections about the number of people the earth can
support vary, but it is clear that 6 billion people living the consumptive lifestyle
widespread in industrialized nations like the United States, Western Europe, or Japan, is
not sustainable (Meadows, Meadows, & Randers, 1992).
Environmental problems are particularly insidious(dangerous)because they
develop slowly. Research on human perception suggests that sensory changes (visual,
auditory, tactile, gustatory) that occur slowly are difficult to detect. As long as the change
occurs slowly, we adapt to the surroundings, and are unlikely to detect a change. From
one day to the next, we notice little (if any) change in the natural world around us, or
even changes in our lifestyles. Yet if we were to jump 10 years into the future, we would
likely notice a substantial change.
The science of psychology (self-inquiry) can play an important
role in understanding and solving these problems. Environmental problems are caused by
human behavior, and solving these problems will require changes in behavior.
Psychology, as the science of behavior, can make a substantial contribution to this
change. Psychologists can work to develop theories of human cognition and behavior that

20

lead to environmental problems develop and assess program that move us toward
sustainability, or study the impact of culture on environmental attitudes, beliefs, or
behavior.
At the very core of environmental problems
is an individual's understanding of his or her relationship with the natural environment.
All cultures that exist today, and throughout history, have addressed the issue of the
relationship between individuals and the natural environment (Ponting, 1991). Just as
every culture has prescribed a set of rules for social interaction, culture also frames the
relationship between the individual and nature. As environmental problems have become
more apparent, our understanding of the problems, and the solutions we develop to
address the problems, occur through the filter of culture. This chapter examines the
influence of culture on the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of individuals relevant to
environmental issues.
Attitudes about Environmental Issues
Different Types of Attitudes (Egoistic versus Biospheric)
When we think about attitudes toward environmental issues, we often assume that these
attitudes fall along a continuum from low (not concerned) to high (very concerned).
These attitudes might reflect general concern for environmental issues, or attitudes about
specific issues like recycling, energy conservation, or public transportation. However,
research suggests that there are different types of attitudes, and that two people can be
equally concerned about environmental problems, but for very different reasons. For
psychologists, the more interesting question is not whether or not a person is concerned
about environmental problems (most people are), but why they are concerned.
Research examining the different types of environmental attitudes has attempted
to identify the values associated with different concerns. Many of the respondents
indicated that their greatest concern was pollution. Among these, some respondents
indicated that their concern was based on the fact that air pollution has been shown to
cause cancer, and they (the individuals) didn't want to breath polluted air. Another set of
respondents indicated that polluted air will increase the rate of sickness in people around
the world and reduce the quality of life for everyone. Finally, a third group of
respondents indicated that pollution is killing plants and animals and threatens to disrupt
the balance of nature.
Each of these sets of concerns reflects different underlying values. We refer to
these as egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric attitudes (Schultz, 2000). Egoistic concerns are
focused on the individual, and reflect a concern about environmental problems for self.
These concerns include personal health, financial well-being, quality of life, and
availability of resources. Altruistic concerns focus on people other than self, including
friends, family, community, future generations, or humanity. Finally, biospheric concerns
focus on all living things, including plants, animals, ecosystems, and the biosphere.
The results from this research have provided three clear findings.
First, the attitudes of people from all of these countries can be classified as
egoistic, altruistic, or biospheric.
The second finding that has emerged from this research is that there are clear

21

differences across countries in the level of concern, and in the overall level of egoistic,
altruistic, and biospheric attitudes.
The final finding from these studies is the relationship between values and
attitudes of environmental concern. Throughout this volume, scholars have elaborated on
the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures, and the values that
characterize each. Cultural values are the ideals and goals that are viewed as guiding
principles in a person's life. The results from our research indicate that values focused on
the individual are associated with egoistic attitudes about environmental issues, while
values focused outside the self are associated with more altruistic and biospheric
attitudes. That is, value self-enhancing goals (like power, wealth, success, or personal
ambition) are associated with more egoistic environmental attitudes. In contrast, values
that transcend the self (like broad-minded, honesty, forgiving, or loyalty) are associated
with more biospheric environmental attitudes. This finding makes sense, given that the
focus within individualistic cultures is placed on an autonomous self, while the focus
within collectivistic cultures is placed on relationships with others. Indeed, it may be the
case that biospheric attitudes are an extension of "relationship" with others to include the
natural environment. Biospheric attitudes reflect an underlying concern for plants and
animals, and people who have a broad self-construal are more likely to include other
people, and aspects of nature, within their notion of self.
Culture and Attitudes
The interpretation that cultural differences in environmental attitudes result from
differences in the importance of social relationships is consistent with social
psychological research on the diffusion of responsibility and social loafing. One aspect of
environmental problems is that they occur on a grand scale. Air pollution causes acid rain
over thousands of square miles; greenhouse gasses cause warming of the entire planet;
and water pollution is dispersed over miles of ocean.
Solving environmental problems will require a concerted effort by a large group
of people. But why should I work hard, when I am just a small part of the group. Indeed,
as the group size increases, people are more likely to loaf. This is what we tend to see in
the United States--unless the problem directly affects me (the individual), or unless I see
a direct result of my action (e.g., saving money, or a benefit to my local community), I
am less likely to be concerned about the issue, and less likely to act in ways that address
the problem (e.g., recycling, conserve energy, use public transportation).
But we see a different pattern in collectivistic cultures. A considerable amount of
research conducted in Asia and other collectivistic cultures suggests a lesser tendency to
loaf than that found for people in individualistic cultures. The importance of social
relations (the core element of a collectivistic culture) leads people to work harder toward
goals that benefit the group, rather than the individual. This suggests that in collectivistic
cultures, people should be more likely to engage in actions that address large-scale social
issues like environmental problems, even when the problem does not directly affect them
or when the action does not directly benefit the individual.
As an extension of this argument, we might expect to find that women are more
concerned about environmental issues than men, more biospheric in their attitudes, and
more likely to act in pro-environmental ways. On the aggregate, women tend to be more

22

relationship-oriented than men, and we might expect results similar to those reported
above for culture. The cumulative research evidence suggests that this is in fact the case.
Conclusions: Environmental attitudes in other countries. The research evidence collected
to date has examined the types of attitudes that people have about environmental
problems, as well as the reasons that people give for their concerns. Differences are the
result of cultural differences, and that collectivistic cultures, which tend to focus more on
social relationships than on the individual, are more likely to foster biospheric attitudes.
However, it is not the case that environmental problems are limited to
individualistic cultures, or to people with egoistic attitudes. While it is true that
overconsumption and pollution are more serious in Northern industrialized countries than
in less industrialized countries, it is also the case that population growth is a more serious
problem in less industrialized nations. It is also the case that the consumptive lifestyle so
prevalent in the richer countries in the world has become the model success for many
developing countries of the world (Hertsgaard, 1999).Environmental problems affect all
living beings on this planet. The rapid growth and technological development that was
ushered in by the industrial revolution have caused serious environmental problems. If
life on this plant-both human and nonhuman-is to continue, we need to change.
Psychology can play an important role in moving toward sustainable lifestyles.

23