Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Networking,

Sensing and Control, Delft, the Netherlands, 11-13 April 2011

MonAT1.6

Control of Microgrids: Aspects and Prospects

A. Salehi Dobakhshari, Student Member, IEEE, S. Azizi, and A. M. Ranjbar

Abstract A microgrid is a controllable component of the

smart grid defined as a part of distribution network capable
of supplying its own local load even in the case of
disconnection from the upstream network. Microgrids
incorporate large amount of renewable and non-renewable
distributed generation (DG) that are connected to the system
either directly or by power electronics (PE) interface. The
diversity of technologies used in DGs and loads, high
penetration of DGs, economic operation of DGs, dynamics of
low-inertia conventional DGs and PE interfaced inertialess
DGs and smart operation by means of enhanced
communication infrastructure have raised challenges in
widespread utilization of microgrids as basis of smart grids.
Power quality, protection, economic and secure operation,
active management, communication, dynamics and control of
microgrids are among the most important issues under
research both in academy and industry. Technical concerns
over dynamics of microgrids especially in autonomous
(island) mode necessitate revision of current paradigms in
control of energy systems. This paper addresses current
challenges towards controlling microgrids and surveys
dynamic modeling, stability and control of microgrids.
Future trends in realizing smart grids through aggregation of
microgrids and research needs in this path are discussed at
the end of this paper.
Index TermsControl, Microgrid, Smart Grid, Stability

I. INTRODUCTION

NCE separate branches of electrical engineering,

power, electronics, control and communications are
cooperating to realize smart grids as the future energy
system of the modern world. The smart grid is a paradigm
shift from central fossil-fueled or nuclear power
generation, long transmission lines and traditional
distribution systems to the high penetration of renewable
energy resources within the distribution systems and
therefore reducing transmission as well as distribution
losses along with environmental pollution [1]. Integration
of plug-in electric vehicles in a controllable way [2],
leveling system peak load by demand response [3],
enhancement of reliability by distribution system
automation
[4]
and
exploiting
communication

The authors are with the Center of Excellence in Power System

Management and Control, Department of Electrical Engineering, Sharif
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran (email: asalehi@ee.sharif.edu,
sazizi@ee.sharif.edu, amranjbar@sharif.edu)

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38

advancement especially in automated metering [5] are

some of prospects for smart grids.
The concept of microgrids [6] as building-blocks of
future smart grids was widely welcomed. A microgrid is a
portion of distribution grid which is capable of supplying
its own local load in either grid-connected or autonomous
(or island) mode of operation by various distributed
generation (DG) units [7]. For safety reasons and based on
available standards, DGs in a distribution grid should be
shut down following a disturbance in upstream network [810]. Operation of the distribution system as one or more
microgrids can be an application of microgrids in the
future smart grids.
A laboratory project is CERTS microgrid developed to
examine the transition between grid-connected to island
mode, microgrid protection, and voltage and frequency
control in the island mode [11]. Other projects include
microgrids in Japan and Greece [6]. Several problems such
as power quality [12], protection [13] and operation under
market environment [14] are under investigation.
This paper concerns dynamic model, stability and
control of microgrids. Regarding the studied grid, DG
resources and type of electricity demand, different dynamic
models should be used. States of microgrid operation
comprise grid-connected, autonomous (or island) and the
transition from the grid-connected mode to the island
mode and vice versa [8]. Generation resources in
microgrids are DGs. Some of conventional DGs consist of
combined heat and power (CHP), gas and combined cycle
turbine-generators, combustion turbines, diesel generators
and small hydro generating units [15]. Modern DGs, on
the other hand, include wind turbines, photovoltaic
generators, micro-turbines and fuel cells [16]. Besides
DGs, energy storage units such as battery, flywheel,
capacitor and super magnetic storage system will be
among the new technologies in the microgrid vision [8].
Conventional DGs are mostly supplied by fossil fuels
and utilize synchronous generators for generating
electricity by direct connection to the grid. These DGs
have a low inertia and impose certain dynamic problems
especially in the island mode of operation. Modern DGs,
however, are mostly supplied by renewable resources and
are connected to the grid indirectly through power
electronics convertors. Dynamic model of these of DGs are
quite different from that of conventional DGs and are
modeled as controllable voltage sources for dynamic
studies [17]. These generating units are essentially
inertialess while having fast dynamics for adjusting their

parameters. The emphasis in this paper is laid on modeling

these two classes of DGs which take a prevalent role in
microgrid dynamics.
II. MICROGRID MODELING
A variety of models based on microgrids structure, size,
voltage level and other electrical characteristics have been
developed. In [18] a low voltage (400 V) microgrid
consisting of three unbalanced phases has been modeled.
All DGs are inverter-interfaced. Active power-frequency
and reactive power-voltage droops are implemented on
inverters. Some of the specifications of this model include
using local frequency and individual modeling of each
phase as well as neutral wire. The reference of microgrid
voltage in the grid-connected mode is the voltage of
upstream network. In the island mode, the reference
voltage is the voltage of an arbitrary node within the
microgrid. All loads are modeled as constant power. A
number of simulations for transition between gridconnected and island modes, load changes in the island
mode and reconnection to the grid are conducted in time
domain. The advantage of this model is its capability in
modeling small unbalanced networks while its drawback is
the absence of an analytic model for stability assessment.
In [19-20] microgrid dynamics are studied in the island
mode. The microgrid consists of a single inverter-interface
DG and a single load connected to the point of common
coupling (PCC). The DG model involves a constant
voltage source, a power electronic converter, a transformer
and a filter. In the grid-connected mode, conventional
control of active and reactive power is implemented on the
convertor. This control strategy results in instability
following the transition to the island mode. So, in the case
of islanding detection, a new controller is introduced
control the convertor voltage. Design of the controller is
based on standard response in time domain. For frequency
control, an oscillator generates reference frequency. The
microgrid dynamics in the island mode are described by
state equations while the system is assumed to be balanced.
In [20] a multivariable controller for the system in island
mode is suggested. As shown in Fig. 1, load is modeled as
an RLC circuit. Using an internal oscillator instead of
frequency droop is the main difference of this model versus
other microgrid models. In case of multiple DGs,
significant modifications should be applied to this model.
A model similar to Fig. 1 is used for the microgrid in [21].
However, an analogous model to the synchronous machine
is used for the voltage-source convertor (VSC). A virtual
inertia constant is defined for the VSC and it is assumed
that the frequency obeys the swing equation. Droop
mechanism for the frequency control is shown in Fig. 2.

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39

Fig. 1. Dynamic Model of Microgrid in [19].

1
DP

1
2Hs

1
s

Fig. 2. Microgrid Frequency Control in [22].

PW

WTG1
K W TG
1 + sTW TG
WTG2
K W TG
1 + sTW TG +
WTG3
K W TG
1 + sTW TG
1-KU
AE
K AE
1 + sT AE

PWTG
+

FESS

PFESS K FESS

U
1 + sT FESS
FC1
Pt
K FC
+ + PFC
1
1 + sT FC
D + Ms
+
FC2
+ + - PS +0
BESS
K FC
PS
1 + sT FC
K BESS
PBESS 1 + sT BESS
DEG
K DEG
PDEG
1 + sT DEG

Fig. 3. Microgrid Dynamic Model in [16].

In [16], dynamics of several DGs such as PV units, wind

turbines, fuel cells, flywheel, battery storage and diesel
generator are approximated by a first order linearized
model with a time constant and a gain factor as shown in
Fig. 3. The studied system is operated in the island mode
while the network is neglected. Battery storage, flywheel
and the diesel generator adjust their settings according to
the changes in microgrid frequency.
In [22], a more comprehensive microgrid model
including both the synchronous generator-based DGs as
well as power electronics-interfaced DGs with the
associated controllers are studied (Fig. 4). It must be noted
that the capacity of DGs exceed a few megawatts.
The small signal model of such a model is developed based
on Fig. 5. Analyzing eigenvalues and participation factors,
low frequency electromechanical oscillations and high
frequency modes, which are related to the power
electronic-interfaced DGs and their controllers, are
decomposed. Sensitivity analysis for different operating
points is carried out.

v s is

Ls

Rs

PLC ,Q LC

ig

Ps ,Q s

i LC
i g1

vp

PG 1, QG 1 R D 1

v p 1 PCC 1
P1,Q1
i1

ig2

PCC

R D 2 PG 2 ,QG 2

PL 1,Q L1
iL2

i L1

Cf 1

PL 2 ,Q L 2 PCC 2
v p2
P2 ,Q 2
i2
Cf 2

V dc 2

V dc 1

Fig. 6. Microgrid Model Proposed in [27].

if

Fig. 4. Microgrid Model in [22].

Lf

i cf

Rf

V cf

i1

V p1
P1,Q1

Cf

u V dc 1

Fig. 7. One Phase of Convertor in DGs of the Microgrid in [27].

Fig. 5. Development of Microgrid Small Signal Model in [22].

It is shown that power-frequency droops have a significant

impact on microgrid instability. The small signal model of
such a model is developed based on Fig. 5. Analyzing
eigenvalues and participation factors, low frequency
electromechanical oscillations and high frequency modes,
which are related to the power electronic-interfaced DGs
and their controllers, are decomposed. Sensitivity analysis
for different operating points is carried out. It is shown
that power-frequency droops have a significant impact on
microgrid instability.
The stability of the same microgrid is simulated in [8].
Various transient conditions such as energizing loads,
planned transition from island mode to the grid-connected
mode and transition from grid-connected to the island
mode following various temporary as well as permanent
faults in the upstream network, have been simulated. The
importance of fast islanding detection and subsequent
adjustment of control mode and power electronicinterfaced DGs setting in microgrid stability have been
highlighted. Finally, it is shown that in the case of no fast
VSC-based DGs, the synchronous machine based DG will
lose angular stability after islanding due to its slow
dynamics.
It is discussed in [23] that for such a microgrid, a doubly
fed induction generator (DFIG) equipped with fast power
electronic converters may stabilize the electromechanical
oscillations of the synchronous generator, after islanding.

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40

In [24], a dynamic mode of microgrid with onl inverterbased DGs is developed. Except of switching operations,
all high frequency loops of inverters are modeled.
Moreover, instead of using algebraic equations, full
dynamic model of microgrid network is taken into
consideration. The reason is the importance of high
frequency dynamic modes for this all-inverter microgrid.
Analyses reveal that frequency droops of DGs, designated
for load sharing among them, are the main factor in
instability of dominant eigenvalues.
The interesting point is the resistive network in such a
microgrid in contrast to the bulk power systems. This
results in dependence of these eigenvalues to the DGs
reactive power as well as activepower. The size of DGs
studied is in the order of tens of kilowatts. In [25], fuel cost
minimization in an islanded microgrid with wind, PV, gas
and CHP generation, and thermal as well as electrical
loads, is analyzed. As each DG is dispatched based on
droop mechanism, reference [26] considers
microgrid
stability constraint during minimization, so that as in [24]
the droop selection does not cause instability.
Another approach for modeling microgrids is presented
in [27] as shown in Fig. 6. Control strategy for load
sharing among DGs while maintaining power quality in
both the grid-connected and island modes is discussed. It
must be noted that each DG supplies its load which can be
unbalanced or nonlinear, where the DGs are converterbased. A common balanced load is also supplied by the
DGs. Fig. 7 shows the model used for the converter.

i i 1 R f 1 Lf 1

i o 1 R f 1 Lc1

ii 2 Rf

v g1

v o1

v i1
2

Lf

vo2

R B 12

L B 12
R B 23 L B 23

io 2

vi2

island mode, in order to synchronize the DG with

microgrid, a phase locked loop (PLL) is required [22].
V,f control, which is also known as voltage source
inverter (VSI), operates the inverter as a voltage source
with controllable magnitude and frequency. In fact, by P-f
and V-Q droops, voltage and frequency of the inverter is
controlled as [30]:
0 k P P
(1)
V V0 kQ Q

R f 1 L B 14

v g2

RL 2
LL 2

Fig. 8. Proposed Model of Microgrid in [27].

It is assumed that the microgrid network is resistive and

therefore voltage angle-reactive power and voltage-active
power droops are implemented in the island mode. The
difference between grid-connected and island modes is the
supply of the whole common load in the grid-connected
mode. Each DG supplies part of its own local load while
deleting harmonics and unbalances associated with its
load.
The state space model of a large low voltage microgrid in
the island mode is developed in [28]. All DGs in this
model are connected to the grid via inverter interface. Two
types of DGs are modeled in this work: P,Q control and
V,f control, which will be discussed later. These two types
are comprehensive models introduced in [22]. Since all the
DGs are inverter-based, microgrid network dynamics are
considered similar to [24]. Fig. 8 shows the dynamic
model of this microgrid.
In all the models discussed, dependency of load to
system voltage and frequency was neglected (except in
[10], [20-21], where the RLC load model depends on
frequency). In [29], dependency of load to frequency and
voltage is taken into account. Simulation results confirm
that this dependency is crucial in the stability assessment
in certain operating points of the microgrid.
III. MICROGRID CONTROL
Two control strategies for island operation of a
microgrid are introduced in [30]. It must be noted that all
the DGs are assumed to be inverter-interfaced. Switching
transients, harmonics and inverter losses are neglected.
These strategies are P,Q control and V,f control strategies.
P,Q control aims delivering constant active and reactive
power to the microgrid by DGs [30]. P,Q control is utilized
especially for wind- and solar- based DGs to extract
maximum available energy. Inverter functions as a voltage
source with current control. Control block of this strategy
(see Fig. 8) is depicted in Fig. 9 [28]. As shown in Fig. 9,
the d component of current is used for active power control
while the q component for reactive power control. In the

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41

where kP and kQ are slopes of active and reactive power

droops, respectively. The advantage of this droop
mechanism is that no communication infrastructure is
required, thereby using only local measurements for the
microgrid control in a decentralized way, and plug-andplay operation. It must be noted that in the grid-connected
mode, all DGs can be operated in P,Q control while
voltage and frequency is imposed by the upstream network.
In the island mode, however, at least one DG with V,f
control should exist in the microgrid.
For droop mechanism, the following equal load sharing
for the DGs as proposed in [24] and [31]:
k P1 P1nom k P 2 P2nom ... cte

(2)

where Pi nom is the active power of the ith DG. In other

words, the higher is the capacity of the DG, the higher is
its share in supplying the loads. It is discussed in [32] that
such load sharing is not justified economically. As it can
be seen in [24], dominant eigenvalues in the island mode
are strongly dependent to the droop coefficients and
therefore higher droops risk microgrid stability. Although
higher droops improve microgrid load sharing, microgrid
stability is jeopardized.
For microgrid stability analysis, bifurcation theory is
utilized in [32] to calculate best and worth directions for
the change in droops so that the microgrid is operated
economically with proper stability margin. An innovative
idea to avoid instability while adjusting droop coefficients
is implementation of a supplementary control loop as
shown in Fig. 10 [31]. This originates in conventional
power system stabilizer (PSS) applied to synchronous
machines in bulk power systems [34], where active power
is fed back to the voltage controller block. In so doing,
dominant eigenvalues get far from imaginary axis, thereby
enhancing microgrid stability and transients.
In [35], it is proposed to use three types of primary,
secondary and tertiary control accustomed to power
systems for inverter-based islanded microgrids. Primary
control is the same as determining DGs operating point by
droop mechanism.

i id*

e i id

1.5v od

i id

1.5v oq

i iq*

In [10], critical clearing time of the fault for various

types of short circuit faults in distribution system is
analyzed. It is found that current settings for the DGs are
quite conservative and based on the analyses, DGs may
survive many faults in the grid while connected to the grid.

v id

k pd

S i k id
id

Li

e i iq

i iq

k pq

v iq

IV. PROSPECTS OF MICROGRIDS

S i k iq
iq

Fig. 9. P,Q Control in [27].

i
Vi

Qi

V drefi

V qrefi

Pi

V drefi '
V drefi

Pi
Fig. 10. Utilizing PSS Idea for Microgrid Stability [33].

Tertiary control is used for economic operation of system

in longer time scales based on optimal power flow.
Secondary control is proposed to enhance transient
behavior of DGs based on a potential function
minimization. In fact, secondary control adjusts set points
of DGs dynamically to achieve minimum deviation in
transition to the new operating point.
Most researches in the context of microgrids are devoted
to the island mode of operation or transition between
island and grid connected modes, while less work has been
done on grid-connected microgrids. In [36], small signal
stability of DGs in the distribution system is analyzed.
Although there is no name of the microgrid, high
penetration of DGs can be considered as a grid-connected
microgrid. It is claimed that because of short electrical
distance between DGs, governors of combustion turbines
(operating by synchronous generators) interfere in each
other control mechanism resulting in electromechanical
instability. The reason is said to be low inertia of DGs. It is
suggested in [37] that with higher penetration of DGs,
larger DGs (based on synchronous machines) operate as
voltage regulator. DGs are in the order of 2 to 25 MW.
As one of the initiatives for the microgrid concept was
its continuity of service in case of fault in upstream
network, available standards for operation of DGs in case
of disconnection from the grid is addressed in [9]. Severe
problems arise when the penetration of DGs exceeds
current practice and their outage leads to generation
shortage in the system. So, transient stability of DGs is
analyzed based on Lyapunovs method so as to re-dispatch
DGs to avoid their instability after occurrence of a fault.

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42

In Sections II and III, different methods and controls for

microgrids were discussed. It was found that many factors
result in no universal model for the microgrids. Hence,
some prospects of microgrids are not addressed yet. On the
other hand, there are ideas taken from control methods in
other systems which deem appropriate for the microgrids.
Most of research work emphasize on island operation
of microgrids. Although operation of DGs in the
distribution grid has been studied widely, it seems more
research should be done on stability and control of
distribution systems with higher penetration of DGs, which
may be equivalent to grid-connected microgrids.
A few research projects address microgrids consisting
of the composition of synchronous machine- and power
electronics interfaced- DGs. As it is anticipated that both
of these technologies emerge in the smart grids, microgrid
dynamic analysis in this condition requires more research.
Ship power system (SPS) is a power system operated
in the island mode providing a high level of reliability for
its loads [38-39]. Concepts of reconfiguration and selfhealing, which was introduced in SPS and flight systems
and are suggested for the smart grids [40], can be good
ideas for the secure operation of microgrids.
The emerging communication infrastructure for smart
grid applications can help energy management systems
(EMS) play a significant role in optimal and secure
operation of microgrids. Considering many renewable
energy sources with random behavior expected to connect
to the grid, the importance of EMS in microgrid operation
will be highlighted. In case of dynamic problems or
instability after a fault, the designed EMS should respond
to prevent microgrid instability. EMS should be able to
perform corrective actions rapidly and effectively. EMS
design in this regard is a challenge for microgrid control.
V. CONCLUSION
Microgrids are building blocks of future smart grids.
This paper reviews several research works on dynamics
and stability of microgrids. Different methods for
microgrid modeling and control are employed with respect
to the microgrid characteristics. The models and controls
applied to various microgrids are explained in this paper.
It is found that size, number and type of DGs, control
designs for the DGs and many other factors lead to no

global model for microgrids. Considering prospects of the

emerging smart grids, future challenges for research on
microgrids are addressed in the end of the paper.

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From: icnsc2011-tbm@tudelft.nl <icnsc2011-tbm@tudelft.nl>

Subject: Decision on ICNSC 2011 submission 47
To: salehi1984@yahoo.com
Cc: salehi.ahmad@monenco.com, asalehi@ee.sharif.edu
Date: Thursday, 16 December, 2010, 2:19 AM
Message from PaperCept Conference Management System
Message originated by Zofia Lukszo
Re: (47) Control of Microgrids: Aspects and Prospects
Presentation format: Lecture
Dear Dr. Salehi Dobakhshari
It is our pleasure to inform you that the paper referenced
above, for which you are listed as the corresponding
author, has been accepted for publication in the
proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on
Networking, Sensing and Control to be held in Delft, the
Netherlands, on April 11-13, 2011.
We received 120 submissions for review and evaluation, and
it is commendable that your paper was selected for
publication. The advance program for the conference will be
available shortly at:
http://sinfras.com/conferences/icnsc2011/
Please note that reviewers' comments can be accessed by
logging into your account and following the link for
reviews for this paper. It is important that any critical
comments therein are adequately addressed before the final
paper is uploaded.
Acceptance of your paper is made with the understanding
that at least one author with full registration will attend
the conference to present the paper. If a paper is not
presented during a session, it causes severe disruption to
the session. Therefore, in the unfortunate event that you
or a co-author cannot attend the conference, we would
greatly appreciate if you could inform us of this, and
withdraw your paper as soon as possible.
Widely advertised conference policy requires that at least
one regular registration for each accepted paper must be
made at the time of submission of the final version, for
inclusion of the paper in the technical program and the
proceedings.
In addition, please notice that all papers are limited to
SIX (6) pages. The transfer of copyright agreement form
(electronically signed) should also be provided before
uploading the paper.
Electronic submission of the final version of your
manuscript is due by 15 January 2011 through PAPERCEPT.

Please note that the final submission process also requires

that you update the abstract and make any final changes to
the author list and title of the paper before uploading the
paper. Any authors not updated on the submission site will
not be included in the final program of the conference. For
further updates about the conference please consult the
conference website above.
We are looking forward to meeting you in Delft, the
Netherlands!
Sincerely, Zofia Lukszo
Program Chair, ICNSC 2011
Geert Deconinck
Program Vice-Chair, ICNSC 2011
Bart De Schutter
Program Vice-Chair, ICNSC 2011
---------------------------------------------Decision: Accepted as Contributed paper
---------------------------------------------Submission information
Authors and title:
Ahmad Salehi Dobakhshari*, Sadegh Azizi, Ali Mohammad Ranjbar
Control of Microgrids: Aspects and Prospects
Type of submission: Contributed paper
Conference: 2011 IEEE International Conference on Networking, Sensing and Control
Submission number: 47
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---------------------------------------------Dr. Zofia Lukszo
Technology, Policy and Management, Section Energy
andIndustry
Delft University of Technology
P.O. Box 5015
Jaffalaan 5, NL - 2628 BX Delft
2600 GA Delft Delft
Netherlands
E-mail address: icnsc2011-tbm@tudelft.nl, Z.Lukszo@tudelft.nl