Stainless steels

Stainless steel is a family of alloys of iron that contains at least 10.5% Chromium and a
maximum of 1.2 % carbon which is essential of ensuring formation of a self healing surface
passive layer. This passive layer provides the corrosion resistance. These characteristics make
stainless steels totally different from mild steels.
The stainless steel was discovered between 1900 and 1915. In 1904, Leon Guillet discovered
alloys with composition similar to steel grades 410, 420, 442, 446 and 440-C. In 1906 he also
discovered an iron-nickel-chromium alloy which was similar to the 300 series of stainless steel.
In 1909 Giesen researched on the chromium-nickel (austenitic 300 series) stainless steels. In
Germany, in 1908, Monnartz & Borchers found that a relationship exists between a minimum
level of chromium (10.5%) on corrosion resistance as well as the importance of low carbon
content and the role of molybdenum in increasing corrosion resistance to chlorides.
Stainless steel production process
Stainless steel is produced in an electric arc furnace where carbon electrodes contact recycled
stainless scrap and various alloys of chromium, nickel and molybdenum etc. depending on the
type of stainless steel. A current is passed through the electrode and the temperature increases to
a point where the scrap and alloys melt. The liquid steel can also be produced in LD converter
using hot metal as a major input material. The liquid steel from the electric arc furnace or LD
converter is then transferred into an AOD (Argon Oxygen Decarbonization) converter, where the
carbon levels are reduced and the final alloy additions are carried out to achieve the desired
chemistry. The liquid steel is either cast into ingots or continually cast into slabs or billets. The
slabs or billets are either hot rolled or forged into the final shape. Sometimes hot rolled strips are
further processed by cold rolling to further reduce the thickness as in sheets and some materials
are further drawn into smaller diameters as in rods and wire. Most stainless steels are annealed
and pickled with acid to remove furnace scale from annealing. This helps promoting the passive
surface film that naturally occurs.
Characteristics of stainless steels
Stainless steels are characterized by corrosion resistance, aesthetic appeal, heat resistance, low
life cycle cost, full recyclability, biological neutrality, ease of fabrication, cleanability and good
strength to weight ratio. Fig 1 gives a view of various stainless steels. The family of stainless
steels can be grouped into four types as given below. Each of these types has specific properties
and a basic grade.

Austenitic

Martensitic

Ferritic

Duplex stainless steels.

Fig 1 Types of stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels - These are iron based alloys with nickel content ranging 3.5% to
32%, chromium content ranging 16% to 28% and carbon content not more than 0.1%. 65% of
global consumption of stainless steel is of this type. The most common grades are 18/8 and
18/10. The microstructure of these types of steels is austenite. These steels are non magnetic and
can not be hardened by heat treatment but can be hardened by cold working. These steels have
better corrosion resistance and can be welded. These steels have good ductility and toughness.
These steels are having good hygienic properties and cleanability. Stainless steels of this type are
having good resistance to low (cryogenic) and high (melting point of the alloy) temperatures
since they retain the austenitic structure. The common uses of these steels are kitchen sinks,
architectural applications such as roofs and gutters, doors and windows, tubular frames, food
processing equipment, food preparation areas, chemical vessels, ovens, heat exchangers etc.
These steels are designated by the following three different systems

Metallurgical structure Austenitic

Grades: Such as 304 (most commonly used), 310 (mainly for high temperature), 316 (for
better corrosion resistance) and 317 (for better corrosion resistance)

Unified numbering system (UNS): Such as S30400, S31000, S31600, S31700

Austenitic stainless steels have the following limitations:

i)

The maximum temperature under oxidizing conditions is 925 deg C.

ii)

They are suitable only for low concentrations of reducing acid.

iii)
In cervices and shielded areas, there might not be enough oxygen to maintain the
passive oxide film and crevice corrosion might occur.

iv)
Presence of very high levels of halide ions, especially the chloride ions, can result
into the breakdown of the passive surface film.
Martensitic stainless steels - These iron based alloys have chromium content ranging 11.5% to
18% and carbon content 0.15% to 1.2%. Molybdenum can also be used in type of stainless steels.
These stainless steels are magnetic in nature, can be hardened by heat treatment for strength and
hardness and have poor welding characteristics. The main uses for this type of stainless steels are
knife blades, surgical instruments, fasteners, shafts and springs etc. These types of stainless steels
are designated by the following three systems:

Metallurgical structure Martensitic

Grades: Such as 410 (most used), 420

Unified numbering system (UNS): Such

(cutlery), 440C (for very high hardness)

as S41000, S42000, S44004

Ferritic stainless steels -In ferritic grades of stainless steels carbon content is kept low (less than
0.08%) and chromium content can range from 10.5% to 30%. Some ferritic grades of stainless
steels contain molybdenum up to 4%. Chromium is the main alloying element in these grades.
Because of low carbon content these grades have a different metallurgical structure. These steels
are magnetic in nature and cannot be hardened by heat treatment. They are always used in the
annealed or softened condition. The weldability of these steels is poor. These steels are chosen
when toughness is not the primary need but corrosion resistance especially to chloride stress
corrosion cracking is important.The most common uses of these steels are automotive exhaust
and fuel lines, architectural trim, cooking utensils, hot water tanks and bank vaults etc. These
stainless steels are designated by the following three systems:

Metallurgical

Grades:

Such as 409 (high temperature), 430 (major uses)

Unified

numbering system (UNS): Such as S40900, S43000

structure Ferritic

Duplex stainless steels - In duplex steels carbon is kept at a very low level (less than 0.3%) and
the chromium content is kept high (21 to 26%). The nickel content in these steels is kept low
(3.5% to 8%). These steels may contain molybdenum up to 4.5%. These steels have a mixed
structure which is called duplex and is a combination of both ferritic structure (50%) and
austenitic structure (50%). These steels have physical properties which reflect this structure.
These steels have high resistance to stress corrosion cracking, increased resistance to chloride ion
attack, good weldability and have higher tensile and yield strengths as compared to austenitic
and ferritic stainless steels.The main uses of these steels are marine applications, heat
exchangers, desalination plants, petrochemical plants, paper plants and food pickling plants
etc.These steels are designated by the following three systems:

Metallurgical structure Duplex

Grade: Such as 2205

Unified numbering system (UNS): Such as S31803

Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are the most common and widely known types of stainless steels. They
make up over 70 % of total stainless steel production. These steels contain around 16 % to 25 %
chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all
temperatures from cryogenic region to the melting point of the stainless steel. Austenitic stainless
steels can also contain nitrogen in solution. Although nickel is the alloying element most
commonly used to produce austenitic stainless steels, nitrogen can also be used to produce
austenitic stainless steels. The austenitic stainless steels are more easily recognized because of
their non magnetic properties. Austenitic steels are non magnetic since the face centered cubic
structure of austenite is non magnetic. They are extremely formable and weldable, and they can
be successfully used from cryogenic temperatures to the jet engines and red hot temperatures of
furnaces.
The austenitic stainless steels can have compositions anywhere in the portion of the SchaefferDelong diagram labeled austenite shown in Fig. 1.

Fig 1 Schaeffer- Delong diagram

The family of austenitic stainless steels is shown in Fig 2.

Fig 2 Family of austenitic stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels are mainly segregated into the following two series

200 series Stainless steels with a low nickel and high nitrogen content are classified as
200 series. These are chromium-nickel-manganese austenitic stainless steels. Grade 201
is hardenable through cold working while the grade 202 is a general purpose stainless
steel. Decreasing nickel content and increasing manganese results in weak corrosion
resistance.

300 Series The most common austenitic stainless steels are iron-chromium-nickel steels
and are widely known as the 300 series. In this series the most widely used austenitic
stainless steel is the grade 304, also known as 18/8 for its composition of 18 % chromium
and 8 % nickel. The second most common austenitic stainless steel in this series is
the grade 316, also called marine grade stainless steel, used primarily for its increased
resistance to corrosion. A typical composition of 18 % chromium and 10 % nickel,
commonly known as 18/10 stainless, is often used in cutlery and high quality cookware.

Besides the above two series there are super austenitic stainless steel grades which exhibit great
resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion because of high molybdenum content (> 6 %)
and nitrogen additions. Higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion
cracking than the stainless steels of the 300 series. The higher alloy content of super austenitic
steels makes them more expensive.
The straight grades of stainless steel contain a maximum of 0.08 % carbon. In these grades,
there is no requirement of minimum carbon in the specification.
The L grades are used to provide extra corrosion resistance after welding. The letter L after a
stainless steel grade indicates low carbon (as in 304L). The carbon is kept to 0.03 % or under to
avoid carbide precipitation. Carbon in steel, when heated to temperatures in what is called the
critical range (430 deg C to 870 deg C) precipitates out, combines with the chromium and
gathers on the grain boundaries. This deprives the steel of the chromium in solution and
promotes corrosion adjacent to the grain boundaries. By controlling the amount of carbon, this is
minimized. For weldability, the L grades are used. However the L grades are more expensive.
In addition, carbon, at high temperatures imparts great physical strength.
The H grades contain a minimum of 0.04 % carbon and a maximum of 0.10 % carbon and are
designated by the letter H after the steel grade. H grades are primarily used at extreme
temperatures as the higher carbon helps the material retain strength at extreme temperatures.
Austenitic stainless steels can also be classified into following three groups.

Lean alloys Stainless steels with less than 20 % chromium and 14 % nickel fall into this
category. Examples of these alloys are grades 301, 304 and 201. These are the largest
portion of all the stainless steels being produced. These stainless steels are generally used
when high strength or high formability is the main objective since the lower, yet
tailorable, austenite stability of these stainless steels gives a great range of work
hardening rates and good ductility. Richer stainless steels (e.g. grade 305) with minimal
work hardening are the high alloy steels. The general purpose stainless steel (grade 304)
is within this group. Stainless steels of this category have sufficient corrosion resistance
to be used in any indoor or outdoor environment. These stainless steels are easily
weldable and formable and can be given many attractive and useful surface finishes.

Chrome nickel alloy These stainless steels are used when the objective is high
temperature oxidation resistance. This can be enhanced by silicon and rare earths. If the
application requires high temperature strength, carbon, nitrogen, niobium, and
molybdenum can be added. Stainless steels of grades 302B, 309, 310, 347 and various
proprietary alloys are in this group.

Chromium, molybdenum, nickel, and nitrogen stainless steels These stainless steels are
used when corrosion resistance is the main objective. Elements such as silicon and copper
are added for resistance to specific environments. This group of stainless steels includes
316L, 317L, and 904L, and many proprietary grades.

All austenitic stainless steels contain a small amount of ferrite. Conventional austenitic stainless
steel grades may contain traces of delta ferrite, for improved weldability. Usually this amount of
ferrite is not enough to attract a normal magnet. However, if the balance of elements in the steel
favours the ferritic end of the spectrum, it is possible for the amount of ferrite to be sufficient to
cause a significant magnetic response. Also, some types of stainless steels are deliberately
balanced to have a significant amount of ferrite.
Properties and of stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steels are non magnetic and are not heat treatable. They cannot be hardened
by heat treatment. However, they can be cold worked to improve hardness, strength and stress
resistance. A solution anneal (heating within the range 1000 deg C to 1200 deg C followed by
quenching or rapid cooling) restores the stainless steels original condition, including removal of
alloy segregation and re-establishment of ductility after cold working. Stainless steels can be
subjected to solution annealing. Due to the solution annealing the carbides, which may have
precipitated (or moved) at the grain boundaries, are put back into solution (dispersed) into the
matrix of the metal by the annealing process. L grades are used where annealing after welding
is impractical.
Austenitic stainless steels can be made soft enough (i.e. with yield strength of around 200 N/sq
mm) to be easily formed by the same tools that work with carbon steel, but they can be made
incredibly strong by cold work, up to yield strengths of over 2000 N/sq mm. Their austenitic
(fcc, face centered cubic) structure is very tough and ductile down to absolute temperature. They
also do not lose their strength at elevated temperatures as rapidly as ferritic (bcc, body centered
cubic) iron base alloys.
Austenitic grades of stainless steels are the most common used grades, mainly because they
provide very predictable level of corrosion resistance with excellent mechanical properties. The
least corrosion resistant versions can withstand the normal corrosive attack of the everyday
environment that people experience, while the most corrosion resistant grades can even
withstand boiling seawater.
Austenitic stainless steels have good formability and weldability, as well as excellent toughness,
particularly at low, or cryogenic, temperatures. Austenitic grades also have a low yield stress and
relatively high tensile strength. They have excellent corrosion resistance and excellent hightemperature tensile and creep strength.
Austenitic stainless steels are not very strong materials. Typically their 0.2 % proof stress is
about 250 N/sq mm and the tensile strength between 500 and 600 N/sq mm, showing that these
steels have substantial capacity for work hardening, which makes working more difficult than in
the case of mild steel. However, austenitic stainless steels possess very good ductility with
elongations of about 50 % in tensile tests.
Austenitic stainless steels are also highly resistant to high temperature oxidation because of the
protective surface film, but the usual grades have low strengths at elevated temperatures. Those
steels stabilized with Ti and Nb, grades 321 and 347, can be heat treated to produce a fine

dispersion of TiC or NbC which interacts with dislocations generated during creep. One of the
most commonly used alloys is 25Cr20Ni with additions of titanium or niobium which possesses
good creep strength at temperatures as high as 700 deg C.
Austenitic stainless steels are ductile over a wide temperature range, from cryogenic to creep
temperatures. They do not display brittle fracture. Their tensile strength is high at low
temperatures. They can be work hardened to high levels of strength by cold forming.
Austenitic stainless steels are less resistant to cyclic oxidation than are ferritic grades because
their greater thermal expansion coefficient tends to cause the protective oxide coating to spall.
They can experience stress corrosion cracking (SCC) if used in an environment to which they
have insufficient corrosion resistance. The fatigue endurance limit is only about 30 % of the
tensile strength (vs. 50 % 60 % for ferritic stainless steels). This, combined with their high
thermal expansion co efficient, makes them especially susceptible to thermal fatigue. However,
the risks of these limitations can be avoidable by taking special precautions.
The salient feature of austenitic stainless steels is that as chromium and molybdenum contents
are increased to increase specific properties, usually corrosion resistance, nickel or other
austenitic stabilizers must be added if the austenitic structure is to be preserved.
The tensile properties in the annealed state not surprisingly relate well to composition. The 0.2 %
yield strength applies to the austenitic stainless steels.
Austenitic stainless steels have many advantages from a metallurgical point of view. Their
properties include good to excellent corrosion resistance. They can be work hardened. They can
be easily machined and fabricated to tight tolerances. They have smooth surface finish that can
be easily cleaned and sterilized. They are temperature resistant from cryogenic to high heat
temperatures.
Usage of austenitic stainless steels
Nickel which stabilizes the austenitic structure of these steels restricts their widespread usage
since nickel increases the costs of these stainless steels.
Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain applications,
for example ASTM A387 is used in pressure vessels but is a low-alloy carbon steel with a
chromium content of 0.5 % to 9 %. Low-carbon versions, for example 316L or 304L, are used to
avoid corrosion problems caused by welding. Grade 316LVM is preferred where
biocompatibility is required (such as body implants and piercings).
Austenitic grades of stainless steels are the most commonly used grades, mainly because they
provide very predictable level of corrosion resistance with excellent mechanical properties.
Using them wisely can save the designer of a product significant cost. These steels are user
friendly metal alloy with life cycle cost of fully manufactured products lower than many other
materials.

Austenitic stainless steels are those steels which are commonly used for stainless application.
Some of the applications for austenitic stainless steel include the following.

Kitchen sinks

Architectural applications such as roofing and cladding

Interior decoration

Roofing and gutters

Doors and windows

Kitchenware, cutlery and cookware

Benches and food preparation areas

Food processing equipment

Heat exchangers

Ovens and furnace parts

Chemical tanks

Defects in Continuous Cast Steels

Continuous casting (CC) is the process which converts liquid steel into a solid product mainly in
the form of slab (either thick or thin), bloom or billets. It is one of progressive steel making
technologies which produces a cast product of a desired cross section in indefinite length. The
CC process requires strict observance of operating procedures, technological norms, and
advanced production and control techniques. Despite these measures, the occurrence of defects
in the CC product cannot be fully ruled out. The formation and the type of defects depends on the
status of CC machine equipment, the cast product shape and size, the steel grade, the
technological conditions of casting such as casting temperature and speed, the mould oscillation
and cooling, the quality and properties of the casting powder etc.
A defect in a CC product can be defined as a deviation in the appearance, shape, dimension,
macrostructure, and/or chemical properties when compared with the specifications given in the
technical standards or any other normative documents in force. Defects are detected after casting
in the CC product through visual inspection of their surface at the cooling beds, by checking the
surface quality again by visual inspection on the inspection beds, or by checking the chemical
analysis and the macrostructure of the test samples in the laboratories.

The defects in CC products generated during the solidification and cooling process lead to loss or
diversion of prime material for further processing or sale. To prevent these losses, it is necessary
to analyze the causes of the occurrence of defects for taking preventive action by adopting
preventive metallurgical technologies and constructive solutions. Also it is necessary to segregate
and remove defective product from the prime material.
A defect is not always the consequence of a unique single cause. Many times, the defect is the
result of the multiple interacting causes that depend on a variable number of parameters. Similar
defects may have one or more different reasons, while different defects may have one or more
common causes.
Defects of the CC products are formed during the production process due to several factors
which include material related factors, casting speeds and temperatures, mould oscillation,
casting powder, segregation coefficient of solute elements, phase transformation, and mechanical
and thermal stresses. Mechanical stresses are created due to friction, ferro static pressure,
bending and straightening operations, and roll pressure. Thermal stresses are due to non uniform
cooling in the mould and/or secondary zone. Controlling water flux impinging the surface of the
strand and minimizing reheating of strand can lower the thermal stresses.
Material related factors include delta to gamma phase transformation, high sulphur and low
manganese/sulphur ratio, high oxygen potential of liquid steel, high super heat, and presence of
inclusions in the liquid steel. In transformation of delta (ferrite) to gamma (austenite), volume
changes and deformations take place, which decrease the rate of transfer of heat from the
solidified shell to the mould. This results in a non uniform thickness of solidified steel shell.
Steels with the carbon content of 0.09 % to 0.15 %, so called peritectic steels, are susceptible to
the formation of defects usually longitudinal cracks.
High casting speeds decrease the thickness of the chill zone, which can break in extreme
conditions. The weakening of the chill zone is also supported by the presence of coarse non
metallic particles and oscillation marks. High casting temperatures (higher super heat) increase
the surface temperatures of the strand. The formed skin becomes overheated and then thermal
and tension stress is created, which causes the formation of cracks and defects of the skin.
The temperature of casting of liquid steel must be maintained above the liquidus temperature.
The difference between the casting temperature and the liquidus temperature is called superheat.
Super heat of liquid steel plays an important role in the defects formation and it is necessary to
control it.
Mechanical deformations results due to insufficient lubrication and during straightening of the
strand. They act in the longitudinal and transversal directions. Thermal stress acts in the
transverse direction when the strand is rapidly cooled and This is the cause of the formation of
the defects.
Regular oscillation of the mould prevents the molten metal from getting stuck to the mould. At a
low oscillation frequency of the mould, the skin can break, or surface cracks and oscillation

marks can be formed. Defect formation can be avoided by an increased oscillation frequency of
the mould and a stabilized casting speed.
There are several defects which can be found on a CC product. The defects in the CC products
arising during the process of continuous casting of steel can be classified as (i) surface defects,
(ii) internal defects, (iii) shape defects, (iv) mechanical defects, and (v) deviations from the
prescribed chemical composition of steel.
Surface defects can be longitudinal mid face and corner cracks, transverse mid face and corner
cracks, and deep oscillation marks. Internal defects can be midway cracks, triple point cracks,
centre line cracks, diagonal cracks, centre segregation and porosity, casting flux inclusion, and
blow holes. Shape defects are rhombodity and longitudinal depression ovality.
Surface defects in CC products need expensive, time consuming surface grinding, and in severe
cases, even downgrading or rejection. The reconditioning yard is often a bottleneck in the
process, and the cost associated with removing these defects by grinding is also high.
The cracks are openings found on the CC product surface with variable length and depth and
can sometimes extend on the entire CC product on one strand or even on the full heat. The
cracks are not always straight. They are sometimes interrupted and continued further in a zigzag
way. Taking into account the direction on which they are formed, the cracks are called
longitudinal, transverse or star cracks.
Some of the CC defects are described below.

Longitudinal cracks They are formed in the direction of extraction of the steel. The
presence of this defect causes rejection of the CC product. Longitudinal cracks occurs
mainly due to (i) uneven primary cooling in the mould, (ii) turbulent flow of liquid steel
and a meniscus level variation in the mould, (iii) non uniform or very intensive secondary
cooling, (iv) variance in thermal conductivity coefficient along the mould length causing
unequal, advanced wear of the mould, (v) casting of liquid steel with high superheat, (vi)
high speed of casting, and (vii) use of the casting powder with improper characteristics.

Transverse cracks These cracks usually appear due to the tensions on the longitudinal
direction of strand. Normally these cracks are ground within the permissible prescribed
limits provided they are not deep. Transverse cracks appear due to (i) the thermal stresses,
(ii) variation in the meniscus level variation, (iii) presence of segregation at the bottom of
oscillation mark, and (iv) friction of the strand in the mould.

Corner cracks These are cracks present in the edge of the cast steel product. They
appear due to high temperature variations in the liquid steel, higher aluminum content in
the steel, higher sulphur level in the steel, non uniform edge temperature, excess friction
in the edges during casting because of non uniform distribution of casting powder, and
lower superheat of the steel.

Star cracks These cracks are very fine and caused by fragile nature of the strand at high
temperatures. They are visible only on scale free surface. The surface is usually ground
locally to remove the defect. Intense local cooling and presence of copper at the
austenitic grain boundary cause star cracks. To avoid the star cracks in the cast product it
is necessary to have (i) correct correlation between the spray flow and the casting speed,
(ii) a uniform layer of melted casting powder between the strand and the mould, (iii)
moderate secondary cooling of the strand for avoiding increase of the thermal stress.

Depressions These are local deformations in the cast surface. Depressions can be
longitudinal or transverse. Longitudinal depressions appear like the shallow ditches
oriented along the length of the cast product. They occur due to the uneven heat transfer
in the mould. These depressions can be controlled by uniform cooling in the mould, by
centering of the liquid steel jet in the mould, by controlling the fluctuations of the mould
steel level, use of a casting powder with suitable viscosity and melting characteristics,
and by regularly monitoring the degree and uniformity of the mould wear. Transverse
depressions may occur cyclically along the strand length. The peritectic steels with low
carbon and high manganese contents and the stainless steels are sensitive to this defect.
The transverse depressions can be caused by the fluctuations in the mould level, large
quantity of casting powder, and by the turbulence of steel the sub-meniscus level. These
depressions are controlled by controlling the mould steel level, having proper mould
taper, use of a casting powder with suitable viscosity and melting characteristics, and
proper positioning of the input nozzle and its support.

Blowholes These are cavities in the outer surface of the cast product and are often
associated with inclusions. They are caused by presence of gases in the steel, humidity
and quality of the casting powder, variation in the mould level, presence of moisture in
the tundish refractory lining. Blowholes are controlled by sufficient de-oxidation of steel,
use of dry casting powder, use of casting powder compatible with the grade of steel
grade, temperature and casting speed, control of mould level fluctuations, control of
nozzle immersion depth, avoiding the high superheat and avoiding slag foaming around
the nozzle.

Interruptions in the physical continuity of the cast product This defect occurs when
there is a pause in the casting process. It often occurs when there is a change of heat
during sequence mode of operation. This defect is caused by a short interruption of the
casting process and occurs when there is sudden change in casting speed caused by the
variations of steel temperature in the tundish, by the variations of steel level in the mould,
cogging of the nozzle due to high alumina levels, or by the variations of casting mode.
The corrective measures are maintenance of a constant casting speed, a narrow range of
temperature variation in the tundish, and steel level in the tundish within the prescribed
limits.

Slag spots defects -This defect is caused by the penetration of tundish slag in the cast
product. It is caused by high level of slag in the tundish, rise in the active oxygen
percentage in the steel, lowering of steel level in the tundish resulting in slag to enter the
mould, and high viscosity of casting powder.

Some of the casting defects in a slab and a billet is shown in Fig 1

Fig 1 Some casting defects in slab and billet

Cold Rolling of Steels

The primary purpose of cold rolling of steels is to reduce the thickness of the hot rolled steel
strips (normally in the range of 1.5 mm to 5 mm) into thinner thicknesses (usually in the range of
0.12 mm to 2.5 mm) which cannot be normally achieved during hot rolling in a hot strip mill.
Besides reduction in thickness cold rolling is done for improving the surface finish of steels, for
improving the thickness tolerances, for offering a range of tempers, for improving the physical
characteristics, and for preparing the strip for surface coating.
Cold rolling makes the cold rolled sheets a much improved product. Cold rolled steel products
offer good control of thickness, shape, width, surface finish, and other special quality features
that compliment the need for highly engineered end user applications. To meet the various end
user requirements, cold rolled sheets are metallurgically designed to provide specific attributes
such as high formability, deep drawability, high strength, high dent resistance, good magnetic
properties, weldability, enamelability, and paintability etc.
Cold rolling of hot rolled steel strips is done below the recrystallization temperature normally at
room temperature. In cold rolling process, usually no heat is applied to the hot rolled strip before
rolling. However, frictional energy at the contact surfaces of the strip being rolled gets converted
into heat. This heat may increase temperature of the strip being rolled in rapid adiabatic process
to a level of 50 deg C to around 250 deg C.
During cold rolling process the reduction in thickness is due to the plastic deformation which
occurs by means of dislocation movement. Steel gets hardened because of the buildup of these
dislocations. This increases strength and strain hardening upto 20 %. These dislocations reduce
the ductility of the cold rolled steel making it useless for forming operation. To recover the
ductility, cold rolled steels need to undergo an annealing process for the relieving of the stresses
that have buildup within the microstructure during the process of cold rolling.

The thickness of the hot rolled strip is important in that the properties of the final cold rolled and
annealed product is influenced by the percent of cold reduction. This means that the thickness of
each hot rolled coil is carefully controlled to provide the cold rolling mill with a specific
thickness to achieve the proper percent cold reduction. Among other things, the percent of cold
reduction affects the forming behavior of the product after annealing
Through cold rolling deep drawing quality, extra deep drawing quality and extra deep drawing
plus quality steels are produced to meet the deep drawing requirements for automotive
applications in the downstream industry .
Cold rolling of plain carbon steels involves the following four steps.

Pickling In this step the scale formed on the surface of the hot rolled steel strip is
removed since its non removal has several detrimental effects on further processing of
steel during cold rolling. This step is described in detail in separate article under link
http://ispatguru.com/pickling-of-scale-formed-on-hot-rolled-strip-of-carbon-steel/

Cold rolling of pickled strip It is done for reduction of thickness of the hot rolled steel
strip

Annealing After cold rolling, annealing of cold rolled strip is done for the relieving the
stresses that have buildup within the microstructure during the process of cold rolling.
This step is described in detail in separate article under link
http://ispatguru.com/annealing-of-cold-rolled-steel/

Temper rolling or skin pass rolling of annealed strip It is done to give desired
mechanical properties, shape and surface roughness, and finishing to the cold rolled
strips.

Cold rolling of pickled strip

Cold rolling of pickled hot rolled strip is accomplished by processing steel strip through a rolling
mill which has an entry end reel for uncoiling the pickled hot rolled coil and an exit end reel for
coiling of the cold rolled strip. In between, there are one or more (normally up to 6 nos.) rolling
mill stands for carrying out the cold reduction. Each mill stand has vertically stacked rolls that
are powered by huge motors to impart high compressive stresses into the strip. Mill stands can be
2- high, 4-high or six-high. 4-high stands are more widely used since they give maximum
advantage over other two types.
Single or two stands cold rolling mills are normally reversing mills. A reversing mill is where the
steel enters the rolling mill from one side, passes through to the other side and then comes back
through the mill again. During each pass through the mill the direction of roll movement is
reversed. In this operation of the reversing mill, the pickled strip is passed forth and back
between mandrels on each side of the single or two stand mill. The strip is reduced in thickness
on each pass until the final required thickness is attained.

Multi stand mills (normally three to six stands) are usually continuous tandem mills. Hot rolled
pickled strip is fed into the tandem cold rolling mill from an entry end reel and progressively
reduced in thickness by a preset percentage in each stand to achieve the final desired thickness as
the strip exits the last stand. After the last stand, the strip is recoiled in the coiler.
For rolling of high alloy and stainless steels, A Z mill or Sendzimir mill is used which operates
with a very small diameter work roll, normally about 50 mm, backed up by a number of rolls (6
to 20 in numbers) in a pyramid shaped stack. This roll set up allows extremely high forces to be
exerted through the work roll and yet keep the work roll from extreme flexing. The take-up roll
on the Sendzimir mill also exerts a tension on the coil as it comes through the mill. The
combination of high pressure and tension makes the mill capable of rolling material thin and flat.
Typical reduction of hot rolled strip in cold rolling mill can range from 50 % to 90 %. The
reduction in each stand or pass is to be distributed uniformly without falling much below the
maximum reduction for each pass. Normally the lowest percentage reduction is taken in the last
pass to permit better control of flatness, gauge and surface finish.
Cold rolling reduces the thickness of the strip by compression within the rollers. On the input
side, the drives of the rolls need a corresponding energy supply. Because of the high applied roll
forces, the strip is heated by the forming heat to a level of up to 250 deg C. In order to cool the
rolls and also the rolled strip, they are lubricated and cooled by oil, water or emulsions.
Examples for rolling oils are fat oil, mineral oil or palm oil; water-free rolling oils need to have
flash points of above 300 deg C. The main reasons for lubricating are the reduction of roll forces
and roll moments, the reduction of tool wear and the enhancement of the strip surface.
Modern cold tandem rolling mills are capable of rolling pickled hot rolled strips to a minimum
thickness of 0.12 mm at a rolling speed of up to 2500 m/min. Continuous tandem mills can have
a capacity of up to 2.5 million tons per annum.
Modern cold rolling continuous tandem mills are normally equipped with the following features.

Hydraulic screw down system to maintain constant roll pressure and/or constant roll
position.

Computerized hydraulic automatic gauge control (HAGC) system. The system

automatically and consistently maintains extremely tight tolerance throughout the length
of every coil, regardless of speed.

Continuous varying crown (CVC) system and enhanced shifting system

Edge drop control system

On line strip measurement and inspection systems

Dry strip system after last stand to minimize the quantity of residual oil on the strip

After cold rolling, the strip is highly cold worked and not very useful for most applications. It
needs to be annealed to soften the steel, and make it more formable.
Typical schematic of a 5 stand tandem cold rolling mill is shown in Fig 1.

Fig 1 Typical schematics of a 5 stand tandem cold rolling mill

Temper rolling or skin pass rolling of annealed strip
Cold rolled coils after removed from the annealing furnace are in their dead soft condition and
are therefore undergo a skin pass rolling or temper rolling in a skin pass mill. This involves a
controlled light reduction of the cold rolled steel sheet and is carried out due to the following
reason.

Strip flatness is an important property for the organizations which perform further
processing. This is because good flatness values allow trouble free operation of their
plant and equipment. Skin passing improves steel sheet flatness.

To minimize stretching of steel

To minimize straining

Skin passing causes the unsteady yield-point range, known as the Lders band, to be
transformed into a defined yield point. This serves to improve the flow behaviour during
the deep drawing operation and to prevent unwanted lines of stress.

To obtain desired steel surface texture. Setting the desired roughness of the strip surface
enhances the yield of the deep drawing process as well as improves the adhesion of
paints.

To obtain desired mechanical properties

To correct gauge inconsistencies in steel

Temper rolling does impart a small amount of cold reduction, typically in the range of 0.25 % to
1.0 %. Temper rolling results in a surface that is smooth and the yield point phenomenon
(excessive stretching and wrinkling in subsequent operations) is eliminated. This makes the steel
more ductile for further forming and stretching operations. After temper rolling the cold rolled
sheet is oiled with rust preventive oil.
A single skin pass mill is independent rolling facility which usually follows the batch annealing
stage and can be implemented very flexibly. This mill can process both hard strip and ultra mild
strip. It also provides the perfect finish for cold rolled steel strip.
A special case is represented by what is known as the DCR rolling mill, or DCR temper mill.
DCR stands for Double cold reduction. This two stand facility combines thickness reduction in
the first stand with skin passing in the second stand. It is also possible to use both stands for skin
passing. In this case the steel properties, such as a defined yield point, are set in the first stand
while in the second stand, the desired surface characteristics are transferred to the strip.
Skin pass mills can also be installed directly in line in the exit section of a continuous annealing
line. The strip can be completed in the process line and this has several advantages since the
efforts and expenditure on coil handling is reduced substantially.
Cold rolled strip can be produced in various conditions such as skin rolled, quarter hard, half
hard, and full hard depending on how much cold work has been performed. This cold working
(hardness) is often called temper, although this has nothing to do with heat treatment temper.
Quarter hard sheets can be bent (perpendicular to the direction of rolling) on itself without
fracturing. Half hard sheets can be bent 90 deg while full hard can be bent 45 deg. Thus, these
materials can be used for in applications involving great amounts of bending and deformation,
without fracturing.
Nickel in Steels
Nickel (Ni) (atomic number 28 and atomic weight 58.69) has density of 8.902 gm/cc. Melting
point of Ni is 1455 deg C and boiling point is 2910 deg C. The phase diagram of the Fe-Ni
binary system is at Fig 1.
Ni has a face centered cubic (f.c.c.) crystal structure. It is ferromagnetic up to 353 deg C, its
curie point.

Fig 1 Fe-Ni phase diagram

Ni is an important and widely used constituent of alloy steels. It is best known as a solid solution
strengthener, a mild hardenability agent and, most important, as a means of promoting high
toughness, especially at low temperatures. Ni is an important ingredient in stainless steel, helping
it to prevent rust, scratches and resist heat.
Around 65 % of global Ni production goes into the production of stainless steel.
Ni alloyed steels contain as little as fraction of a percent to almost 30 % Ni. As may be expected,
properties of these alloy steels range from strengths similar to plain carbon steel to some of the
strongest metallic materials known.
On the lower side of the Ni percentage in the steels are the alloy and HSLA (high strength and
low alloy) structural steels. Hot rolled steels with yield strengths of 345 MPa may contain 0.50 %
to 2.00 % Ni for toughness and added corrosion resistance. Age hardening steels contain 1.3 % to
1.5 % Ni plus copper (Cu) and niobium (Nb). Quenched and tempered or normalized and
tempered structural steels contain nickel (Ni) up to 2.25 %, as well as a variety of other
constituents including chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo) or boron (B).

Nickel bearing addition agents

Ni bearing addition agents are ferro- nickel (Fe- Ni) ferroalloy, Ni containing steel scrap, Nickel
oxide (NiO) and nickel pig iron. Fe-Ni is available in various grades with Ni plus cobalt (Co)
content ranging from 18 % to 28 %. Co content in Fe-Ni is not more than 0.05 % of Ni content.
As regards to carbon (C) content, Fe- Ni is categorized in three types namely high C, medium C
and low C grades. High C Fe-Ni contains 1.8 % to 3% C, medium C Fe-Ni contains 0.25 %
maximum C and low C Fe-Ni contains C as 0.02 % maximum and 0.04 % maximum. Ni pig iron
contains 4 % to 13 % Ni and is smelted from low grade Ni ores.
Nickel oxide (NiO) is a granular product and is widely used as an addition agent. Standard oxide
sinter contains about 75 % Ni.
The choice of Ni addition agent depends on product quality requirements, degree of refining
possible in the steelmaking practice, individual steelmakers preference and experience, and
availability.
Ni recoveries during steel making operations are quite high and it is usually over 95 %.
Rolling and hot working
Ni has little effect on hot working characteristics of steels when present in small amounts. At the
higher percentage levels usually available in the austenitic stainless steels, increased roll
pressures are experienced and drafting is required to be reduced accordingly.
Ni steels at high temperatures are susceptible to attack by sulfide atmospheres. Furnace gases
containing, for example, H2S can cause the formation of nickel sulfide on grain boundaries and
need to be avoided. The problem, when it exists, is marked by a tendency for the steel to crack or
tear during hot working. On the other hand, Ni is usually added to steels containing copper (Cu)
as it effectively prevents the hot shortness resulting from internal oxidation in these steels.
Ni containing austenitic stainless steels can partially transform to martensite during cold
working. This effect contributes to the high work hardening rate and increased rolling or drawing
loads in these steels, but at the same time it also helps them attain extremely high strengths in the
cold worked condition.
Influence of Ni on steels
Ni strengthens low C steels. It increases steel strength, impact strength and toughness. It also
improves toughness at low temperatures when added in small amounts. Ni increases elastic limit
of steel.

Ni when added to steel, increases its density and hardness. It improves steels resistance to
oxidation and corrosion. It also improves abrasive resistance of steel.
Ni is heat resistant, and when combined with steel, it increases the heat resistance of that steel.
Ni is rust resistant, making it ideal for the production of stainless steel.
Addition of Ni in steel decreases the value of distortion (distortion energy) at the time of
quenching.
When steel is coated with Ni, or plated with Ni, then the Ni provides a scratch resistant surface to
steels.
Heat treatment
Ni is a weak hardenability agent and is rarely used alone in conventional heat treatable alloy
steels. However, it is often used in combination with other alloying elements such as Cr, Mo, or
vanadium (V) to improve toughness. Ni has profound effects on transformation characteristics
when present in higher concentrations. It is an austenite stabilizer. It tends to expand the gamma
loop in the iron-carbon phase diagram. At very high concentrations (greater than 30 % Ni), no
ferrite is present at all.
Ni has got a property of lowering the eutectoid temperature in the steel. This change point on
heating is lowered progressively with increase of Ni (approximately 10 deg C for 1 % of Ni), but
the lowering of the change on cooling is greater and irregular. The temperature of this change
(Ar1) is plotted for different Ni contents for 0.2 % carbon steels in Fig 2, and it is seen that the
curve takes a sudden plunge around 8 % Ni. Steel with 12 % Ni begins to transform below 300
deg C on cooling, but on reheating the reverse change does not occur until about 650 deg C.
Such steels are said to exhibit pronounced lag or hysteresis and are called irreversible steels. This
characteristic is made use of in maraging steels and 9 % Ni cryogenic steel.

Fig 2 Effect of Ni on Ar1 and Ac1 temperatures

Ni reduces the eutectoid C content, therefore Ni steels contain proportionately more pearlite in
its microstructure than Ni free steels of the same C content.
While effects of Ni are not strong in conventional alloy steels, Ni does have some influence on
heat treating transformations. It retards both the pearlite and the bainite reactions. It has no effect
on tempering as such, but care must be taken when tempering Ni steels at high temperatures for
extended times. Under these conditions and because of the changes in transformation
temperatures noted above, it may be possible to exceed the (lowered) Ac1 temperature and
inadvertently reaustenitize the steel. The difference between the expected and actual Ac1 may be
as much as 45 deg C.
Heat treatment of high nickel alloy steels can be quite different from that of conventional steels.
Some examples are given below.
Cryogenic steels containing up to 9 % Ni are used either in the quenched and tempered or double
normalized and tempered condition. In the first case, these steels are water quenched from 800
deg C, tempered at 565 deg C and either air or water cooled. Double normalizing is carried out at
900 deg C and 790 deg C, respectively, air cooling after each step and then tempering at 565 deg
C.
The 9 % Ni and 4 % Co ultrahigh strength steels are hardened from 830 deg C to 860 deg C by
water or oil quenching. A refrigeration treatment at -87 deg C to -60 deg C is needed in order to
transform any residual austenite. This is a micro-structural phenomenon to which Ni steels are
normally prone. Double tempering at 200 deg C to 600 deg C and at 540 deg C to 565 deg C
depending on strength level needed, is usually required.

Though the ultra high strength 18 % Ni maraging steels are micro-structurally quite sophisticated
and resemble super alloys in some respects, these steels are simple to heat treat. Austenitizing
treatment is performed at around 820 deg C and is usually followed by a reasonable cooling rate.
Aging for 3-6 hours at 480 deg C is required to complete the treatment. Distortion is so little that
it is possible to heat-treat most of the steel parts in the finish machined condition.
Applications
Ni has the ability to impart high toughness, especially at low temperatures. This property has led
to the development of cryogenic steels having important applications in the transportation and
storage of liquefied gases. Normally the lower the service temperature that a structural steel of
this type must withstand without risk of brittle fracture, the more Ni it must contain. Thus, a low
carbon 2.5 % Ni steel can be used down to 60 deg C while 3.5 % Ni lowers the allowable
temperature to -100 deg C and 9 % Ni steels are useable up to 196 deg C.
Among the standard alloy steels, those containing Ni alone as the principal alloying constituent
are rare. Instead, Ni is used in combination with other alloying elements to produce steels with
excellent combinations of strength and toughness in the quenched and tempered condition. Most
of these steels contain around 0.5 % Ni, although over 3 % Ni is found in some grades. Ni is
used in carburizing and nitriding steels where it benefits both case and core properties.
Steel containing 0.95 % to 1.1 % C, 1 % Si, 13 % to 18 % Mn and 7 % to 11 % Ni which is
being a variation of Hadfield steel, is being used where extreme toughness as well as high wear
resistance is important.
Ni is required in 300 series stainless steels to produce the austenitic structure. A minimum of as 8
% is sufficient, but greater concentrations are required when fully stabilized austenite is needed.
Grade 310 contains around 20 % Ni, while the sulfuric acid resistant steel (Alloy 20) contains 29
% Ni, 20 % Cr and lesser amounts of Mn, Si, Mo and Cu. The precipitation hardening stainless
steels are essentially unbalanced austenitic grades (similar to grade 301) containing such
hardeners as Cu, Mo, Ti, Al, Nb, Ta or V. Ni is also used in martensitic stainless steel grades
(grades 414 and 431) where the presence of up to 2.5 % Ni prevents the formation of ? ferrite.
Ni is rarely used in tool steels as its presence promotes graphitization in these high carbon alloys
(inhibits through hardening). However, some grades contain minor amounts of Ni for toughness,
grain refinement and ease of heat treatment.

Calcium in Steels

Calcium (Ca) (atomic number 20 and atomic weight 40.08) has density of 1.54 gm/cc. Melting
point of Ca is 842 deg C and boiling point is 1484 deg C.
Ca additions are made during steel making for refining, deoxidation, desulphurization, and
control of shape, size and distribution of oxide and sulphide inclusions . Ca is not used as
alloying element since its solubility in steel is very low. Further it has a high vapour pressure
since it boiling point is lower than the temperature of the liquid steel. It has a high reactivity and
hence special techniques are necessary for its introduction and retention of even a few parts per
million in the liquid steel.
Advantages directly attributable to Ca treatment include greater fluidity, simplified continuous
casting and improved cleanliness (including reduction in nozzle blockage), machinability,
ductility and impact strength in the final product.
Available forms
Ca is added to steel in the stabilized forms of calcium silicon (CaSi), calcium manganese silicon
(CaMnSi), calcium silicon barium (CaSiBa) and calcium silicon barium aluminum (CaSiBaAl)
alloys or as calcium carbide (CaC2). Elemental Ca is difficult and dangerous to add to liquid
steel.
CaSi in steel sheath (also called cored wire) is the most commonly used addition agent for Ca
addition. The cored wire is injected into the liquid steel with help of wire injection system. It has
higher recovery of Ca in steel than the virgin Ca / CaSi lumps addition into the ladle. The CaSi
cored wire contains 4.5 % of iron (Fe) and 55 % to 65 % of Si. Ca content is usually in three
ranges of 28 % to 31 %, 30 % to 33 %, and 32 % to 34 %. It contains around 1 % carbon (C) and
about 1.5 % aluminum (Al). It has a melting point in the range of 980 deg C to 1260 deg C and
boiling point of around 1500 deg C. However, melting point range is not an overriding factor as
Ca vapourizes so quickly that it can provide a beneficial agitation as it bubbles through the liquid
steel.
Addition practice
The treatment with CaSi is normally made after trim additions and argon (Ar) rinsing in most of
the steel grades. It is not uncommon practice to perform a preliminary deoxidation with Si and/or
Al before adding Ca.
In the ladle, the low density and high reactivity of Ca addition agents make their efficient use
difficult and this has led to the development of special addition techniques. One technique is to
inject Ca deep into the liquid steel bath such that the ferrostatic pressure overcomes vapour

pressure of Ca. In another method wire containing Ca components are injected at speeds of 80300 m/min.
Unless the ferrostatic head is quite high (as at the bottom of the ladle), Ca exists only in vapour
form at the steelmaking temperatures. This, plus the fact that solubility of Ca in steel being low
at any temperature means that any reaction between Ca and the oxygen (O) and sulfur(S) it is
intended to remove can only take place at the Ca vapour/liquid steel interface unless Ca is
present as a component of the slag. The addition of Ca through the cored wire injection make the
contact between Ca and liquid steel as intimate as possible for as long as practical limits allow.
It is important that all efforts be made to prevent reoxidation of the steel after the Ca addition.
Use of protective slag blankets, inert gas or refractory shrouded nozzles and even submerged
nozzles are necessary if Ca protection is to be maintained. There are two reasons for this
precaution. The first reason is the reoxidation of the steel can cause S rejection from calcium
sulphide (CaS) since CaO is more stable than CaS and proper conditions can even lead to the
reformation of manganese sulphide (MnS). The second reason is that there are a number of
thermodynamically possible calcium aluminates and excessive reoxidation favours the formation
of high melting point calcium aluminates which are just as harmful, especially in terms of nozzle
blockage, than the alumina(Al2O3)/silica(SiO2) precipitates which the Ca was intended to
remove or modify.
Influence of calcium on steels
During calcium treatment, the Al2O3 and SiO2 inclusions are converted to molten calcium
aluminates and silicate which are globular in shape because of the surface tension effect. The
change in inclusion composition and shape is known as the inclusion morphology control.
Addition of Ca to liquid steel containing O and S forms two phases namely oxide and sulphide.
Oxide phase consists of the compounds in CaO?Al2O3 system (Fig 1). The different oxide
compounds (3 CaO. Al2 O3, 12 CaO.7 Al2 O3, CaO. Al2 O3, and CaO. 2 Al2 O3) have different
melting temperature which ranges from 1400 deg C to 1727 deg C.

Fig 1 CaO-Al2O3 binary system

12 CaO.7Al2O3 has the lowest melting point of 1400 deg C and has a Ca/Al ratio of 1.27 and
hence it remains in the liquid form at steelmaking temperature. This suggests that Ca/Al ratio is
to be adjusted at 1.27 (theoretically) in order to obtain liquid product.
The sulphide phase consists of CaS and MnS). The melting point of CaS is 2000 deg C and that
of MnS 1610 deg C. CaO.Al2O3 liquid has some solubility for CaS.
The addition of Ca is made for Al killed steels in order to decrease the volume fraction of oxide
and sulphide inclusions through deoxidation and desulphurization and to control the
composition, morphology, and distribution of those remaining inclusions. A major advantage of
this practice is that nozzle clogging during the continuous casting of liquid steel is eliminated
since solid Al2O3 inclusions are transformed to liquid calcium aluminates which do not clog the
nozzle.
Ca has two beneficial effects. The first is that reduces the total number of inclusions remaining in
the steel (S, for example, can be brought down to 0.001 % 0.003 % with a little extra care and
down to 0.007 % in routine practice) and the second is that it modifies the shape of the remaining
inclusions into one that is less detrimental to mechanical properties in the final product. Thus, Ca
breaks up inter dendritic Al2O3 galaxies into fine Type III inclusions. These minute particles will
remain in the steel through solidification but, unlike the original galaxies, have no tendency to
clog continuous caster nozzles. In addition, their globular shape is retained even during hot

rolling and the resulting absence of stringer or pancake inclusions gives the steel more uniform
properties in all directions.
Other advantages of Ca treatment of steel are obtained in the mechanical properties of different
grades of steel. For example, the ductility and toughness of high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel
and high quality structural steel are improved as the volume fractions of sulphides and oxides are
decreased. In free machining steel grades, hard Al2O3 inclusions cause excessive tool wear. Ca
transforms these inclusions into softer calcium aluminates or calcioaluminosilicates.
Rolling and hot working
Ca improves the hot workability of steels. Even at low Mn levels, Ca treated steels are free from
any trace of iron sulfide (FeS) and are therefore not be subject to hot shortness. High alloy steels,
particularly high Ni steels (in which Ca is somewhat more soluble), are much improved by Ca
treatment.
Since Ca modifies the composition, size, and structure of oxides, sulfides and silicates already
present in the liquid steel, the resulting Ca bearing inclusions retains their globular shape, even
when large, throughout hot working operations. Thus, Al2O3 and sulfide stringers are eliminated
and directional anisotropy, particularly with regard to through thickness ductility, is greatly
reduced.
Heat treatment
Ca has no effect on the transformations occurring during heat treatment.
Applications
The demand for steels with high toughness and ductility, especially in the transverse direction,
has prompted steelmakers to (i) lower the S content of their products and/or (ii) modify the shape
of sulphide inclusions so that they are less damaging. Ca is beneficial in both respects, and one
or another form of Ca treatments has been recognized and used since the 1930s.
Ca improves cleanliness, desulphurizes, and reduces directional anisotropy in steels. Ca
treatment is applied wherever these properties are required.
The low S levels brought about by Ca treatment improve corrosion resistance and reduce
susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking in specific media.
Additions of Ca are made to high alloy steels to increase fluidity, cleanliness and surface quality.
Typical examples include AISI 52100, grade 430 stainless steel used for automotive trim and the

titanium (Ti) modified grade 321 austenitic stainless steels used in welded or sensitization prone
structures.
Ca is used to improve the fluidity and cleanliness of cast irons and cast steels. The violent
agitation that accompanies Ca addition to liquid metal also reduces the gas content of the metal.
This leads to sounder and less porous cast structures.