INFORMATION TO USERS

This manuscript has bean reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films
the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and
dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of
computer printer.
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the
copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations
and photographs, print bleodthrough, substandard margins, and improper

alignment can adversely affect reproduction.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript

IE

and there are missing pages, these will be noted.

Also, if unauthorized

PR
EV

copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by
sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing
from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps.
Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced
xerographically in this copy.

Higher quality 6 x 9 black and white

photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing

in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.

Bell & Howell Information and Learning

300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA
800-521-0600

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

W
IE
PR
EV
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

A GENERAL MODEL OF REFUGEE MIGRATION:

HOME, DISPLACEMENT, AND HOST-RELATED FACTORS IN THE
RESETTLEMENT OF SOMALI REFUGEES IN OTTAWA

by

Stephen Gwynne-Vaughan, B.A.

IE

A thesis submitted to the

Faculty o f Graduate Studies and Research
in partial fulfilm ent o f the requirements fo r the degree o f

PR
EV

Master o f Arts

Department o f Geography
Carleton University
Ottawa, Ontario
May, 1999

copyright
1999, Stephen Gwynne-Vaughan

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

1*1

National Library
of Canada

Bibliotheque nationale
du Canada

Acquisitions and
Bibliographic Services

Acquisitions et
services bibliographiques

395 Wellington Street

Ottawa ON K1A0N4
Canada

395. rue Wellington

Ottawa ON K1A0N4
Canada
Your me V o ire reference

O ur Sle H a tre reference

Lauteur a accorde une licence non

exclusive permettant a la
Bibliotheque nationale du Canada de
reproduire, preter, distribuer ou
vendre des copies de cette these sous
la forme de microfiche/film, de
reproduction sur papier ou sur format
electronique.

The author retains ownership o f the

copyright in this thesis. Neither the
thesis nor substantial extracts from it
may be printed or otherwise
reproduced without the authors
permission.

Lauteur conserve la propriete du

droit dauteur qui protege cette these.
N i la these ni des extraits substantiels
de celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes
ou autrement reproduits sans son
autorisation.

PR

EV
IE
W

The author has granted a non

exclusive licence allowing the
National Library o f Canada to
reproduce, loan, distribute or sell
copies of this thesis in microform,
paper or electronic formats.

0-612-43308-0

Canada
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

The undersigned recommend to the Faculty o f Graduate Studies

and Research acceptance o f the thesis

A GENERAL MODEL OF REFUGEE MIGRATION:

Home, Displacem ent, and Host-related Factors in the

EV
IE
W

Resettlem ent o f Somali Refugees in O ttaw a

subm itted by Stephen Gwynne-Vaughan, B A .

in p a rtia l fu lfilm e n t o f the requirem ents fo r the

PR

degree o f Master o f Arts

tesis Supervi

h a ir, De]

tent ol

tphy

Carleton U niversity
Date:

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

A b s tra c t:
An im proved understanding o f recurrent refugee m igration requires more
com parative research on the causes and outcomes o f involuntary m igration. As a
contribution to the construction o f a comprehensive m odel o f forced m igration
useful fo r cross-case studies, this research project provides a general fram ew ork o f
home, displacem ent, and host-related m ig ratio n factors and resettlem ent
outcomes, along w ith insights gained fro m a prelim inary fie ld test to fine-tune the

EV
IE
W

model. The general refugee m igration m odel is applied in an analysis o f

qualitative data obtained from interview s w ith a strategic sample o f th irty Somali
refugees during resettlem ent in O ttawa. The explanatory value o f the m odel is
assessed, and its usefulness as a too l to im prove our understanding o f the causes
and consequences o f forced m ig ra tions is evaluated. Results o f the analysis are

PR

also reported to contribute to an understanding o f links between factors o f

m igration and outcomes o f resetdem ent fo r Somali refugees in O ttaw a.

iii

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Acknow ledgem ents

Special thanks to M om and Dad for th e ir suppers, support and security.
Obrigado to Darlene Azevedo fo r her patience and confidence. M erci to the
Honourable Jacques H ubert, O.C. fo r his leadership, and fo r the start on m y
career. I am grateful to Jean-Paul M urray and C hristiane Saumur fo r friendship,
and a bed and breakfasts. Thanks to V illia Jefremovas fo r inform ation,
m otivation, and great parties. I appreciate the w o rk o f Hazel Anderson who led

me through the maze o f rules and regulations. I benefited greatly from teaching

EV
IE

by Simon Dalby and Fiona Mackenzie who fed me new ideas, focussed m y w ork
w ith insights, challenged me to m eet rigorous standards, and provided sound
guidance to help me com plete th is project. 1 am th a n kfu l fo r the financial
assistance from The N eil Huckvale M em orial Scholarship w hich allow ed me to

PR

devote tim e to m y studies. I extend a warm welcom e to Somalis in O ttawa, I

w ish the Somali Center success and support, and I hope fo r peace in Somalia.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Table o f C o n ten t*
Acceptance fo rm ............................................................................................................. ii
A b stra ct...................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements......................................................
iv
Tables o f Contents .........................................................................................................v
List o f T a b le s............................................................................................................... v ii
List o f Figures............................................................................................................. ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRO DUCTIO N...................................................................................1

M igration and g e o p o litics................................................................................ 3
Who Is a Refugee? ........................................................................................... 9

PR
EV

IE

CHAPTER 2: REFUGEE MIGRATION MODELS .................................................... 16

Kunzs A nalytical Fram ework fo r Refugees: Models o f Refugees in
F lig h t and Refugees in Exile, and R esettlem ent.............................. 19
Hom e-related factors o f refugee m ig ra tio n .......................... 20
Displacem ent-related factors o f refugee m ig ra tio n
26
H ost-related factors o f refugee m ig ra tio n ............................ 29
R um baufs General M odel o f M ig ratio n, Adaptation and M ental
H e a lth ..................................................................................................34
P re-arrival co n te xt....................................................................34
Post-arrival c o n te x t................................................................. 35
Bascoms M odel o f Refugee Resettlem ent .......................................36
F lig h t And m igrant v a ria b le s..................................................36
Resettlem ent variables ...........................................................38
Resettlem ent outcom es...........................................................38

CHAPTER 3: A GENERAL MODEL OF REFUGEE M IG RATIO N............................ 40

Hom e-Related Factors o f Refugee M ig ra tio n .................................. 40
Displacem ent- Related Factors o f Refugee M ig ra tio n ......................47
Host-Related Factors o f Refugee M ig ra tio n .....................................55
Resettlem ent O utcom es......................................................................62
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH M ETHO DS......................................................................66
O bjectives ........................................................................................... 66
Q ua litative research............................................................................ 68

permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

CHAPTER 5: REFUGEE MIGRATION FROM SOMALIA:

HOME-RELATED FACTORS...............................................................77
M acro-level Push F a cto rs................................................................... 77
Refugee A ttributes and Resettlem ent Outcomes ............................ 96
Household Level Refugee M otivations fo r E x it...............................110
Ide ntifica tion /M a rgin alisatio n and M igration ........................... 120
Summary o f analysis o f home-related factors o f Som ali
refugee m igration ............................................................................ 127

EV
IE
W

CHAPTER 6 : DISPLACEMENT FACTORS RELATED TO MIGRATION BY

SOMALI REFUGEES........................................................................ 129
Displacem ent by F lig ht o r by Absence, and Outcomes o f
R esetdem ent.....................................................................................129
K inetic Types o f Refugee M o ve m e n t..............................................132
A ttitudes to Displacement and Resettlement O utcom es............... 139
F lig h t Conditions and Resettlem ent Outcomes .............................142
Pressures in A sylu m .......................................................................... 157
Summary o f analysis o f displacement-related factors o f
Som ali refugee m igration ................................................................. 162

PR

CHAPTER 7: HOST FACTORS RELATED TO MIGRATION BY SOMALI

REFUGEES......................................................................................... 164
Canadian Refugee P o lic ie s ............................................................... 164
Social R eceptiveness........................................................................ 178
Incom e Fam ing and Educational O p p o rtu n itie s.............................189
C u ltura l C om patibility and Resettlem ent Outcomes .................... 192
P opulation Factors and Resettlem ent Outcomes ...........................197
D uration o f Exile and Resettlem ent O utcom es...............................200
Ideological-N ationalist O rientations and Resettlem ent
O utcom es........................................................................................... 202
Summary o f analysis o f host-related factors o f m igration by
Som ali refugees...................................................................................207
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................209

APPENDIX.................................................................................................................229
BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................ 244
vi

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

List o f Table*

T ab le 1:

Respondents b y la st year o f school com pleted

p rio r to a rriva l in Canada.................................................................103

T ab le 2:

Education p rio r to m igration related to

resetdem ent outcom es..................................................................... 104

T ab le 3:

English skills p rio r to m igration related to

resetdement outcom es...................................................

106

Inform ation about destination and resetdem ent outcomes ------- 108

T ab le 5 :

Previous in te rna tion al travel and resetdem ent outcom es

T ab le 6:

Lists o f e xit m otives by ty p e ............................................................. 112

T ab le 7 :

M otivations fo r e x it from Somalia, by type and respondent

T able 8:

Types o f m otivations fo r exit related to resetdem ent outcomes . 119

T able 9:

N ational id en tifrca tion /m a rgina lity o f respondents p rio r to exit 123

T ab le 10:

N ational identification/m arginalisation and resetdem ent

outcom es........................................................................................... 126

PR

EV
IE

T able 4:

109

114

T able 11:

Forms o f displacem ent o f respondents from S o m a lia ................... 130

T ab le 12:

Types o f kin e tic refugee movements by Som ali respondents . . . 133

T able 13:

A ttitudes tow ards displacement and resetdem ent outcomes

T ab le 14:

Values and resetdem ent outcom es.................................................. 185

T able 15:

Em ploym ent status and resetdement outcom es............................ 191

v ii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

141

List o f Table* in Appendix

T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le

A:
B:
C:
D:
E:
F:

T a b le G :
T a b le H :

I:
J:
K:
L:
M:
N:
O:
P:
Q:
R:

EV
IE

T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le
T a b le

PR

T a b le S:

T a b le T :
T a b le U :

T a b le V :
T a b le W :
T a b le X :

Clan-Based Arm ed Factions and th e ir leaders, by region 1993. . 229

The six m ajor clan fam ilies and clans in S o m a lia ........................... 230
Geographic o rig in o f respondents ................................................... 230
O rig in o f respondents, by stated clan a ffilia tio n ............................. 231
Resetdem ent outcomes o f re sp o n d e n ts.......................................... 232
Age upon departure from Somalia re lated to
resettlem ent outcom es......................................................................233
Gender related to resettlem ent o u tc o m e s
.....................233
M ig ratio n netw orks before a rriva l re lated to
resetdem ent outcom es......................................................................234
Forms o f displacem ent and resetdem ent outcom es....................... 234
K in etic movements and resetdem ent o u tc o m e s ........................... 235
D eparture from Somalia o f respondents by year, g e n d e r
235
Speed o f flig h t and resetdement outcom es .................................... 236
Chain m igration by respondents p rio r to a rriva l in Canada . . . . 236
C ountries o f tem porary asylum fo r respondents ........................... 237
Borders crossed and resetdem ent outcom es ..................................237
Duress during flig h t from Somalia p rio r to arrival in Canada . . . 238
Pressures in asylum and resetdem ent outcomes ........................... 238
Som ali Claims fo r Refugee Status in Canada, claims referred
and fina lized January 01,1989 to J u ly 10,1997 .......................... 239
Perm anent residents adm itted from Som alia, a ll im m igration
categories, by intended destination in the N ational Capital
R e g io n ................................................................................................239
D uration o f resetdem ent period and resetdem ent outcomes . . . 240
Duress upon departure from Som alia, duress during in te rim
flig h t, distress during resetdem ent ................................................ 241
Duress, distress and resetdement outcom es.................................... 242
Ideological-nationalist stance o f respondents
du rin g rese td e m e n t.......................................................................... 243
Ideological-nationalist orientations and resettlem ent
o u tco m e s........................................................................................... 243

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

L is to fF ix u r t*
An analytical fram ew ork o f refugee movements: home,
displacement, and host m igration factors .......................................21

F ig u re 2 :

M igration, Adaptation, and M ental Health: A General M odel 33

F ig u re 3 :

Schematic representation o f variables and outcomes in

refugee re se ttle m e n t......................................................................... 37

F ig u re 4:

Refugee M igration M odel ................................................................. 41

F ig u re 5 :

Typology o f E xit M otives o f Refugees .............................................. 47

F ig u re 6 :

Map o f movements o f in te rn a lly displaced populations and

refugees from Somalia, and locations o f Somali refugee camps
in the Horn o f A frica 1991 .............................................................. 95

PR
EV

IE

F ig u re 1:

ix

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In the last tw enty years, the study o f refugees from p o litica l, economic, o r
geographic perspectives helped to explain some o f the problem s faced by refugees
and the consequences o f th e ir m igrations. A num ber o f em pirical studies o f forced
m igration proved useful, bu t the lack o f theoretical coherence in the grow ing fie ld
o f refugee studies as a w hole is seen as a problem (Black 1991). The

shortcomings o f restricted viewpoints revealed the need fo r broader m u lti

IE

disciplinary approaches to fu rth e r our understanding o f refugee m igrations and to

foster solutions to grow ing hum anitarian crises around the globe. Considerable

PR
EV

e ffo rt has been expended to develop theoretically sound and em pirically validated
models fo r explaining refugee m igrations, but thus fa r attem pts have no t been
e n tirely successful.

The form ulation o f a comprehensive fram ew ork o f refugee m igration

remains a serious challenge to refugee theorists. W hile the design o f theoretical
models is tim e-consum ing and complicated, encouraging advances have been
made to facilitate the process fo r future refugee theorists. Rather than abandon
m odel building altogether, revised designs may be developed w ith guidance from
the lessons learned from past failures. Moreover, refined or novel research
methods can reveal new inform ation, and perm it a rew orking o f old categories in
useful and in sig htfu l ways. Recent interdisciplinary studies o f refugee m igrations
may foster the elaboration o f innovative and m eaningful descriptive categories

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

2
th a t provide fresh insights into refugee problem s and suggest w orkable solutions.
As this study demonstrates, the foundations fo r a refugee the ory have
been la id . A b rie f discussion o f current refugee issues w ill include coverage o f the
debate over de finition s o f who is a refugee. Then readers w ill be introduced to
early models o f refugee displacement, e xile and resetdement, follow ed by a
presentation o f recent refugee resetdem ent m odels incorporating psychological
and sociological approaches. It is argued th a t these models help to expand our

understanding o f refugee m igrations and enable better treatm ent o f previously

EV
IE

unworkable subjective aspects o f refugee experience.

This study attem pts one fu rth e r step in the development o f a m u lti-le ve l
m odel o f refugee m igration by incorporating d iffe re n t elements from three
d iffe re n t models in to a single hybrid fram ew ork o f refugee m igration com prised

PR

o f home, displacem ent, and host-related factors. The prim ary goal o f this study is
to test the a p p lica b ility o f the hybrid m odel using a small, purposive sample o f
Som ali refugees resettling in Ottawa to determ ine its significant strengths and
weaknesses fo r the study o f larger numbers o f refugees and com parative cross
country studies. Analysis o f the m ajor variables o f refugee m igration and
outcomes o f resettlem ent w ill also shed some lig h t on contentious issues related
to the treatm ent o f refugees in Canada and provide insights in to refugee
resettlem ent in O ttaw a which may be o f in te rest to policy makers and support
agencies.

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

M igration an d G eo p o litics
Humans are m obile creatures, and m igration is not a new phenomenon.
Accounts o f ancient m igrations in texts like the O ld Testam ent support claims th a t
human history has been an h isto ry o f m igration (Rystad 1992:1168 in
Tesfahuney, 1998:502). M igration has played a m ajor role in colonialism ,
industrialisation, the emergence o f nation-states, and the developm ent o f global
capitalism (Casdes and M ille r 1993:261 in Tesfahuney, 1998:502). Given tha t

m igration is both a response to social change and a catalyst o f change in areas

EV
IE

losing o r gaining m igrants, a knowledge o f population m ovem ent is o f

fundam ental im portance to a m ore com plete understanding o f social change,
econom ic development and p o litic a l organisation (Claeson & Ergo 1972:1 in
Lewis, 1982:3).

PR

M igration is associated w ith many o f hum anitys m ost acute social

problem s, but the urgency, scope, causes, effects, and resolutions o f the problems
o f m igration continue to be debated from a variety o f perspectives. Whereas
m igration studies are often in te rd iscip lin a ry efforts, d iffe re n t disciplines in the
social sciences have taken d istinctive approaches. Economists tend to look at
m igration in terms o f em ploym ent and economic opportunities, and
demographers have been m ore concerned w ith the im pact o f m igration on
population grow th. Many sociologists have focussed on the character o f m igrants,
w h ile anthropologists have looked a t problems o f m igrants in host com m unities
(Lewis 1982: 4).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

4
Popular th in kin g about m igration remains m ired in nineteenth century
concepts, models, and assumptions (Taylor 1993:432). Classic m igration theory
is based on Ravensteins concepts o f econom ically m otivated, voluntary
relocation o f individuals w ith little or no regard fo r the borders w hich divide
peoples and serve to m aintain inequalities between them (Zolberg 1989:405-6).
M o b ility and the perm eability o f national te rrito rie s are in trin sica lly geographical
issues (Tesfahuney 1998:501), and geographers studying m igration have focussed

on the effects o f distance and borders crossed by m igrants (Gardener and de Jong

EV
IE

1981).

The m ain contributions o f geographers have been to emphasise the spatial

patterns o f m igration, the locational decisions involved, and the impacts o f the
m igrants on places. The trad ition al geographical approach tended to be based on

PR

aggregate ideas and concepts w hich assumed th a t m igrant populations were

homogeneous, and considered patterns o f m igration to be the result o f differences
in economic opportunities between areas. In order to id e n tify factors involved in
decisions to move, geographers adopted a behavioural approach to the analysis o f
m igration w hich involved the disaggregation o f large populations in to sm aller
groups and individuals (Lewis 1982:5). M igration studies have increasingly
distinguished between: the determinants o f m igration w hich concentrate on the
in itia to rs o f m ovem ent; and the consequences o f m igration which deal more w ith
adjustm ent activities and societal responses to m igration (Gardener and de Jong
1981).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

5
A broad m otivation based m igration typology divides m igrants in to
voluntary and in volun ta ry groups. O bjective differences between refugees and
m igrant populations include th e ir original m otives and th e ir characteristics upon
a rriva l (Black 1993b:93). International m igration has a tw o-part structure: On
the one hand, it is composed o f the labour streams seeking jobs in foreign
countries; on the other, it is composed o f the increasing flow s o f refugees from
w ar and p o litic a l disruption (C lark 1986: 74).

W hile in te rna tion al m igration studies s till tend to focus on decision

EV
IE

m aking, economic trends and labour m arket theories, some o f the current
language and view points used to study m igration systems , networks , and
flows o f people across borders are innovative (T aylor 1993; Boyd 1989;
Fawcett 1989). Looking at the cultural dim ensions o f globalisation, Appadurai

PR

explores em erging ethnoscapes comprised o f tourists, business travellers, labour

m igrants, im m igrants and refugees (Appadurai 1996). To shed lig h t on the
effects o f globalisation, geographers are busy analysing flows o f people,
inform ation, products, and capital as key aspects o f the repositions o f power,
society and space along the global-local continuum (Tesfahuney 1998:500; Luke
1994).
Standard w orks o f international relations tend not to discuss in te rna tion al
m igration and refugee flow s (W einer 1993a:31), b u t mass population movements
w ith in and across borders, and the interplay o f power, space, and m o b ility are
im portant geopolitical issues currently being exam ined by a sm all but grow ing

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

6
group o f c ritic a l p o litica l geographers (Tesfahuney 1998). M igrations,
displacem ents, and refugees are m ajor concerns in the post-Cold W ar era, and
questions o f d iffe re n tia l m o b ility empowerments -w ho moves, where and why
are m ajor geopolitical issues (Tesfahuney 1998:501).
C ritica l geopolitics has been p a rticu la rly concerned w ith issues o f changing
global configurations o f pow er and hegemony in the new w o rld order. In more
contem porary texts, m igrants appear as geopolitical actors w ho affect the conduct

o f geopolitics at local, regional, and global levels and thereby im pact on the

EV
IE

evolution o f geopolitical order (Tesfahuney 1998:501). In p a rticular, m igrants

have been portrayed as dangerous geopolitical actors, as security threats to
nations, as destabilisers o f weak southern states, and as handicaps to the global
hegemony o f the north (W idgren 1989: Black 1993b; Soguk 1997; W ilkinson and

PR

Jacobsen 1993).

C itizenship is one o f the discourses o f international m igration used by the

media, politicians, and academia in the w est to regulate population m ob ility.
C itizenship has always la id down boundaries between those w ho are included and
those who are excluded (Kofm an 1995:121). Whereas state controls over
transnational flow s o f capital and inform ation have declined, nation-states have
m aintained considerable control over population movements (F indlay and Gould
1994b). As a result, not a ll people enjoy the same freedoms o f m ovem ent and
access to space. In the transnational economy, spaces o f circu la tion and m ob ility
rights are structured by aspects o f age, race, gender, and class (Tesfahuney

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

7
1998:501).
As a concept citizenship may appear d e ar, b u t membership is more
problem atic (Brubaker 1989 in Kofman, 1995:122). Citizenship viewed as the
a ttrib u tio n o f entidem ents and dudes is a legal status, but in its fu lle st sense it is
the culm ination o f incorporation in to sodety. C itizenship is generally defined as
the rights and obligations th a t accrue to individuals as fu ll members o f a
com m unity, norm ally the nation-state (Kofm an 1995:122).

Refugees and asylum-seekers, and the ethnic m inorities assodated w ith

EV
IE

them , have ambiguous and am bivalent relationships w ith states (Kofman

1995:122). As non-dtizens who do not f it in to this w o rld o f nation-states, spedal
rules and categories o f dtizenship have been created fo r refugees in order to
regulate th e ir movements and regularise th e ir situations through adm inistrative

PR

processes, to fix them in one o r another te rrito ry and thereby repair th e ir

ungovemed condition.

This study discusses Canadian refugee polides and refugee adm ission
processes as sub-issues o f dtizenship and im m igration. It reveals th a t Canadian
refugee polides are oriented by national security goals towards protecting the
country from refugees, w h ile the provision o f protection fo r refugees seems to be
a secondary obligation. U nfortunately, the focus o f the study on m igration
models perm its little treatm ent o f several contentious issues o f refugee
im m igration in Canada.
One such issue concerns the spedal dass o f undocumented refugees

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

8
created by the Canadian governm ent to deal w ith Somalis and Afghanis who
made claim s fo r asylum w ith o u t proper id en tificatio n documents. The enactment
o f the undocum ented class o f refugees may be viewed by human rights critics as
yet another mechanism fo r restrictin g benefits to refugees in need o f protection
and support. From the p o in t o f view o f the refugee, the undocumented class is
certainly another barrier to resettlem ent w hich forces some refugees in to
situations o f unsupported lim bo fo r up to five years w hile aw aiting security

EV
IE
W

clearance needed fo r perm anent im m igrant status (CIC 1997:31; Vincent 1996).
However, lik e m ost other extensions o f citizenship that resulted from struggles
and negotiations w ith states by m arginalised and oppressed groups (Kofman
1995), some 7,000 undocumented refugees in Canada backed by hum anitarian
rights groups appear to have found an en try in to the country w hich may not

PR

accord them a ll the social assistance benefits available to landed refugees, but s till
provides them w ith protective refuge.
Tesfahuney clarifies tha t in im m igrant receiving countries in the west, it is
not refugee m igration per se that is the problem , but rather it is the conflation o f
refugees w ith terrorists, enemies, menaces, crim inals, and sources o f disease
based on racial confusions over th e ir id e n tity and origin. To d ive rt attention away
from real causes o f social and economic crisis, m igrants in general are constructed
Refugees in particular are singled out fo r their

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

9
and South (Tesfahuney 1998:505-7). Refugees are no m ore dangerous or
crim inal than average citizens: s o , . . . who are the y then?

Who Is a R efugee?
In Canada, the answer to the question w ho is, and who is not a refugee?
is controversial. In its common usage, the w ord refugee conjures up fam ilia r
images o f starving children begging fo r food shown in news m edia stories and
re lie f agency fundraising campaigns. However, a review o f lite rature concerning

refugees reveals a variety o f meanings w hich are used fo r an assortment o f

EV
IE

sometimes conflicting purposes in different p o litic a l ju risd ictio n s. In its legal and
p o litica l applications, it appears that the m eaning o f the term refugee changes to
include/exclude p a rticu la r groups o f individuals.

To seek refuge is to seek security, and m ost people who become refugees

PR

are usually ju s t tryin g to get out o f harms way. The popular media d e fin itio n o f
refugee is a person fleeing life-threatening conditions (Shacknove 1985:274).
The de fin itio n adopted by the O rganisation o f A frican U n ity (OAU). states that:
the term refugee shall apply to every person, who, owing to
external aggression, occupation, fo re ig n dom ination or events
seriously disturbing public order in e ith e r p a rt o r the whole
o f his country o f origin o r n a tio n a lity, is com pelled to leave
his place o f habitual residence in ord er to seek refuge in
another place outside his country o f n a tio n a lity (From the
OAU Convention Governing the S pecific Aspects o f Refugee
Problems in Africa. September 10, 1969 in Shacknove
1985:275-6).

Refugee is a label o r a classification created to serve the purposes and

interests o f states. Refugees are non-citizens, w ho abrogate th e ir obligations and

Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

10
lose the rights o f citizenship when they cross international borders (H arrell-B ond
1989:59). The broad OAU d e finition recognizes th a t conditions o f security fo r
citizens w ith in a state depend on bonds o f tru s t, lo yalty, protection, and assistance
between citizens and agents o f the state; and the d e fin itio n accepts th a t bonds o f
security can be severed in diverse ways (Shacknove 1985:275).
Canadian im m igration laws fo llo w the U nited Nations persecution-based
d e fin itio n o f refugee, w hich is more re strictive than the OALPs. Canada refers to

the d e fin itio n o f refugee found in the U nited N ations 1951 Geneva C onvention

refugees are:

EV
IE

Relating to the Status o f Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, w hich states th a t

PR

persons who by reason o f a w ell-founded fear o f persecution

based on race, nationality, p o litic a l opinion or membership in
a p a rticu la r social group, are: outside the country o f th e ir
n a tio n a lity and unable or, by reason o f that fear, u n w illin g to
be protected by that country; or, no t having a country o f
n a tio n a lity, are outside the cou ntry o f th e ir form er habitual
residence and are unable or, by reason o f that fear, u n w illin g
to re tu rn to that country (CIC 1997:28).

The determ ination o f who is a refugee has im portant financial and p o litica l
im plications fo r individuals seeking protection as refugees, and also fo r the non
governm ental, governm ental, and inter-govem m ental re lie f agencies w hich
provide assistance. Extreme misery, unm et basic needs, and severe economic or
environm ental insecurity are not sufficient conditions for classification o f affected
populations as refugees. The UN d e fin itio n regards persecution by a predatory
government under tyrannical conditions as a necessary condition o f refiigeehood,
but the C onvention does not necessarily extend refugee assistance to the m illions

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

11
o f citizens o f countries like post-1991 Somalia, where the state has failed, and
where citizens need refuge from the chaos and insecurity w hich reign in the
absence o f state protection (Shacknove 1985:277).
States w hich use the UN Convention to define refugees include alienage
o f populations from th e ir te rrito ry o f habitual residence as a fu rth e r necessary
defining condition to distinguish refugees from in te rn a lly displaced persons
(Shacknove 1985:277). O nly part o f the insecurity problem is resolved when

refugees escape danger in th e ir hom eland. The poorest refugees in transit

IE

frequently have little choice about where they w ill stop. But, a t some point in
th e ir search fo r secure surroundings, refugees must make c ritic a l decisions about

PR
EV

when and where to go, and w hat resources they w ill spend to get to a safe haven.
A decision to seek refuge in a hostile environm ent, where social, p o litica l, or
economic rights are not extended to refugees could be fa ta l, o r at least cause as
many insecurity problems as m igration was intended to resolve.
Refugee law a rb itra rily assigns fu ll legal responsibility fo r protection o f
refugees to whatever state the asylum seekers are able to reach (Hathaway
1996:14). Beyond the legalistic and p o litica l considerations w hich determ ine who
is a refugee and who gets refugee-aid according to the geographical location o f
the people in question (Shacknove 1985:276), there are m oral hum anitarian
arguments that accept an obligation to provide assistance to any unprotected
persons whose basic needs are not being m et and who are situated wherever
physical access by international aid is possible (Deng 1993). To hum anitarians,

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

12
the concept o f refugee is based on the premise that people experience a
generalized condition o f insecurity when outside the protective confines o f
society (Shacknove 1985:278).
It is w idely accepted by civilized states that refugees have the fundamental
rig h t to safe asylum and human rights stress the rig h t o f individuals to life , lib e rty
and security (G oodw in-G ill 1989:532). The hum anitarian concept o f a refugee is
rights-based: it considers th a t refugees are unprotected and involuntary m igrants

who are firs t o f a ll humans, w ith the same foundational, rational, objective rights

IE

and needs irrespective o f culture, creed or circum stance1 (Plant 1993:105). This
conception o f a refugee reflects the Hobbesian view o f life in the state o f nature as

PR
EV

solitary, brutish, nasty, and short. Survival fo r humans requires the reduction o f
vulnerabilities to threats from other humans, resource scarcity, and natural
hazards. It is the purpose o f c iv il society to reduce each persons vulnerability to
every other, although even in w ell-ordered societies a level o f insecurity w ill
persist (Shacknove 1985:278).

1 Refugees have rights o f lib e rty and personal in te g rity, including freedom
o f movement and the rights to leave and return to ones ow n country, to seek
refuge and asylum, not to be expelled, and no t to be returned to a country in
w hich life o r freedom may be endangered; procedural rights, fo r example equal
protection o f the law , access to courts and tribunals, rem edies; status rights, as
resident, refugee w ith asylum, or o f the child to a n a tio n a lity; fam ily rights,
including reunification and special protection fo r children; employment rights,
such as the rig h t to w ork, to fa ir conditions o f w ork; p o litic a l rights, including
freedoms o f thought and conscience, expression, assembly and association; and
cultural rights, relating to language, education, and com m unity rights. See
G oodw in-G ill (1989).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.