Chapter 9: Electromagnetic Waves

The Wave Equation

9.1 Waves in One Dimension 9.1.1 The Wave Equation

How to represent such a wave mathematically?

What is a wave?

Hint: The wave at different times, once at t=0, and again at

some later time t --- each point on the wave form simply shifts
to the right by an amount vt, where v is the velocity.

A start: A wave is disturbance of a continuous medium that

propagates with a fixed shape at constant velocity.
In the presence of absorption, the wave will diminish in
size as it move;
If the medium is dispersive different frequencies travel at
different speeds;
Standing waves do not propagate;
Light wave can propagate in vacuum;

initial shape
subsequent form

(capture (mathematically) the

f ( z , t ) = f ( z vt , 0) = g ( z vt ) essence of wave motion.)

The Wave Equation (II)

f1 ( z , t ) = Ae b ( z vt )
Examples:

F[sin( + ) sin( )] = (x)

2 y
t 2

Small angle approximation:

y
x
2
2 y
y
= ( / F ) 2
t
x2

sin tan =

+ vt )

f 5 ( z , t ) = A sin(bz ) cos(bvt )
A
= [sin(b( z + vt )) + sin(b( z vt ))]
2

From Newtons second law we have

How about these functions?

2

The function f(z,t) depends on them only in the very special

combination z-vt;
When that is true, the function f(z,t) represents a wave of
fixed shape traveling in the z direction at speed v.

The Wave Equation of a String

f 2 ( z , t ) = A sin[b( z vt )]
A
f3 ( z, t ) =
b( z vt ) 2 + 1

f 4 ( z , t ) = Ae b ( z

f ( z , 0) = g ( z )
f ( z, t ) = ?

a standing wave
3

The Wave Equation

9.1.2 Sinusoidal Waves

Derive the wave equation that a disturbance propagates

without changing it shape.

f ( z , t ) = g ( z vt );

wave speed

(i) Terminology

Let u z vt

f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z vt ) + ]

2
dg
f df u
2 f
dg
2 d g
= v

=
=v
(
)=
v
t du t
t 2
t du
du
du 2
f df u dg
2 f dg d 2 g
=

=
= ( )=
z du z du
z 2 z du du 2
d 2 g 1 2 f 2 f
2 f 1 2 f
=
=

= 0 qed
du 2 v 2 t 2
z 2
z 2 v 2 t 2

amplitude

phase constant

f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z vt ) + ] = A cos(kz t + )

, : wave length
v
= kv = 2 =2 f
k=

+ v or v
f ( z , t ) = g ( z vt ) + h( z + vt ) the wave equation is linear.
5

: angular frequency

f : frequency

Example 9.1

Sinusoidal Waves

The advantage of the complex notation.

Suppose we want to combine two sinusoidal waves:

(ii) Complex notation

Eulers formula

wave number

ei = cos + i sin

f3 = f1 + f 2 = Re[ f1 ] + Re[ f 2 ] = Re[ f1 + f 2 ] = Re[ f3 ]

f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z vt ) + ] = Re[ Aei ( kz t + ) ]

= Re[ Ai ei ( kz t ) ] = Re[ Aei ( kz t ) ]

Simply add the corresponding complex wave functions, and

take the real part.
In particular, when they have the same frequency and wave
number

f Aei ( kz t ) complex wave function

A Aei complex amplitude

f3 = A1ei ( kz t ) + A2 ei ( kz t ) = A3ei ( kz t )
where A3 = A3ei3 = A1ei1 + A2 ei 2

f ( z , t ) = Re[ f ( z, t )]
The advantage of the complex notation is that exponentials
are much easier to manipulate than sines and cosines.
7

Try doing this without using the complex notation.

8

9.1.3 Boundary Conditions:

Sinusoidal Waves (III)

Reflection and Transmission

(iii) Linear combinations of sinusoidal waves

f ( z , t ) = A(k )ei ( kz t ) dk , where = (k )

A(k ) can be obtained in terms of the initial conditions

f ( z , 0) and f ( z , 0) from the theory of Fourier transforms.

Incident wave:

f I ( z , t ) = AI ei ( k1z t )

Reflected wave:

f R ( z , t ) = AR ei ( k1z t )

Transmitted wave:

fT ( z , t ) = AT ei ( k2 z t )

All parts of the system are oscillating at the same frequency .

The wave velocities are different in two
regimes, which means the wave lengths
and wave numbers are also different.

Any wave can be written as a linear combination of

sinusoidal waves.

v1 k2 1
= =
v2 k1 2

The waves in the two regions:

So from now on we shall confine our attention to sinusoidal
waves.
9

Mathematically, f(z,t) is continuous at z=0.

f (0 , t ) = f (0+ , t )

f (0 , t ) = f (0 , t )

df
dz

The derivative of f(z,t) must also be continuous at z=0.

df
dz

=
0

df
dz

=
0

df
dz

AI + AR = AT

k1 ( AI AR ) = k2 AT
0+

k1 k2
v2 v1

=
=
A
(
)
A
(
) AI
R
I
k1 + k2
v2 + v1

AI + AR = AT

2k1
2v2
k1 ( AI AR ) = k2 AT
) AI = (
) AI
AT = (

k1 + k2
v2 + v1

Why?
0

10

Boundary Conditions Determine the Complex

Amplitudes

Boundary Conditions

AI ei ( k1z t ) + AR ei ( k1z t ) for z < 0

f ( z, t ) =
for z > 0
AT ei ( k2 z t )

When v2>v1, all three waves have the same phase angle.
The complex wave function obeys the same rules: Why?

f (0 , t ) = f (0+ , t );

df
dz

=
0

df
dz

When v2<v1 the reflected wave is out of phase by 180.

11

Consider two extreme cases, open end and fixed end.

12

The Open End and Fixed End

9.1.4 Polarization

Superposition of the actual pulse and an imaginary pulse.

Transverse waves: the displacement of the wave is

perpendicular to the direction of propagation, e.g. EM waves.
Longitudinal waves: the displacement of the wave is along
the direction of propagation, e.g. sound waves.
Transverse waves occur in two independent states of polarization:

fv ( z , t ) = Aei ( kz t ) x

f h ( z , t ) = Aei ( kz t ) y

i ( kz t )
n , where n = cos x + sin y
General form: f ( z , t ) = Ae

13

14

9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum

9.2.1 The Wave Equation for E and B

Right and Left Hand Circular Polarizations

In regions of space where there is no charge or current,

Maxwells equations read
B
(i) E = 0
(iii) E =
t
E
(ii) B = 0
(iV) B = 0 0
t
( B)
2E
( E) 2 E = 0 0 2
t
t
( E)
2B
( B) = 0 0
( B) 2 B = 0 0 2
t
t
2
2E
E = 0 0 2
t
E = 0

since
2
2 B = B
B = 0
0 0

t 2
( E) =

15

16

The Wave Equation for E and B

Hertzs Experiment

In vacuum, each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies

the three-dimensional wave equation
2
2E

E
0 0

1 2 f
t 2
2
f

2
v 2 t 2
2 B = B
0 0

t 2

When Maxwells work was published in 1867 it did not

receive immediate acceptance. It is Hertz who conclusively
demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic wave.

Maxwells equations imply that empty space supports the

propagation of electromagnetic waves, traveling at a speed
1
the speed of light
= 3 108 m/s
v=
0 0

17

18

9.2.2 Monochromatic Plane Waves

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Since different frequencies in the visible range correspond to

different colors, such waves are called monochromatic.
This definition can be applied to the whole spectrum. A wave
of single frequency is called a monochromatic wave.

Electromagnetic waves span an immerse range of

frequencies, from very long wavelength to extremely high
energy with frequency 1023 Hz. There is no theoretical limit
to the high end.

19

20

Mainly Heating Effect in Micro/mm-Wave Spectrum

Windows for Research and Application Opportunities

21

Spectrum to Be Exploited

Monochromatic Plane Waves

--- Significance of the Electron Cyclotron Maser

one photon
per excitation,

Consider a monochromatic wave of frequency and the

wave is traveling in the z direction and has no x or y
dependence, called plane waves.
Plane waves: the fields are uniform over every plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

multiple-photon multiple photon

per electron,
per electron,

large interaction large interaction interaction space

space
space
~ wavelength

22

Are these waves common? Yes, very common.

E( z , t ) = E0 ei ( kz t )
where E0 and B 0 are the complex amplitudes.

i ( kz t )
B( z , t ) = B 0 e
THz gap

23

24

Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

Transverse Electromagnetic Waves (II)

Q: What is the relation between E and B?

Ez
E = 0
= ( E0 ) z ikei ( kz t ) = 0
( E0 ) z = 0
z
Bz
B = 0
= ( B0 ) z ikei ( kz t ) = 0
( B0 ) z = 0
z
That is, electromagnetic waves are transverse: the electric
and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Moreover, Faradays law E = B
t
( E0 ) z ( E0 ) y
( B0 ) x
x :

=
k ( E0 ) y = ( B0 ) x
y
z
t
( B0 ) y
( E0 ) x ( E0 ) z
y :

=
k ( E0 ) x = ( B0 ) y
z
x
t
( E0 ) y ( E0 ) x
( B0 ) z
25
z :

=
0=0
x
y
t

Example 9.2

(z E0 ) =

y :
z :

( B0 ) z ( B0 ) y
( E0 ) x

= 0 0
y
z
t
( E0 ) y
( B0 ) x ( B0 ) z

= 0 0
z
x
t
( B0 ) y ( B0 ) x
( E0 ) z

= 0 0
x
y
t

In free space, the speed of light is

k ( B0 ) y = 0 0 ( E0 ) x
k ( B0 ) x = 0 0 ( E0 ) y
0=0
c=

0 0

More compactly, B 0 = k (z E0 ) = 1 (z E0 ) E B
c

1
amplitude relation: B0 = E0
c

26

There is nothing special about the z

direction---we can generalize to
monochromatic plane waves traveling in
an arbitrary direction.

E( z , t ) = E0 ei ( kz t ) x
B0 =

x :

E
t

Plane Waves Traveling in an Arbitrary Direction

Prove: If E points in the x direction,

then B points in the y direction.
Sol:

Amperes law with Maxwells correction: B = 0 0

1
1
E0 ei ( kz t ) (z x ) = E0 ei ( kz t ) y
c
c

The propagation (or wave) vector, k: pointing in the

direction of propagation.
Generalization of kz: using the scalar product kr.

Take the real part:

E( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz t + )x
1
B( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz t + )y
c

E(r, t ) = E0 ei (k r t )n the polarization vector

1
1
B(r, t ) = E0 ei ( k r t ) (k n ) = k E
c
c

Q: Why not use sin function?

Q: Can you write down the real electric and magnetic fields?
27

28

9.2.3 Energy and Momentum in

Electromagnetic Waves

Energy Transport and the Poynting Vector

Consider two planes, each of area A, a distance dx apart,
and normal to the direction of propagation of the wave. The
total energy in the volume between the planes is dU=uAdx.

The energy per unit volume stored in the electromagnetic

field is
1
1 2
u = ( 0 E 2 +
B )
0
2
1
Monochromatic plane wave: B 2 = 2 E 2 = 0 0 E 2
c
1
1
1
u = ( 0 E 2 +
B 2 ) = ( 0 E 2 + 0 E 2 ) = 0 E 2
2
2
0

The rate at which this energy through a unit area normal to

the direction of propagation is

dx
1 dU 1
= uA = uc
A dt
A
dt
EB
S = uc =
S=

Their contributions are equal.

u = 0 E = 0 E0 cos (kz t + )
2

S=

As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it.

g=

Q: How about the momentum? See next slide.

29

EB

(the vector form)

1
1
1
S = 2 0 E0 2 cos 2 (kz t + )z = uz
2
c
c
c

Example

Average Effect

A radio station transmits a 10-kW signal at a frequency of 100

MHz. For simplicity, assume that it radiates as a point source.
At a distance of 1 km from the antenna, find: (a) the amplitude
of the electric and magnetic field strengths, and (b) the energy
incident normally on a square plate of side 10 cm in 5 min.

In the case of light, the period is so brief, that any

macroscopy measurement will encompass many cycles.
All we want is the average value.
1
u = 0 E0 2
2
1
S = uc = c 0 E02 z
2
1
1
g = 2 S = 0 E02 z
2c
c

Solution:

E02
Average power
=
4 r 2
2 0 c
10000

2 4 107 3 108 = E02

4 10002
E0 = 0.775 V/m

9
B0 = 2.58 10 T
(a ) S av =

The average power per unit area transported by an

electromagnetic wave is called the intensity:

I S =

1
c 0 E02
2

30

(b) U = S av At = 2.4 103 J

31

32

Momentum and Radiation Pressure

Momentum and Radiation Pressure (II)

An electromagnetic wave transports linear momentum.

The radiation pressure at normal incident is

The linear momentum carried by an electromagnetic wave is

related the energy it transport according to

U
c
If surface is perfectly reflecting, the momentum change of
the wave is double, consequently, the momentum imparted
to the surface is also doubled.
p=

F S
= =u
A c
Examples: (a) the tail of comet, (b) A solar sail

The force exerted by an electromagnetic wave on a surface

may be related to the Poynting vector

F
p
U
SA S
=
=
=
= =u
A At Act Ac c
33

34

9.3 Electromagnetic Waves in Matter

Homework of Chap.9 (I)

9.3.1 Propagation in Linear Media

In regions where there is no free charge and free current,
Maxwells equations become
B
D = 0 E =
t
D
B = 0 H =
t

Prob. 2, 6, 8, 10, 12

If the medium is linear,

D = E and H =

If the medium is linear and

homogeneous ( and do not vary
from point to point),
35

B
t
E
B = 0 B = 36
t
E = 0

E =

Energy Density, Poynting Vector, and Intensity in

Linear Media

The Index of Refraction

Electromagnetic waves propagate through a linear
homogeneous medium at a speed
1
c
2
v=
=
2E
n
E = 2
1 2 f
t
2
f = 2 2

v t
n
2 B = B
0 0
t 2

All of our previous results carry over, with the simple

transcription
1
1
1
g = uz
u = ( E 2 + B 2 )
v
0

2
0
1
EB
I S = v E02
S=
cv
2

The index of refraction of the material

= r
For most material, is very close to 0, so n
0
Since r is almost always greater than 1, light travels
more slowly through matter.
Q: What happens when r is less than 1 or negative?
Very interesting.

Incident wave:

E I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z t ) x
1
B I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z t ) y
v1
E R ( z , t ) = E0 R e
x
1
B R ( z , t ) = E0 R ei ( k1z t ) y
v1

E1// E2// = 0
H1// H 2// = (K f n )
38

The Boundary Conditions

A plane wave of frequency , traveling in the z direction and

polarized in the x direction, approaches the interface from the
left.

i ( k1 z t )

D1 D2 = f
B1 B2 = 0

37

9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal

Incidence

Reflected wave:

Q: What happens when a wave passes from one

transparent medium into another? Boundary conditions.

Normal incident: no components perpendicular to the surface.

E0 I + E0 R = E0T
1
1
( E0 I E0 R ) =
E
1v1
2 v2 0T
( E0 I E0 R ) = E0T , where =

1v1
2 v2

In terms of the incident amplitude:

Transmitted wave:
i ( k2 z t )

ET ( z , t ) = E0T e
1
BT ( z , t ) = E0T ei ( k2 z t ) y
v2
x

39

1
) E0 I
E0 R = (
1+
2
) E0 I
E0T = (
1+

if

v2 v1
) E0 I
v1 + v2
2v2
) E0 I
=(
v1 + v2

E0 R = (
E0T

40

Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

Determine the Complex Amplitudes of a String

Incident wave:

f I ( z , t ) = AI ei ( k1z t )

Reflected wave:

f R ( z , t ) = AR ei ( k1z t )

The reflected wave is in phase if v2 >v1

and is out of phase if v2 <v1

Transmitted wave:

fT ( z , t ) = AT e

Boundary
conditions:

f (0 , t ) = f (0+ , t )

v2 v1
n n
) E0 I = ( 1 2 ) E0 I
v1 + v2
n1 + n2
2v2
2n1
=(
) E0 I = (
) E0 I
v1 + v2
n1 + n2

E0 R = (

i ( k2 z t )

df
dz

=
0

df
dz

E0T
0+

The intensity (average power per unit area) is: I S =

k k
v v

AR = ( 1 2 ) AI = ( 2 1 ) AI

k1 + k2
v2 + v1

AI + AR = AT

2k1
2v2
k1 ( AI AR ) = k2 AT
) AI = (
) AI
AT = (

k1 + k2
v2 + v1

IR
n n
= ( 1 2 )2
II
n1 + n2
2n1 2
4n1n2
I
v
Transmission coefficient T T = 2 2 (
) =
(n1 + n2 ) 2
I I 1v1 n1 + n2
Reflection coefficient R

When v2>v1, all three waves have the same phase angle.
When v2<v1, the reflected wave is out of phase by 180.

1
v E02
2

41

9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Oblique

Incidence

42

Boundary Conditions

Suppose that a monochromatic plane wave of frequency ,

traveling in the kI direction
Incident wave:

All three waves have the same frequency .

= k I v1 = k R v1 = kT v2 or k I = k R =

v2
n
kT = 1 kT
v1
n2

Using the boundary conditions

E I (r, t ) = E0 I ei (k I r t )
1
B I (r, t ) = (k I E I )
v1

1 E1 2 E2 = 0
B1 B2 = 0

Reflected wave:

Transmitted wave:

E R (r, t ) = E0 R ei (k R r t )
1
B R (r, t ) = (k R E R )
v1

ET (r, t ) = E0T ei (kT r t )

1
BT (r, t ) = (k T ET )
v2

E1// E2// = 0
1

B1//

B 2// = 0

A generic structure for the four boundary conditions.

( )ei ( k I r t ) + ( )ei (k R r t ) = ( )ei (kT r t )

43

44

Laws of Reflection and Refraction

k I r = k R r = k T r at z=0
k I sin I = k R sin R = kT sin T

Boundary Conditions (ii)

( )ei (k I r t ) + ( )ei (k R r t ) = ( )ei (kT r t )

I , R , and T are angles

of incidence, reflection,
and refraction, respectively.

The law of reflection:

I = R

The law of refraction:

(Snells law)

sin T k I v1 n1
=
= =
sin I kT v2 n2

We have taken care of the exponential factorsthey cancel.

The boundary conditions become:

(i) 1 (E0 I + E0 R ) z = 2 ( E0T ) z

(ii) (B 0 I + B 0 R ) z = (B 0T ) z
(iii) (E0 I + E0 R ) x , y = ( E0T ) x , y
1
1
(iv)
(B 0 I + B 0 R ) x , y =
( B 0T ) x , y

Normal D
Normal B
Tangential E
Tangential H

1
where B 0 (r, t ) = (k E0 )
v

Common properties of waves: These equations are

obtained from their generic form.
45

Parallel to the Plane of Incidence

Q: If the polarization of the incident wave is parallel to the
plane of incidence, are the reflected and transmitted
waves also polarized in this plane? Yes.

Normal D
(i) 1 ( E0 I sin I + E0 R sin R ) = 2 ( E0T sin T )
Tangential E (iii) ( E0 I cos I + E0 R cos R ) = ( E0T cos T )
Normal B
(ii) 0=0
1
1
Tangential H (iv)
( E0 I E0 R ) =
(E )
47
1v1
2 v2 0T

46

Parallel to the Plane of Incidence (ii)

cos T
cos I
v
(iv) ( E0 I E0 R ) = ( E0T ) 1 1
2v2

2
E0T = (
) E0 I
) E Fresnels equations
E0 R = (
+
+ 0I
(iii) ( E0 I + E0 R ) = ( E0T )

How about the first boundary condition?

Does this condition contribute anything new?

(i) ( E0 I E0 R ) =

2 sin T
(E )
1 sin I 0T

2 sin T 1v1
?
=
1 sin I 2v2
48

Brewsters Angle

Brewsters Angle (II)

If 1 2 , n2 / n1 and sin 2 B 2 /(1 + 2 )
n
tan B 2
n1

E0 R = ( + ) E0 I
v
cos T

where
and 1 1

2 v2
cos I
E = ( 2 )E
0T
0I

+
When =, there is no reflected wave.

E0 R = 0

cos T 1v1
when I = B (called Brewster's angle)
=
cos I 2 v2
v
sin T
cos T 1 sin B

=
From Snell's law 2 =
v1 sin B
cos B 2 sin T
12 sin 2 B
v2 2 2
1 2
2
2
2
=

=
=

and
sin

(
)
sin

sin

T
B
B
22 sin 2 T
v1
(n1 / n2 ) 2 49 2

Transmission and Reflection

1
v11 E02I cos I
2
2
1
I R = v11 E02R cos R = (
) I
+ I
2
1
2 2
IT = v2 2 E02T cos T = (
) I
+ I
2
I I S z =

50

Perpendicular to the Plane of Incidence

Q: If the polarization of the incident wave is perpendicular
to the plane of incidence, are the reflected and transmitted
waves also polarized in this plane? Yes.

I
2
)
R R =(
+
II
I
2 2
)
T T = (
+
II

51

See Problem 9.16

52

9.4 Absorption and Dispersion

9.4.1 Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors

Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (II)

When wave propagates through vacuum or insulating

materials such as glass or teflon, assuming no free charge
and no free current is reasonable.

The continuity equation for free charge:

conductivity

But in conductive media such as metal or plasma, the free

charge and free current are generally not zero.
The free current is proportional to the electric field: Ohms law

J f =E

f = E

= ( E) =

f
E =

B = 0

B
E +
=0
t
E
B
= E
t

For a homogeneous linear medium:

Classification of conductors:

53

Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (III)

Omitting Transient Effect
Omit the transient behavior.
Assume no charges accumulation: f = 0
B
E = 0
E +
=0
t
E
B = 0 B =
+ E
t
B
( B)
( E +
) = ( E) +
t
t

( E) = ( E) 2 E = 2 E
=0

2 E =

( B)
2E
E
= 2 +
t
t
t

2E
E
2B
B
2
+

B
=
+

(likewise) 55
2
2
t
t
t
t

= J f

= f

J f =E

Maxwells equation for linear media assume the form

superconductor
perfect conductor
good conductor
poor conductor

= , = 0
= , = 0
<<

>>

f (t ) = e f (0)

where =

Whats the difference?

See Prob. 7.42

1019 s for copper

c 1014 s collision time

54

Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (IV)

Complex Wave Number
These equations still admit plane-wave solutions,
2E
+
t 2
2B
2 B = 2 +
t
2 E =

E
t
B
t

E( z , t ) = E0 ei ( kz t )

i ( kz t )
B( z , t ) = B 0 e

Note this time the " wave number" k is complex:

k 2 = 2 + i

2
k
1 + ( ) + 1
2

k = k + i , where

2

+
1
(
) 1

56

The Real Parts of The Fields

E( z , t ) = E0 e z ei ( kz t )
B( z , t ) =
Faraday's law

k = k + i = Ke

B( z , t ) =

1 E1 2 E2 = f

E0 e z ei ( kz t )

B1 B2 = 0

K k 2 + 2 = 1 + (
k

9.4.2 Reflection at a Conducting Surface

E B0 e

B E = and

i B

2
) and tan 1 ( / k )

Kei

58

Tangential components of the fields at z=0:

1
x , B I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z t ) y
v1

E1// E2// = 0
1

Reflected wave:

1
E R ( z , t ) = E0 R ei ( k1 z t ) x , B R ( z , t ) = E0 R ei ( k1 z t ) y
v1

B1 B2 = 0

B 2// = K f n

E0 I + E0 R = E0T

E0T e z ei ( k2 z t ) y

( E0 I E0 R ) = E0T , where

Normal components of the fields

1 E1 2 E2 = f

B1//

E0 I + E0 R = E0T
k
1
( E0 I E0 R ) 2 E0T = K f
1v1
2

with K f = 0, why? K f E // = 0

Transmitted wave:

k2

(2) conductor

Reflection at a Conducting Surface (III)

Incident wave:

E( z , t ) = E0T e z ei ( k2 z t ) x , B( z , t ) =

B 2// = K f n

57

Reflection at a Conducting Surface (II)

E I ( z , t ) = E0 I e

(1) nonconducting
linear medium

i ( k1 z t )

B1//

Normal
incident

B0 K

= = 1 + ( ) 2

E0

Where f is the free surface charge, Kf is the free surface

current, and n is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface,
pointing from medium (2) into medium (1).

E0 ei E

E( z , t ) = E0 e cos(kz t + E )x
K
B( z , t ) = E0 e z cos(kz t + E + )y

E1// E2// = 0

1v1
k
2 2

1
E0 R = (
) E0 I
1+
2
E0T = (
) E0 I
1+

For a perfect conductor (=), k2= E0 R = E0 I and E0T = 0

f = 0 (E = 0)

1,2

59

Thats why excellent conductors make good mirrors.

60

9.4.3 The Frequency Dependence of Permittivity

The Group Velocity and Phase Velocity

When the speed of a wave depends on its frequency, the

supporting medium is called dispersive.

When two waves of slightly different frequencies are

superposed, the resulting disturbance varies periodically in
amplitude.

Asin((k0 + k ) z (0 + )t ) + Asin((k0 k ) z (0 )t )
= Asin((k0 z 0t ) + (kz t )) + Asin((k0 z 0t ) (kz t ))
= 2 A cos[(kz t )]sin[(k0 z 0t )]

Phase velocity vp =

k0
d
Group velocity vg =
=
k dk
61

Simplified Model for the Frequency Dependence of

Permittivity in Nonconductors

Interference in Time: Beats

When two waves of slightly different frequencies are
superposed, the resulting disturbance varies periodically in
amplitude.

The electrons in a nonconductor are

bound to specific molecules.

y = y1 + y2 = Asin(2f1t ) + Asin(2f 2t )
= 2 A cos[2 (

62

f1 f 2
f +f
)t ]sin[2 ( 1 2 )t ]
2
2

The simplified binding force: Fbinding = kspring x = m02 x

Is this model oversimplified to you?

Beat frequency (|f1-f2|): frequency of the amplitude

envelope

The damping force on the electron: Fdamping = m

dx
dt

The driving force on the electron: Fdriving = qE = qE0 cos(t )

Newton's law: m
63

d 2x
= Ftot = Fbinding + Fdamping + Fdriving
dt 2

64

Permittivity in Nonconductors

Permittivity in Nonconductors (II)

N molecules per unit volume; each molecule contains fj
electrons with frequency j and damping j.
The polarization P is given by the real part of:

The equation of motion

d 2x
dx
m 2 + m
+ m02 x = qE0 cos(t )
dt
dt
d 2x

dx
+ m02 x = qE0 e it
Re m 2 + m
dt
dt

P=

fj
Nq 2
e =
2
the complex susceptibility
0 m j j 2 i j

Let the system oscillates at the driving frequency

q/m
x = x0 e it , where x0 = 2
E
0 2 i 0

The dipole moment is the real part of p = qx(t )

q2
1
p=
E0 e it
2
2
m 0 i

fj
Nq 2
2
E = 0 eE
m j j 2 i j

65

the complex permittivity = 0 (1 + e )

the complex dielectric constant

fj
Nq 2
r =(1 + e ) = 1 +
2

0 m j j 2 i j

Waves in a Dispersive medium

Anomalous Dispersion

The wave equation for a given frequency reads

2E
E = 2
t
2

The index of refraction:

fj
Nq 2
= 0 (1 + e ) = 0 +
2

m j j 2 i j

k 0 = k + i

E( z , t ) = E0 e z ei ( kz t )

f j 2j
Nq 2 2
2
2 2
2 2
m 0 c j ( j ) + j

In the immediate neighborhood of a resonance, the index of

refraction drops sharply. called anomalous dispersion.

For gases, the second term of is small

f j ( 2j 2 )
Nq 2
1+
n=

2m 0 j ( 2j 2 ) 2 + 2j 2
ck

= 2

I S = I 0 e 2 z , 2 (absorption coefficient)

66

fj
Nq 2
1

(1 + r ) = 1 +
2

2
c
c 2m 0 j j i j
2

Faster Than Light (FTL):

Can we find cases where the waves propagate at a speed
faster than light? Superluminal effect.

The binomial expansion

67

68

9.5 Guided Waves

9.4.1 Wave Guides
Can the electromagnetic waves propagate in a hollow metal
pipe? Yes, wave guide.
Waveguides generally made of good
conductor, so that E=0 and B=0 inside
the material.

General Properties of Wave Guides

In the interior of the wave guide, the waves satisfy Maxwells
equations:
B
E = 0 E +
= 0 Why = 0 and J = 0?
f
f
t
1
1 E
B = 0 B = 2
where v =
v t

We obtain

The boundary conditions at the inner wall

are: E // = 0 and B = 0
The generic form of the monochromatic waves:

E( x, y, z , t ) = E0 ( x, y )ei ( kz t ) = ( Ex x + E y y + Ez z )ei ( kz t )

i ( kz t )
= ( Bx x + By y + Bz z )ei ( kz t )
B( x, y, z , t ) = B 0 ( x, y )e
The confined waves are not (in general) transverse. 69

70

TE, TM, and TEM Waves

Determining the longitudinal components Ez and Bz, we could
quickly calculate all the others.

No TEM Waves in a Hollow Wave Guide

Proof:

Ex E y
+
=0
x
y
E y Ex

=0
If Bz=0, Faradays law says
x
y
If Ez=0, Gausss law says

2
2 Ex E y
+
=0
x 2
y 2

The boundary condition on E requires that the surface be an

equal-potential.
Laplaces equation admits no local maxima or minima.
the potential is constant throughout. Ez=0 no wave at all.

We obtain
2

2 2
+
+ 2 k 2 Ez = 0
2
2
v
x y

2
2

2
2 + 2 + 2 k Bz = 0
v
x y

If Ez = 0 TE (transverse electric) waves;

If Bz = 0 TM (transverse magnetic) waves;
If Ez = 0 and Bz = 0 TEM waves.
71

A hollow wave guide cannot support the TEM wave.

Can a metal wire support the TEM wave? Yes.
72

A Diagram of the Optical Setup

9.5.2 TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide

Ez = 0, and Bz ( x, y ) = X ( x)Y ( y ) separation of variables
1 2 X 1 2Y 2
+
+ ( 2 k2) = 0
X x 2 Y y 2
v

1 2 X
1 2Y
2
=

k
and
= k y2
x
2
2
X x
Y y
with

2
v2

= k 2 + k x2 + k y2

X ( x) = A sin k x x + B cos k x x
Y ( y ) = C sin k y y + D cos k y y
K. Wang and D. M. Mittleman, Metal wires for terahertz wave
guiding, Nature, vol.432, No. 18, p.376, 2004.

73

74

TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide (II)

TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide (III)

Bz
C cos k y y D sin k y y
y
Ex (@ y = 0) = 0 C = 0

Bz ( x, y ) = B0 cos(m x / a ) cos(n y / b)
In vacuum, = 0 and = 0 , v = c.

Ex

1
2
2
2 mn
= c 2 2 [(m / a ) 2 + (n / b) 2 ]
, where mn
c
If < mn , the wave number is imaginary.

k=

n
Ex (@ y = b) = 0 sin k y b = 0, k y =
(n = 0,1, 2,...)
b
B
E y z A cos k x x B sin k x x
x
E y (@ x = 0) = 0 A = 0
m
(m = 0,1, 2,...)
E y (@ x = a) = 0 sin k x a = 0, k x =
a

The lowest cutoff frequency of TE10 mode is: 10 = c / a

The wave velocities are:
vp =

Bz ( x, y ) = B0 cos(m x / a) cos(n y / b) the TE mn mode

vg =

k = ( / v) [(m / a ) + (n / b) ]
2

the cutoff frequency

75

c
2
1 mn
2

> c phase velocity

d
2
2 < c group velocity
= c 1 mn
dk
76

Why the Phase Velocity Greater Than

The Speed of Light
vp =

c
2
1 mn
2

The Field Profiles: Examples

> c phase velocity

d
2
= c 1 mn
2 < c group velocity
dk
v p vg = c 2
vg =

77

9.5.3 The Coaxial Transmission Line

78

The Coaxial Transmission Line (II)

The problem is reduced to two dimensions.

A hollow wave guide cannot support the TEM wave,

but a coaxial transmission line can.

Electrostatic: the infinite line charge;

Magnetostatic: an infinite straight current.

E0 ( s, ) =

A
A
s, B 0 ( s, ) =
s
cs

Taking the real part:

A cos(kz t )
s
s
A cos(kz t )
B( s, , z , t ) =

cs
E( s , , z , t ) =

E = 0 and E = 0 E = E electrostatic

B = 0 and B = 0 B = B magnetostatic

79

80

Homework of Chap.9 (II)

Prob. 16, 18, 19, 29, 30, 35, 38

81