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General remarks
Elastic properties
Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation by dislocations
Definition of dislocations
Slip of dislocations
Interactions of dislocations
Deformation twinning
Deformation of polycrystals
Creeping
Fracture
Fatigue
Solid solution hardening
Dispersion and precipitation hardening
3-III-2
Failure by fracture
Fracture mechanisms
Brittle fracture (movement of crack without plastic deformation)
Ductile fracture (crack spreads with localized plastic deformation)
Often no sharp division between ductile and brittle failures can be made!
3-III-3
Hexagonal metals deform by easy glide on the basal plane (Zn, Cd, Mg)
(b)
Mg
(x100)
Fig. 3.79 Stress-strain curve of magnesium crystals. (a) The effect of temperature
on the stress-strain curves and (b) the effect of strain rate.
3-III-4
(b)
Mg
3-III-5
Failure by necking
Cubic crystals
3-III-6
(b)
(c)
(d)
Zn, Cd
Twinning along the [1012] plane
3-III-7
(a)
Ductile fracture
Soft metals (Au, Pb) at room
temperature
Metals at elevated temperatures
Common
Tensile fracture profile for
ductile metals
Fracture is preceded by some
moderate amount of plastic
deformation (necking)
(b)
(c)
Cup-and-cone fracture
Necking
Formation of voids
Growth of crack
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3-III-9
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.85 (a) Cup-and-cone fracture in aluminum and (b) brittle fracture in a low
carbon steel.
3-III-10
Brittle facture
No pre-deformation
Transcrystalline
Cleavage
Intercrystalline cleavage
Crack propagation along grain boundaries
Intercrystalline
Fig. 3.86 Classification of brittle fracture types in
terms of microscopic features.
3-III-11
Transcrystalline and
intercrystalline
fracture
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 3.88 (a) Transcrystalline and (b) intercrystalline brittle fracture surfaces. (c)
Ductile transcrystalline fracture by void condensation. (d) Fatique fracture
surface.
E: modulus of elasticity
a0: atomic distance ( )
E E
th
2 a0 10
Fracture occurs above a critical level and fracture strength not reproducible
Materials contain defects!
Stress concentration (local increase of stress) at voids, cracks and
notches!
3-III-14
Stress concentration
2a
2l
max
max > 0
(b)
(a)
0
Fig. 3.89 (a) The geometry of surface and internal cracks. (b) Schematic stress profile along the line
XX in (a), demonstrating stress amplification at crack tip positions.
3-III-15
Griffith theory
2a
2l
max
0:
t:
a:
a
a
2a
= 0 1 + = 0 1 + 2
02
l
t
t
max
a
=2
= Kt
0
t
Kt: Stress concentration factor (determined by shape of crack)
3-III-16
Stress concentration
at a crack
(a)
(b)
Brittle fracture
No plastic deformation - stress release only by crack extension
Intermediate case
Only few slip systems available or slip hindered by hardening
Ductile fracture
Stress release by plastic deformation
Blunting of the crack tip
3-III-17
Stress
concentration
factors
Dependence on sample or
edge shape
Kt:
Stress
concentration
factor
3-III-19
3-III-20
3-III-21
Microstructural features
(a)
(b)
Grain boundaries
Twin boundaries
Preciptations
LC pile-up
(c)
(d)
Particle pile-up
Fig. 3.93 Void formation by pile-up of
dislocations at particles that are bound to the
matrix with low interfacial strength.
3-III-22
3-III-23
2a
Wel
V =
2 a 2
2E
2E
Energy required to create new surface (s spec. surface energy)
Wel
Wsurface 4 s a
dWtot
<0
da
3-III-24
Griffith theory
Surface energy Wsur
Energy
a 2 + 4 s a
dWtot
<0
da
c =
2E s
a
Crack length a
ac =
2E s
3-III-25
s + p
c =
2E ( s + p )
EGc
=
a
3-III-26
K
3
x =
cos 1 sin sin
2
2
2
2r
K
3
K
3
xy =
sin cos cos
2
2
2 3-III-27
2r
W
a
a
Y =
tan
W
a
W
radians
geometric factor Y
Fracture toughness Kc
Toughness is a measure of the ability of a material to
absorb energy up to fracture.
c =
c a
external properties
a
W
c aY
2E s
a
E s = K c
Material properties
= Kc
c aY = K Ic
fracture toughness Kc
K Ic
Plane stress behavior
(surface effect)
thickness B
Fig. 3.99 Schematic representation showing the effect
of plate thickness on fracture toughness.
3-III-29
K Ic = GIc E
kJm-2
MPam-1/2
Material
7...16
22...33
10...40
30...120
500...900
300...400
5...130
30...150
0.6...60
10...100
50...60
1.1
0.4
Epoxy
0.2
0.8
Glass
0.002...0.01 0.3...0.6
Table 3.6. Critical strain energy release rate GIc and plane strain fracture toughness KIc for
selected engineering materials
3-III-30
Table 3.7. Yield strength and plane strain fracture toughness KIc for selected engineering
materials
3-III-31
ac =
2
Ic
2
Fracture
toughness vs.
strength
3-III-33
fracture toughness KI
yield strength
3-III-34
3-III-35
(a)
(b)
-59C
-12C
4C
brittle
16C
ductile
24C
79C
3-III-36
fcc metals with low yield strength y: generally ductile for all temperatures!
High-strength materials with y > E/150: always brittle
bcc metals with y < E/300: brittle-ductile transition
Requirement for engineering materials: transition temperature below the T
3-III-37
range of usage!
Toughness
Measure of the work per unit volume required to cause fracture at f
f
f
F (l ) dl
= d
Work per unit volume =
A(l ) l
0
0
F (l )
=
A( l )
dl
= d
l
: true stress
: true strain
f: fracture strain
3-III-39
Stress-strain curves
Stress
(a)
Low toughness
Fracture
Toughness
Strain
Strain
(c)
Fig.
3.106
(a)
Illustration
of
the
determination of toughness from the stressstrain curve. (b) Stress-strain curve with low
and (c) with high toughness.
Stress
Stress
(b)
High toughness
Strain
3-III-40
Youngs
modulus E
Onset of necking
TS
Finale
fracture
Tensile strength ts
0.1% proof
stress 0.1%
Yield
strength
n
0.1% strain
(Plastic) strain
after fracture f
Onset of necking
Stress
UTS
-
curve
Specimen shape as a
Function of strain
Strain
= (l-l0)/l0 = l/l0
True stress:
True strain
l
l 0 + l
dl
= ln(1 + )
(= t ) = = ln = ln
l
l0
l0
l0
3-III-42
l
Necking condition
Plastic deformation
Reduction in cross section
Strain hardening
dF d
dF
=
A+
d d
d
dF
=0
d
Start of necking:
=
d 1 + neck
d
d
= ln(1 + ) d =
d
1+
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.109 (a) Illustration of the necking condition (Considre construction). (b) The start of
necking can also be estimated as the maximum in the engineering stress F/A0 (only
approximation). The Considre construction yields a more precise value of neck.
3-III-44
(b)
Fig. 3.110 (a) Stress-strain curves of typical metals of sufficient ductility are identical for tension
and compression. In contrast, brittle materials such as ceramics and cast iron exhibit a much
higher strength under compression than under tensile load (b).
Existing defects
The design strength of a brittle material is determined by its low fracture
toughness in combination with the lengths of the crack-like defects it
contains.
Distribution of defects in defect-sensitive materials
Probability of failure
Fig. 3.111 In tension the largest defect propagates unstably (different case for compression).
3-III-46
Probability of failure
m
PS (V0 ) = exp
0
(a)
0 material constant
m material constant (Weibull modulus)
Ps survival probability (one volume element)
(b)
Fig. 3.112 (a) The Weibull distribution function. (b) When the modulus, m, changes, the survival
probability changes as shown.
V m
PS (V ) = exp
V0 0
Ps survival probability
3-III-47
Fatigue failure
Characteristics
Failure that occurs
in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses
at low stress level (lower than static tensile or yield strength)
after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling
Fatigue
is the single largest cause of failure in metals (approx. 90% of all metallic
failures)
is brittle like in nature even in normally ductile metals
shows no gross plastic deformation associated with failure
Fatigue failure
Two possible starting conditions
1. Fatigue of initially uncracked components
3-III-49
Fatigue failure
Cycling stresses
m =
max + min
2
Range of stress for cyclic loading r
(a)
r = = max min
a = r = max
2
2
Stress ratio R
R=
min
max
(b)
(c)
3-III-51
3-III-52
Fatigue
testing
Bending
Axial
Fig. 3.115 Fatigue
testing in tension
(compression) or in
rotating bending.
m =
max + min
2
= max min
Compression
Tension
Fig. 3.117 One form of rotating-beam fatigue-testing machine with fatigue-test
specimen. Specimen is bent while it rotates. Any point in the reduced middle section
alternates between states of tensile and compressive stress.
3-III-54
Data are plotted as stress S versus the logarithm of the number N of cycles
to failure for each of the specimens.
Two distinct types of SN behavior are observed
S-N curve with fatigue limit (S const. for high N)
S-N curve without fatigue limit (S continuously decreasing for high N)
3-III-55
Figure 3.118 Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to
fatigue failure (N) for a material that displays a fatigue limit.
x
x
x
x
x
Figure 3.119 Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to fatigue failure
(N) for a material that does not display a fatigue limit. Shown is a best-fit curve.
max-N curve
min = 0, max > 0 R = 0
min < 0, max > 0 R < 0
min > 0, max > 0 R > 0
3-III-59
Fatigue SN probability
3-III-61
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3.123 Examples of crack propagation. (a) Fracture surface of a rotating steel shaft that
experienced fatigue failure. Beachmark ridges are visible in the photograph. (b) Transmission
electron image showing fatigue striations in aluminum. (c) Fatigue failure surface. A crack
formed at the top edge. The smooth region also near the top corresponds to the area over which
the crack propagated slowly. Rapid failure occurred over the area having a dull and fibrous
texture (the largest area).
3-III-62
K max = max aY
K min = min aY
K min = 0
K = K max K min = aY
Tensile stress
Compressive stress
Fig. 3.125 Fatigue-crack growth in pre-cracked components. The cyclic stress intensity K
increases at constant stress amplitude due to crack growth (a const.).
3-III-64
Fig. 3.126 Crack length versus the number of cycles N at stress levels 1 and 2
for fatigue studies. The crack growth rate da/dN is indicated at crack length a1 for
both stress levels.
3-III-65
Fatigue-crack growth
rates
I.
da
m
= A(K )
dN
A, m material constants
m = 3 10
III. Unstable crack growth
Nf = dN =
0
ac
da
m
a0 A(K )
3-III-67
(b)
Microscopic features of
fatigue
(a)
Cyclic loading
Slip bands group into packets
or striations
PSB
extrusion
intrusion
(c)
Plastic deformation!
Fig. 3.129 The difference in the surface contours where slip bands
intersect the surface for (a) one-directional deformation and (b)
alternating deformation. (c) Persistent slip band protrusions with
superimposed extrusions and intrusions in a copper single crystal
3-III-68
Accumulation of defects
3-III-69
(3)
Tension
Compression
Tension
(a)
(c)
(e)
(b)
(d)
(f)
Fig. 3.133 Fatigue crack propagation mechanism (stage II) by repetitive crack tip
plastic blunting and sharpening. (a) Zero or maximum compressive load, (b) small
tensile load, (c) maximum tensile load, (d) small compressive load, (e) zero or
maximum compressive load, and (f) small tensile load. The loading axis is vertical.
3-III-73
shear stress
Hardening mechanisms
So far
1. Work hardening by plastic
deformation
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III
d
II =
d II
Dislocations as obstacles
1
2
y Gb N
shear strain
y 0 +
ky
D
3-III-75
3-III-76
atomic % Au
Fig. 3.136 Composition dependence of critical shear stress in Ag-Au single
crystals.
3-III-77
(a)
(b)
3-III-79
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.138 (a) Arrangement of large substitutional atoms, e.g., Zn in Cu and (b) smaller (filled
circle) as well as larger (shaded circle) substitutional atoms.
3-III-80
Paraelastic interaction
Pressure on -dislocation
(Hydrostatic stress field)
1
Gb 1 + sin
p = ( xx + yy + zz ) =
3
3 1 r
RSo
RMat
Interaction energy
8
sin 1
E par = GbR 3
3
r
r
3-III-81
Screw dislocations
3-III-82
Dielastic interaction
Energy density of a dislocation is proportional to the shear modulus
Edie
Gb 2 R 3
1
=
2 2
6
r
r
1
Gb 2
20
3-III-83
3-III-84
Stress (MPa)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Strain (%)
Fig. 3.142 (a) Pronounced yield point in carbon steel. (b) If the stress is relieved for a
short time and then reapplied no pronounced yield point is observed. (c) After a longer
period of stress relief a pronounced point reappears.
3-III-85
Stress (MPa)
Mobility of solute atoms large enough to follow dislocation (e.g. 200C for C in Fe)
Segregation of solute atoms during deformation
(dislocation movement retarded at obstacles)
Occurrence of serrations in vs. curve by alternating segregation and
detachment of the dislocation from its Cottrell atmosphere
3-III-86
3-III-87
Nitrogen in Nb
Carbon in Fe
(b)
Fig. 3.144 The critical shear stress increases with the square root of the impurity concentration for both
substitutional (a) and interstitial (b) solid solution.
Fig. 3.145 The hardening effect in copper solid solution crystals is dependent on the alloying element
(s pre-factor in dependence).
3-III-89
Dispersion hardening
Stress (MPa)
Cu-Co
(precipitated)
Cu-Co
(in solution)
Strain
Fig. 3.147 Hardening curves of high purity copper and
copper alloys. In CuCo particles are shearable, in BeO
they are not.
3-III-90
Precipitation hardening
(b)
Fig. 3.148 (a) Schematic sketch of a shear off of a particle after cut by a dislocation and (b)
observed in aged Ni19%Cr6%Al (after strain of 2%)
3-III-91
Pre ~ r
Orowan
Precipitation hardening
Or ~
1
r
Fig. 3.149 Theoretical dependence
of strengthening on particle size.
r0 =
Gb 2
3
3-III-92
Strengthening
mechanisms in
metals
Mechanism
Strengthening
mechanisms in
metals
Work or strain
hardening
Frank-Read
Sand
Gb
1 N
Generation
+
fNk(rT,a
)
dG
N
yy
pGb
yN
f 0Gb
cSol
impediment
of
yR
y
+
y
dT
2
r D
dislocations
R = f
; cSoldc
Passing
stress
dc
Solid solution
hardening
Dielastic and
paraelastic
interaction of
dislocations with
alloying elements
Precipitation
hardening
Impede
movement of
dislocations by
coherent orndnoncoherent 2
phase
Martensitic
hardening
Impede
movement of
dislocations
through internal
stresses
Example
y Gb N
Single
crystals
Polycrystal
y Gb N
y p + f ( T,a )
Cutting stress
Grain boundary
strengthening
Impede
dislocation
movement at
grain boundaries
Quantitative description
Hall-Petch-Relation
y 0 +
ky
Fine grain
steels
Friction stress
dG
R f
cSol
dc
Cutting stress
S N r
Orowan stress
Ni-base alloy
dispersionhardened Al
Gb N
r
dT
R = f
; cSol
dc
C15
and other
steels with
medium and
high carbon
content