IB Biology HL Yr 1 Midterm Study Guide PDF Form

Melanie Maldonado
Sunday, February 1, 2015
IB Biology HL Yr 1 Midterm Study Guide

Unit 2: Evolution Darwins Theory of Evolution
- Populations have massive reproductive potential

- Population sizes are stable
- Individuals compete to survive
- Resources are limited
- Variations exist between individuals
- A lot of variations are heritable
- Only most fit individuals survive
- Evolution occurs as most advantageous traits pile up
Gene Pools
- Definition: the combined genetic information of all the members of a particular

population.
- relative frequency of an allele is the number of times that allele occurs in a gene
pool compared with the number of times other alleles occur
Sources of Genetic Variation
- 1. Mutations
- are any change in a sequence of DNA
- can occur because of mistakes in the replication of DNA, or as a result of radiation or
chemicals in the environment
- can be limited to one of a few bases of DNA, or they can affect lengthy segments of
chromosomes
- do not always affect phenotype (physical, behavioral, and biochemical characteristics)
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- 2. Gene Shuffling
- occurs during production of gametes
- crossing over can also occur during meiosis - further increases number of genotypes
that can occur in offspring
- recombining of alleles can produce dramatically different phenotypes

- produces many different gene combinations, but does not affect relative frequencies
of alleles
Types of Gene Traits: Single Gene
- Single Gene Traits: controlled by 1 single gene that has 2 alleles

- How can Natural Selection affect single-gene traits?
It can lead to changes in allele frequencies, and thus to evolution*.
ex. Rock Pocket mouse
NOTE* will only lead to evolution if trait affects fitness.
****************************************************************************************************
- Polygenic Traits: controlled by 2 or more alleles (height, hair color, etc.)

- How can Natural Selection affect polygenic traits?
3 DIFFERENT WAYS
1. Directional Selection
- is when individuals at one end of

the curve have more fitness
than others. Causes entire curve
to shift in one direction as
character trait changes causes
increase in number of
organisms with the trait at one
end of the curve.
- ex. increase in average size of

beaks of finches.
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2. Stabilizing Selection
- is when individuals
near the center of the
curve have higher
fitness than ones at
either end of the
curve. Causes curves
ends to come more
towards middle increase in number of
organisms in middle
section.
- ex. the weight of infants when born - ones that are larger/smaller than usual are less
likely to live
3.Disruptive Selection
-is when individuals at

the upper and lower
ends of the curve have
more fitness than those
in the middle. Natural
selection acts strongly
against those of
intermediate type
-ex. medium-sized seeds

become less common, so
birds with smaller or larger
beaks have more fitness
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Genetic Drift
- in small populations, individuals that carry a particular allele may leave more
descendants than other individuals, just by chance.
- Over time, a series of chance occurrences of this type can cause an allele to become
common in a population.
- Founder Effect - Allele frequencies change as a result of the migration of a small

subgroup of a population
Genetic Equilibrium
- when allele frequencies remain constant

- Hardy-Weinberg Principle states that allele frequencies in a population will remain
constant unless one or more factors cause frequencies to change
Conditions to maintain Genetic Equilibrium are:
A. There must be random mating
B. Population must be very large
C. No movement in or out of population
D. No mutations
E. No natural selection
GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM = NO EVOLUTION
The Process of Speciation
- Speciation is defined as the formation of a new

species
- Speciation is a result of reproductive isolation when

the members of two populations cannot interbreed.
- Two types of speciation, ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION

(speciation due to a geographic barrier) and
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION (speciation due to a nongeographic barrier)
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There are two types of reproductive isolations- PREZYGOTIC ISOLATION

MECHANISMS and POST-ZYGOTIC ISOLATION MECHANISMS
Prezygotic isolation mechanisms prevent the formation of viable zygotes.
Types of are
A. Behavioral Isolation
- occurs when two populations are capable of

interbreeding but have differences in courtship
rituals (breeding calls, mating dances, etc.) or other
types of behavior
- ex. birds whose habitats overlap, but use different

songs to attract mates
B.Geographic Isolation
-occurs when two populations are

separated by geographic barriers such
as rivers, mountains or bodies of water
-ex. squirrels who are separated from rest

of population by river, so two separate gene
pools form
C. Temporal Isolation
- occurs when two populations whose ranges

overlap but have different periods of sexual
activity or breeding seasons
- ex. one frog having a breeding season from January to

March, but another frog having a breeding season from March to
May
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D.Mechanical Isolation
-occurs when physical differences

prevent mating/pollination from
occurring
-ex. in a snail species, direction of shell

coiling is controlled by a single gene. if a
snail has a left-coiling shell, it cannot
mate with those who have a right-coiling
shell
E. Gametic Isolation
- occurs when gametes are

chemically (genetically)
incompatible, and will not
fuse to form a zygote
- ex. some sea urchins have

overlapping ranges of
population, but their gametes
are incompatible
F.Ecological Isolation
-occurs when geographic ranges of two species

overlap, but their ecological needs or breeding
requirements differ enough to cause reproductive
isolation
-ex. one type of frog breeding in permanent ponds, and

one type of frog breeding in moving streams
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Postzygotic isolation mechanisms prevent hybrids from passing on their genes.

Types of post-zygotic isolation mechanisms are
A. Hybrid Inviability
- occurs when a zygote may form with the union of egg and sperm, but embryo
dies after a few cell divisions.
Genetic information from male
and female parents is insufficient
enough to carry organism through
morphogenesis
B. Hybrid Sterility
- occurs when a hybrid is

produced, but is unable to
reproduce due to meiotic
problems
C. Hybrid Breakdown
- occurs when successive

generations of hybrids suffer greatly lowered fertility, which eventually leads to
being selected out of population
Evidence of Evolution
6 DIFFERENT TYPES OF EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
I.
Fossil Record
II. Biogeography
III. Comparative Embryology
IV. Homologous Structures
V. Analogous Structures
VI. Genetics
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I.
Fossil Record
- fossils are remains of ancient life and

different layers of rock that had been
formed at different times in Earths history
- by examining fossils from sequential

layers of rock, one could view how a
species had changed and produced
different species over time
- ex. fossils of the first tetrapods (fourlegged creatures)

II. Biogeography
-is the distribution of living species

-species now living on different
continents, had each descended
from different ancestors
-because some animals on different

continents were living under similar
ecological conditions, they were
exposed to similar pressures of
natural selection -> animals ended
up evolving certain striking
features in common
III. Comparative Embryology
- embryos are organisms in early development

- in early stages of embryo development, they
are all strikingly similar
- it is clear that the same groups of

embryonic cells develop in the same
order and in similar patterns to produce
the tissues and organs of all vertebrates
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IV. Homologous Structures
-similarities among vertebrates body parts

-homologous structures are mature
structures that serve different functions
but develop from the same embryonic
tissues
-provide evidence that all four-limbed

animals with backbones have descended
from common ancestors
V. Analogous Structures
- analogous structures are mature

structures that have different structure
but serve the same purpose
- structures seemed to have evolved from

under natural selection in similar
environments
VI. Genetics
-evolution in genetics is evident in DNA codes

-organisms with similar genetic coding are
more closely related, as organisms with
less similar genetic coding are more
distantly related
-allows mapping of relationships between

organisms, evidence of common ancestors
Unit 2: Evolution ***NECESSARY TO KNOW

1. Compare analogous structures and homologous structures and give an example of each
- Homologous structures have different appearances, but have similar underlying
structure. They also have different functions. An example is a human hand and a whale
flipper. However, analogous structures have similar appearances, but have different
underlying structure. Analogous structures usually have similar functions. An example
is the wings of a bat and a bird.
2. List and describe two examples of natural selection (one must be antibiotic resistance)
- Antibiotic resistance is when antibiotics are used incorrectly and result in adapted
bacteria. When you use antibiotics, there are certain bacteria that have more resistance
to them than others. If you do not follow your antibiotic regimen properly, and discontinue
use before you should just because you no longer feel the effects, the most resistant
bacteria linger in your body and continually reproduce, passing their resistance on to
their offspring. These resistant bacteria have been produced as a result of natural selection.
- Peppered moths were present in their respective environment prior to the time of
industrialization. Before industrialization and all of the pollution it left in the environment, the
light peppered moth was more common than the dark peppered moth. This was due to
the fact that the light peppered moth blended in with the environment more well and could
avoid predators. However, once the environment became polluted and darker, the dark
peppered moth phenotype became much more frequent because the environmental
factors that make moths with the dark phenotype more fit.
Unit 3: Genetic Evolution - ***NECESSARY TO KNOW

1. Explain transient and balanced polymorphism using an example for each.
- Transient polymorphism is when one allele slowly replaced by another allele, and
becomes much more frequent. An example of transient polymorphism is the
peppered moth prior to industrialization, the light peppered moth phenotype was
much more frequent than the dark phenotype due to the fact that they have an easier
time blending in with the environment to avoid predators. Once pollution occurred,
and the dark phenotype moth began to have ease blending in with the environment,
the dark phenotype progressively replaced the light phenotype.
- Balanced polymorphism is when alleles are in equilibrium with eachother, and the
two alleles together give you an advantage. An example of balanced
polymorphism is sickle cell anemia. When a human possesses both alleles (one allele
makes you prone to malaria but also gives you normal blood function, and the other
allele makes you prone to sickle-cell anemia but immune to malaria, but sickle-cell
allele is recessive,) they are put at an advantage compared to those who possess
homozygous alleles.

2. Compare allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation, giving an example for each.
- Allopatric speciation is when the formation of a new species occurs due to a

geographic barrier. An example of this is two populations of squirrels not being able
to interbreed due to a river that lies in between the separate populations. This leads
to separate gene pools, and eventually speciation.
- Sympatric speciation is when the formation of a new species occurs due to a nongeographic barrier. An example of this is a temporal barrier. A temporal barrier exists
between two species when they have different mating/breeding seasons during the
year. An example of a temporal barrier existing between organisms is when one type
of frog has a mating season from January to March, and then a similar type of frog
has a mating season from March to May. Since these populations do not interbreed, it
will likely lead to speciation.
3. Describe the two paces of evolution (Punctuated Equilibrium and Gradualism)
- One pace of evolution is called punctuated equilibrium. Punctuated equilibrium is the

idea that evolution does not occur steadily over time, but only rapidly when
environmental factors make it necessary. There are long periods of no change
followed by brief periods of rapid evolution.
- Another pace of evolution is called gradualism. Gradualism is the theory that

evolution occurs consistently, but gradually. Then, the adaptations that
accumulate over time lead to evolution.
Unit 4: Classification Cladograms
- Cladograms are the representation of evolution over time in a diagram that shows
what organisms are more closely related than others
what adaptation/change occurred that brought about evolution
the presence of a common ancestor
distinctive features that separate one organism/group of organisms from other
organisms
Animal Phyla
There are 6 different animal phyla we must know for our test.
A. Porifera
- only sponges
- no body tissue, no symmetry,
no coelm, no segmentation, no
entrance
- ex. Sponge
B.Cnidaria
-some possess stinging cells

-true tissue, radial symmetry, no
coelm, no segmentation, 1 entrance
-ex. sea anemone, corals, jellyfish, etc.
C. Platyhelminthes
- true tissue, 3 body layers, bilateral

symmetry, no coelm, no
segmentation, 1 entrance
- flattened free-living worms

- ex. tapeworm

D. Annelida
- true tissue, 3 body layers, bilateral

symmetry, coelm, segmentation, 2
entrances
- ex. earthworm
E.Mollusca
-true tissue, 3 body layers, bilateral

symmetry, coelm, no segmentation, 2
entrances
-also possess a foot (visceral muscle

mass) and sometimes shell
-ex. snails
F. Arthoropoda
- true tissue, 3 tissue layers, bilateral symmetry,

coelm, segmentation, 2 entrances
- jointed appendages, exoskeleton

- ex. spiders, crustaceans
G. Chordata
- true tissue, 3 body layers, bilateral symmetry,

coelm, no segmentation, 2 entrances
- includes all vertebrates

- ex. fish
Plantae Phyla
A. Bryophytes
- Leaves, Roots & Stems: no true leaves or roots

- Reproductive Features: spores produced
- Other Features: anchored by rhizoids
- ex. moss
B. Filicinophytes
- Leaves, Roots & Stems: have leaves, roots and non-woody stems
- Reproductive Features: spores in sporangia on underside of leaf
- Other Features: have large leaves that are divided into leaflets (tiny leaves)
- ex. ferns
C. Angiosperm
- Leaves, Roots & Stems: have leaves, roots and stems (woody and non-woody
vary)
- Reproductive Features: seeds found in fruits produced

- Other Features: have flowers
- ex. sunflower
D. Conifer
- Leaves, Roots & Stems: have leaves, roots and woody stems
- Reproductive Features: seeds found within cones produced
- Other Features: leaves are usually narrow with a thick, waxy cuticle
- ex. cones and pines
Binomial Nomenclature, Problems w/ Definition of Species &

Hierarchy ***ALL NECESSARY INFORMATION
Binomial Nomenclature is the 2 word international naming system invented by
Linnaeus. Each species is given 2 names, The first is the genus name with a
uppercase letter, and the second is the species name with a lowercase letter.
- appears as Genus species
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

What is the problem with the definition of species?
Many sibling species have been found. These are species that cannot
interbreed, but show no significant differences in appearance. They are
separate species, but are very difficult for ecologists to identify. (ex: the Pipistrelle
Bat in Britain was recently shown to be two sibling species)
- Some pairs of species that are clearly different in their characteristics will
interbreed. Many plant species hybridize and some animals also. (ex: ruddy ducks
and white-headed ducks).
- Some species will always reproduce asexually, so the members of a

population do not interbreed. The biological definition therefore does not apply.
Unit 5: Basic Chem & Water

The most frequently occurring chemical elements in living things are carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Other common elements that are necessary for
survival are sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, iron and sodium.
Organic molecules are molecules composed of only carbon and hydrogen.
- Carbon: necessary component of organic molecules, required to build proteins,

carbohydrates and fats
- Hydrogen: necessary component of organic molecules, found in water which makes

up majority of body
- Oxygen: required for cellular (aerobic) respiration which is necessary for life
- Nitrogen: vital component of amino acids and nucleic acids, the building blocks
for proteins and DNA
- Sulfur: a part of some amino acids, involved in protein synthesis of amino acids
- Phosphorus: a phosphate base is a component of DNA, also part of ATP (energy)
- Iron: found in blood, which is used to circulate oxygen throughout the body
- Calcium: Regulates production of cell wall in plants, strengthens bones, muscle
contraction
ORGANIC MOLECULES: Molecules made up of carbon & hydrogen only.
NON-ORGANIC MOLECULES: Anything that does not fall under organic
Hydrogen Bonding, Properties of Water and how it is

necessary for life ***ALL NECESSARY INFORMATION
Explain and draw hydrogen bonding in water molecules
Hydrogen bonding occurs between water
molecules due to the fact that water
molecules are polar molecules, which
means that they possess partially
positive and partially negative ends.
These bonds between partially positive and
negative ends are weak when there are
only few, but when there are many
hydrogen bonds are extremely strong.
Hydrogen bonding can only occur between
Hydrogen, Fluoride, Oxygen and Nitrogen.
List 3 properties of water and explain those properties.
Some properties of water are its thermal, cohesive and solvent properties. Thermal
properties of water include heat capacity, boiling and freezing points and the cooling
effect of evaporation. Water has a large heat capacity which means that a
considerable amount of energy is needed to increase its temperature. This is due to the
strength of the hydrogen bonds which are not easily broken. Water has a high boiling
and freezing point. It boils at 100 C because the strong hydrogen bonds. All these
hydrogen bonds between the water molecules need to break for the liquid to change to
gas. Cohesion is the effect of hydrogen bonds holding the water molecules
together. Water moves up plants because of cohesion. Long columns of water can be
sucked up from roots to leaves without the columns breaking. The hydrogen bonds

keep the water molecules sticking to each other. The solvent properties of water
mean that many different substances can dissolve in it because of its polarity.
How is water vital for life? Explain while making connection to its properties.
The thermal properties make water vital for life due to the fact that it is used to
maintain homeostasis. When organisms perspire, the sweat that is released onto the
surface of the skin cools down your body temperature in order to maintain bodily
functions. The cohesive property of water allows plants to transfer it through the
vascular system, as a transport medium for nutrients, or other substances. Water is
also important to life because it provides a habitat for aquatic organisms. Its low
freezing point and high boiling point make it a safe habitat due to its high heat capacity.
Waters transparency makes it important also because since provides a habitat to
aquatic organisms, if it werent for waters transparency, it would be much more difficult
to sustain life underwater. Its transparency also makes it possible for plants to
perform photosynthesis underwater.
Unit 6: Biochemistry
Molecule
Monomer
Polymer
Function
Carbohydrate
Monosaccharide,
glucose, simple
sugar
Polysaccharide,
starch, glycogen
Energy source,
raw materials for
molecules
Protein
Amino acids
Polypeptides,
protein
Determined by
structure, catalyst
Lipid
Fatty acids,
glycerol
Phospholipid,
triglyceride
Nutrition, storage,
insulation
Nucleic Acid
Nucleotide
DNA, RNA,
Nucleic Acid
Storage of genetic
information
Image
Carbohydrates
STRUCTURES OF CARBOHYDRATES TO KNOW
1.Monosaccharide (consist of a single monomer)
-forms of monosaccharides are glucose, ribose, fructose,

galactose, deoxyribose, simple sugars, etc.
-ring is composed of multiple carbons and one oxygen

atom
-ex. glucose (image)
2. Disaccharide (consist of 2
monomers)
- pairs of monosaccharides
linked together by
dehydration synthesis
- have a distinct double-ring structure

- ex. maltose, lactose & sucrose (images)
3.Polysaccharide (multiple
monomers to form a polymer)
-many monomers brought

together form a polysaccharide
-some have a branched structure

-costs little energy to build, releases
energy when digested
-ex. cellulose, starch, glycogen

(images)
Carbohydrates: What to Know

II. Give 3 examples of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Three types of monosaccharides are glucose, ribose and deoxyribose. Three types of
disaccharides are fructose, sucrose and maltose. Three types of polysaccharides are
starch, glycogen and cellulose.
III. Be able to identify glucose and ribose from diagrams.
- A glucose molecule has a hexagon structure. A ribose molecule has a pentagon

structure.
IV. State one function of glucose, glycogen and lactose in animals.
- A function of glucose in animals is that its used as an energy source for the body.
- A function of glycogen in animals is that its a source of long-term energy storage,
and is stored primarily in muscles and in the liver.
- A function of lactose in animals is that its the sugar found in milk that is given to
newborns.
V. State functions of sucrose, fructose and cellulose in plants.
- A function of sucrose in plants is that its used as an energy source for the plant.
- A function of fructose in plants is that its found in fruit, and gives sweetness to
attract animals.
- A function of cellulose in plants is that it makes up the cell wall.

I.
State functions of carbohydrates.
- Raw materials, energy, energy storage and creating structural compounds
Proteins
- proteins are long chains of polypeptides, which are

formed from amino acids (proteins respective
monomer)
- look for nitrogen when identifying proteins

- functions of amino acids are protein synthesis,
energy reserve and hormones (thyroxin) - form fits
function
- bonds between amino acids are called peptide bonds (another

form of covalent bonds) that are formed by nitrogen and carbon
- polar amino acids are hydrophilic (does not repel water) and tend to be placed
on the outside of the protein
- non-polar amino acids are hydrophobic (repels water) and tend to be placed on
the inside of the protein
Proteins: Structures
I.
Primary Structure
- this structure determines the folding of the polypeptide to give a functional protein
II. Secondary Structure
- folding of the nitrogen-carbon-carbon backbone of the polypeptide chain using weak

hydrogen bonds
- produces alpha helix and beta pleating

III. Tertiary Structure
- folding of polypeptide into domains whose chemical properties are determined by the amino
acids in chain
- folding is sometimes held together by strong covalent bonds

IV. Quaternary Structure (not all proteins reach this structure)
- some proteins are made of several polypeptide subunits these subunits fit together to form
a functional protein
Proteins: Functions
There are many different functions that proteins
possess. Ones I need to know are
A.Catalytic - act as a catalyst in order to speed up

chemical reactions. ex. rubisco: acts as an enzyme in
photosynthesis
B.Storage - biological reserves of metal ions and
amino acids. ex. casein: found in milk
C. Transport - transports nutrients, other materials, etc. ex. hemoglobin: blood
cells, transport oxygen throughout body
D. Communication - act as notifiers for releasing chemical messages to other
structures. ex. insulin: is hormone that regulates blood sugar
E. Contractile - generate force for muscle contraction. ex. myosin: converts
chemical energy (ATP) to mechanical energy, which creates force and movement
F. Protective - help protect the body against any problems that may occur. ex.
immunoglobin: act as antibodies, attach to pathogens (foreign invaders) and mark
them to be destroyed
G. Toxins - may act as toxic substance in order to
protect organism. ex. snake venom: is used to
protect snake from attackers or to catch prey
H. Structural - are fibrous proteins, involved in
structure. ex. collagen: provide elasticity of
skin, tendons, and ligaments
I.
Pigment - induce colors in skin, eyes, etc. ex.

rhodospin: makes rod cells of retina lightsensitive
Lipids
- lipids are hydrophobic (water fearing.) They will not mix with water and will repel it.
- includes fats, waxes, steroids and oils
- the cell membrane is composed of lipids called phospholipids, have a head that is
hydrophilic, and two tails that are hydrophobic
Lipids: Types
1. Triglycerides
- made up of 3 fatty acids and one glycerol. formed by dehydration synthesis

- fats and oils fall under the triglyceride category
2. Phospholipids
- only have two fatty acids linked to glycerol, and a phosphate group
- only partly hydrophobic, form the basis of membranes
3. Steroids
- four fused rings in their molecule

- ex. cholesterol, progesterone, estrogen, testosterone
Lipids: Function
- Serve as energy storage. Fats provide much more energy than carbohydrates do,
but take more energy to access (they are stored away.)
- Provide thermal insulation. Fats help keep the body warm and reduce heat loss.
- Makes up the double-layer of all membranes. Phospholipids are used to make up
the cell membrane.
- Buoyancy. Since lipids are less dense than water, it allows buoyancy and animals
can float in the water.
Nucleic Acids
- Nucleotides are composed of three parts: a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose,)

a phosphate group and a base (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine, or Uracil)
- two types of strands that can form from nucleotides- Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
or Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
- RNA is one strand of nucleotides, DNA is two strands

- in DNA, strands are antiparallel. Strands are linked by hydrogen bonding
between their bases. Complementary base pairs are Adenine-Thymine and
Cytosine-Guanine. in RNA, complementary bases are the same except Cytosine is
paired with Uracil. Covalent bonds form
between the phosphate groups and the
sugars.
- DNA serves as genetic coding for genes,

and a blueprint for building proteins.
- RNA serves as a blueprint for new cells, the

next generation.
- Phosphorus and Sulfur serve as

backbone for DNA
- there are two types of nucleotides

1. Purines
double ring nitrogen base, includes
Adenine and Guanine. Adenine and
Guanine are larger in size than Cytosine,
Uracil and Thymine (Pyrimidines.)
2 hydrogen bonds are formed between Adenine and Thymine.
2. Pyrimidines
single ring nitrogen base, includes Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine. Cytosine, Uracil
and Thymine are smaller in size than Adenine and Guanine (Purines.)
3 hydrogen bonds are formed between Cytosine and Guanine/Uracil.
DNA Strand Pairing, Carbohydrates vs. Lipids, the role of

Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis, ***ALL NECESSARY
I.
Describe the structure of DNA, including the antiparallel strands and hydrogen
bonding between pyrimidines and purines.
The double-helix structure of DNA is formed by two anti-parallel strands of DNA.

To form one single strand of DNA, covalent bonds must be formed between the
phosphate group and sugar of nucleotides to form a strand. Then, to form a
double-helix structure, hydrogen bonds are formed between complementary base
pairs (Purines-Pyrimidines, A-T, C-G) C-G form 3 hydrogen bonds and A-T form 2
hydrogen bonds.
II. Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage.
Carbohydrates and lipids can both be used as energy storage however carbohydrates
are usually used for short term storage whereas lipids are used for long term
storage. Carbohydrates are soluble in water unlike lipids. This makes
carbohydrates easy to transport around the body (from and to the store). Also,
carbohydrates are a lot easier and more rapidly digested so their energy is useful if
the body requires energy fast. As for lipids, they are insoluble which makes them
more difficult to transport however because they are insoluble, lipids do not have an
effect on osmosis which prevents problems within the cells in the body. They also
contain more energy per gram than carbohydrates which makes lipids a lighter store
compared to a store of carbohydrates equivalent in energy. Carbohydrates are stored
as glycogen in animals, and lipids are stored as fats in animals.
III. Outline the roles of dehydration synthesis or hydrolysis in the relationships between
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharidesbetween fatty acids,
glycerol and triglycerides and between amino acids and polypeptides.
In order to create polymers out of monomers, dehydration synthesis must occur.
Dehydration synthesis is the formation of bonds that results in excess water
molecules. In order to break down polymers into monomers, hydrolysis must
occur. Hydrolysis is the process of adding water to polymers, and having bonds
between monomers break down. To create bonds between amino acids to form
polypeptides, between monosaccharides to form di/polysaccharides, or between
monoglycerides to form triglycerides, dehydration synthesis must occur. Hydrolysis
(the opposite of dehydration synthesis) is necessary to break down those bonds.
Unit 7: Cells, Intro to Cells and Cell Theory

Cell Theory
1. All living things are composed of
cells
2. The cell is the smallest unit of life
3. Cells only can come from preexisting cells
Evidence for the cell theory comes from
microscopes. They offer increased
visualization of tiny objects. Things
viewed under a microscope have been
found to be made of cells. Evidence is
also found through Francesco Redis
study with the meat jars, on the subject of
spontaneous generation.
All life performs 7 different life functions.
1. Movement - the ability to move from location to location. The ability to propel
blood, nutrients, urine, etc. through the body also counts as movement (sessile
organisms.)
2. Reproduction - the ability to produce new cells or other offspring.
3. Responding to the environment - the ability to sense changes in the
environment and reacting to them.
4. Metabolism - the ability to break down substances (includes all chemical
reactions that occur within cells.) Metabolism is regulated by hormones
5. Growth - the ability to increase in size (number of cells.)
6. Excretion - the ability to remove waste from the organism. Includes the digestive
system evaluating feces, urinary system evaluating urine, respiratory system
exhaling carbon dioxide, etc.
7. Nutrition - the ability to take in food and substances that is necessary for
survival.
Origin of Life on Earth

4 conditions necessary for life to develop on Earth
- Non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules

- Assembly of organic molecules into polymers
- Origin of self-replicating molecules that make inheritance possible
- Packing of molecules into membranes
Miller & Urey Experiment

Early Earth had high temperatures, lots of meteor showers, lots of lightning storms, many
volcanoes, and most of Earth was ocean.
Miller & Urey wanted to test to see perhaps how organic molecules were created from
inorganic matter on Earth. Their experiment was
I. In a glass refluxing system, they created a miniature early Earth.
II. This early Earth replica included hydrogen, methane, ammonia and water
III. The mixture was heated and sparks were used to mimic lightning before allowing the Earth
to cool down.
After performing this experiment and leaving their miniature Earth for a week, they found
that organic molecules were able to be created by things in their Earth.
The conclusion was that organic molecules had first formed in placed such as
volcanoes, hydrothermal vents, or any other location where they could flourish.
Endosymbiotic Theory
Endosymbiotic theory is the theory that chloroplasts and mitochondria formed by a prokaryote
being ingested by another cell.
Endosymbiotic theory also states that eukaryotic cells are believed to have evolved from aerobic
prokaryotes.
Evidence for this theory:
Mitochondria and chloroplasts both have double-membranes (not a normal trait of
organelles)
Mitochondria and chloroplasts both have ribosomes within themsimilar to prokaryotes
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are both roughly the same size as bacteria
Mitochondria and chloroplasts both have their own DNA coding.
How is cell size limited by the ratio of surface area:volume?
Smaller cells have a larger ratio than larger cells.

The cell membrane must be large enough to absorb nutrients.
Cells divide when they reach a certain size.
If ratio gets too small, substances wont be able to enter the cell fast enough to fuel chemical
reactions and waste will accumulate faster than it can be excreted.
Stem Cells & Differentiation

Differentiation is defined as the specialization of a cell. It occurs numerous times
during development of multicellular organisms. When a zygote forms, it changes
from a simple zygote to a complex system of tissues and cell types this is all due to
differentiation.
An example of differentiation is a zygote changing to a multicellular embryo, then to a
more complex system of fetus.
Stem cells are cells that have yet to differentiate, so they are unspecialized and can
become any type of cell. They have two qualities1. Self Renewal- can continually divide
2. Potency- possess the capability to differentiate
************************************************************
Stem Cell Uses
There is many ways that stem cells can be used to treat disease. However, there are certain
ethical issues surrounding the use of stem cells due to our duty to respect the value of
human life, although we also have a duty to prevent or alleviate suffering.
Need to know two different ways you can use stem cells:
Using stem cells to treat Stargardsts Disease (disease that affects vision) 1. Stem cell researcher has an embryonic stem cell
2. Researcher differentiates that embryonic stem cell into a retinal cell
3. New retinal cell is injected into retina and enters the body
4. Retinal cell attaches to patients existing retinal cells, which do not function properly
5. Once stem cell attaches to retinal cells, they will all slowly improve functional properties
6. Result: Vision will begin to improve greatly.
Using stem cells to treat Leukemia1. Stem cell researcher has an embryonic stem cell
2. Researcher differentiates that embryonic stem cell into a bone marrow cell (gives rise to red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in the body)
3. Chemotherapy has the ability to kill normal cells in bone marrowleads to patient not being
able to produce blood cells.
4. Doctor will inject healthy bone marrow cells into patient
5. Injected cells will find way to bone marrow and begin to produce healthy cells
6. Result: Allows patient to be able to produce healthy blood cells
Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
nucelus
no, only posses a nucleoid

(loose bundle of chromosomes)
yes
membrane-bound organelles
no
yes (many)
size
1-10 micrometers
10-50 micrometers
when did they evolve
3.5 billion yrs ago
1.5 billion years ago
cytoplasm
yes
yes
cell membrane
yes
yes
cell wall
some do
plants
ribosomes
yes
yes
DNA
circular, free floating DNA
chromosomes in nucleus
examples
bacteria
plants, animals, etc.
Eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells are very differing eukaryotic cells are cells that are
multicellular, and prokaryotic cells are unicellular.
Be able to compare and contrast prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells!

Prokaryotic cells have naked DNA
Prokaryotes do not possess mitochondria, chloroplasts, centrioles, etc.
Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission.
Prokaryotes have smaller ribosomes 70s
Prokaryotes either have no or few organelles bounded by a single membrane.
Eukaryotic cells have chromosomes made up of DNA and proteins
Eukaryotic cells include animal cells and plant cells, and can possess all organelles that
P+A cells have
Eukaryotic cells have larger ribosomes80s
Eukaryotic cells have many organelles
Both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells can have a cell wall, cell membrane, pili,
flagella, ribosomes, and plasma membrane
Both can reproduce

Be able to draw and label a diagram of an animal cell!
Make sure to label:
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Cell membrane
Lysosome
Golgi body/apparatus
Nuclear membrane
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Ribosome
Be able to draw and label a diagram of a prokaryotic cell!
Make sure to label:
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Pili
Ribosome
Nucleoid
Cytoplasm
Flagella
Animal Cells & Plant Cells Organelles

organelle
plant cell
animal cell
function
nucleus (and
nucleolus)
present
present
storage of genetic
information, manages
cell functions
mitochondria
not present
present
performs cellular
respiration, converts
energy stored in food
into energy
lysosome
not present
present
breaks down old

organelles, food
particles or invading
objects
ribosome
present
present
performs protein
synthesis
centriole
not present
present
play major part in cell

division
cell wall
present
not present
rigid wall made up of

cellulose, boundary
around cell provides
structure and support

organelle
plant cell
animal cell
function
vacuole
present (much larger)
present (much smaller)
sac of fluid surrounded

by membrane, used for
storage of wastes
nutrients and water
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
present
present
make large amounts of

protein to be exported
from cell or inserted to
cell membrane
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
present
present
involved in synthesis of
lipids, and breakdown of
toxic substances
cytoplasm
present
present
gelatin-like fluid,
contains salts, minerals
and organic moleculessurrounds organelles
golgi apparatus
present
present
receives and distributes

proteins from E.R to
organelles or out of cell
cilia & flagella
not present
present
cell mobility
cell membrane
present
present
semi-permeable
phospholipid bilayer,
controls what enters &
exits cell
plastids
present
not present
3 types: chloroplasts,
chromoplasts
(synthesize & store
pigments,) and
leucoplasts (store food
such as starches,
proteins & lipids
chloroplast
present
not present
photosynthesis
Division of Prokaryotes, Differences between Plant and

Animal Cells
- Prokaryotes divide by a process called binary fission. Its an asexual reproduction method,
involving the splitting of the parent organism into separate organisms
(A few) Differences between P & A Cells
Animal cells only have a cell membrane
Plant cells possess a cell membrane and cell wall
Animal cells dont have chloroplasts
Plant cells dont have mitochondria or centrioles
This is the end! Everyone study and make sure you

dont stress too much over the things you dont
understand that well. Good luck everyone :)

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Sunday, February 1, 2015