Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

DOI 10.1007/s00202-013-0277-7

ORIGINAL PAPER

Optimal power flow solution of two-terminal HVDC systems

using genetic algorithm
Ulas Kl Krsat Ayan

Received: 11 March 2012 / Accepted: 12 January 2013 / Published online: 31 January 2013
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Abstract The usage extensively of high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission links in recent years makes it
necessary further work in this area. Therefore, two-terminal
HVDC transmission link is one of most important elements
in electrical power systems. HVDC link representation is
mostly ignored and simplified for optimal power flow (OPF)
studies in power systems. OPF problem of purely alternating current (AC) power systems is defined as minimization
of the fuel cost to subjected equality and inequality constraints. Hence, OPF software of purely AC power systems is
extended by taking into consideration power transfer control
characteristics of HVDC links. In this paper, OPF problem of
integrated ACDC power systems is first solved by genetic
algorithm that is a heuristic algorithm based on evolutionary.
The proposed method is tested on two test systems which are
the modified 5-node test system and the modified WSCC 9bus test system. In order to show effectiveness and efficiency
of the proposed method, the obtained results are compared
to that reported in the literature.
Keywords Optimal power flow HVDC system
Integrated ACDC system Heuristic method
Genetic algorithm Evolutionary

U. Kl (B)
Department of Electrical, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University,
Burdur, Turkey
e-mail: ulaskilic@mehmetakif.edu.tr
K. Ayan
Department of Computer Engineering,
Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
e-mail: kayan@sakarya.edu.tr

1 Introduction
In power systems, optimal power flow (OPF) problem is
defined as a nonlinear, non-convex and large-scale static optimization problem having continuous variables together with
discrete control variables [1]. The presence of discrete control
variables, such as transformer tap positions, phase shifters
and switchable shunt devices complicates to converge to the
global optimum of the general non-convex OPF problem [2].
Here, total generation cost that is an objective is minimized
to subject equality and inequality constraints for obtaining
generation power outputs, bus voltage magnitudes and transformer taps [3]. This optimization problem has nonlinear
power flow equality constraints. Currently, OPF problem is
very significant issue for power system operation and analysis. In a deregulated electricity conditions, OPF problem has
been used to assess the variation of electricity prices and
transmission congestion studies, in recent years [2].
OPF problem was first introduced in Ref. [4] and this
problem has been solved using methods such as Gradient base, Linear programming method [5] and quadratic
programming [6]. For equality constrained optimization
problems, nonlinear equations can be solved using a Newtontype algorithm. In Newton OPF [7], the inequality constraints have been included to the objective functions such as
quadratic penalty terms. In interior point (IP) method [8,9],
the inequality constraints are converted to equalities constraints. In the unlimited point algorithm [10], transformation
of the slack and dual variables of the inequality constraints
is used. Recently, to overcome the limitations of these mathematical programming approaches, algorithms such as GA
which is an evolutionary-based heuristic algorithm have been
developed [11,12].
Effectiveness of OPF problem is limited by size of power
systems. Numerical optimization techniques are based on

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successive linearization using the first and the second derivatives of objective functions and their constraints [13]. The
advantages of such methods are that they have mathematical
background. However, they have disadvantages such as the
sensitivity to problem formulation, algorithm selection and
usually converge to a local minimum.
HVDC transmission link is an application of the power
electronics technology to integrated ACDC power systems.
The economics of bulk power transmission by underground
DC links are increasingly moving in recent years. The one of
the advantages of power transmission by HVDC links is the
ability to control the instantaneous power in neighbouring
AC systems. Furthermore, HVDC links are used to stabilize
electric power systems [14]. Recently, much research on realization of HVDC models is performed for power flow studies
[1519]. The formulation for the basic model of the HVDC
link is given in Ref. [20].
There are two basic approaches for solving the power flow
equations of integrated ACDC power systems in the literature. The first is the sequential approach [19,21,22]. In this
method, the AC and DC equations are solved separately by
successive iterations. Although the implementation of the
sequential method is easy, it has convergence problems associated with certain situations and the state vector does not
contain explicitly the DC variables. The second approach is
known as the unified approach [23].
GA approach was only applied to OPF and ORPF problems of purely AC power systems until today [2426]. The
purpose of this paper is to solve the optimization problem
of two-terminal HVDC systems using GA approach. GA is
essentially a search algorithm that is based on natural genetics. It evaluates the optimal solution with randomized, structured exchanges of information among exist solutions. The
constraints on solution space are not implemented during
the process in GA approach. Therefore, GA approach is a
robust method. The power of GA comes from its ability to
exploit historical information from previous solution guesses
to increase performance of future solutions [27]. Recently,
GA has been applying extensively to solve global optimization searching problem when the closed form optimization
technique cannot be applied. GA approach takes into consideration simultaneously many points in the parameter space
and has not to assume that the search space is differentiable
or continuous [28]. Therefore, GA approach converges easily
to the global solution. In [29], the solution of OPF problem
by using GA is based on the usage of genetic algorithm. The
method is not sensitive to the starting points and is able to
determine the global optimum solution of OPF for a range
of objective functions and constraints.
In this study, the factual model for the transformers is
used. In the factual model, the impedance values of the transformers change as the tap ratios of the transformers change,
and thus the bus admittance matrix of the power system also

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Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

changes. The power system calculations are accomplished

without inclusion the impact of the transformers to the Jacobian matrix. Thus, the tap ratios of the transformers can be
selected as the control variables. In heuristic method, each
individual select a different tap ratio for each transformer
and the bus admittance matrix of the power system is calculated uniquely for each individual. This process increases
computational time of the software.
After this introduction, the modeling of DC transmission link is represented in Sect. 2. The GA methodology
is explained in Sect. 3. GA-based optimal power flow solution of two-termial HVDC system is explained in Sect. 4.
In Sect. 5, to demonstrate validity, the efficiency and the
effectiveness of the proposed method, simulation results of
the modified 5-node test system and the modified WSCC
9-bus test system with an HVDC link are given and the
obtained results are extensively evaluated and compared to
that reported in the literature. Finally, the conclusions and
discussions are represented in Sect. 6.

2 The modeling of DC transmission system

Before analyzing DC transmission system, it is necessary to
model DC transmission link and the converters. The modeling is based on widely accepted assumptions in the literature.
The assumptions are as follows [23]:
The main harmonic values of current and voltage in AC
system are balanced.
The other harmonics except the main harmonic are
ignored.
The ripples in the current and voltage waveforms of
HVDC link are ignored.
The thyristors used in the converters are accepted as ideal
switch.
No load current of the converter transformers and the
losses are ignored.
A basic schematic diagram of a two-terminal HVDC transmission link interconnecting buses r (rectifier) and i
(inverter) is illustrated in Fig. 1. The basic converter equations describing the relationship between the AC and DC
variables were expressed in Ref. [30].
The symbols appearing in Fig. 1 are defined as follows:
Vr is the primary line-to-line AC voltage (rms) of the rectifier side, Vi the primary line-to-line AC voltage (rms) of the
inverter side, r the phase angle of the rectifier side, i the
phase angle of the inverter side, Ir the alternating current of
the rectifier side, Ii the alternating current of the inverter side,
Vdr the direct voltage of the rectifier side, Vdi the direct voltage of the inverter side, Id the direct current, t the effective

Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

67

Fig. 1 A basic schematic

diagram of a two-terminal
HVDC transmission link [30]

AC
System

Rdc

Id

Vr r

1: tr

Vi i

Ir

Ii
Vdr

ti : 1

Vdi

Pdr , Qdr

Pdi , Qdi

Rectifier
transformer tap ratio and P, Q is active and reactive power,
respectively.

The equivalent circuit of a two-terminal HVDC link is shown

in Fig. 2 [31].
The equations related to the rectifier operation of a converter can be expressed as follows:

3 2
Vr tr
(1)
Vdor =

3X cr
Vdr = Vdor cos
(2)
Id

where Vdor is the ideal no-load direct voltage, is the ignition delay angle. X cr is the so called equivalent commutating reactance, which accounts for the voltage drop due to
commutation overlap. The active power of rectifier side is
determined by:
(3)

Since losses at the converter and transformer can be ignored

(Pdr = Pac ), the reactive power on the rectifier side is determined as follows:
Q dr = |Pdr tan r |

(4)

where r is the phase angle between the AC voltage and the

fundamental AC current and is calculated by neglecting the
commutation overlap as follows:
r = cos1 (Vdr/Vdor )

Inverter

Q di = |Pdi tan i |
i = cos

(9)

(Vdi /Vdoi )

(10)

where is the extinction advance angle.

2.1 Rectifier side equations of DC link

Pdr = Vdr Id

AC
System

(5)

2.2 Inverter side equations of DC link

The equations related to the inverter operation of a converter
can be expressed as follows:

3 2
Vi ti
Vdoi =
(6)

3X ci
Id
Vdi = Vdoi cos
(7)

Pdi = Vdi Id
(8)

2.3 DC link equations

The interdependent of the two DC voltages can be expressed
by Eq. (11):
Vdr = Vdi + Rdc Id

(11)

where Rdc is the resistance of DC transmission link.

2.4 Per unit system
In this study, the actual variables and per unit variables are
represented by capital letters and small letters, respectively.
Pacbase = Pbase
Pacbase
Iacbase =
3Vacbase
Vacbase
Z acbase =
3Iacbase
Per unit variables:
V
v=
Vacbase
Vd
vd =
Vacbase
Id
id =
Iacbase
Xc
xc =
Z acbase
Pd
pd =
Pacbase

(12)
(13)
(14)

(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)

The voltage of DC link is calculated as follows:

 
nk X c
2
Vd = V nkt
sin
cos
Id
(20)

k
2
where n is the number of the series connected bridges, k
represents peak number per period in the voltage variation
on the load. For k = 6, n = 1:

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Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

Fig. 2 The equivalent circuit of

two-terminal HVDC link [31]

Rcr

3 2

Vacbase
Vd
Vacbase

3 2
Vt

cos

Vacbase

3 2
Vt

cos

Vacbase

3X c
Id

Vacbase

3X c
Id

3Z acbase Iacbase

(21)

(22)
(23)

Open circuit voltage for unload case is represented as follows:

3 2
vt
(26)
vdo =

The phase difference between DC link voltage and open circuit voltage for unload case is represented as follows:
(27)

The reactive power given to the converters is represented as

follows:
qd = | pd tan d |

Vdi

Vdr

Per unit value of DC link voltage is calculated as follows:

3
3 2
vt cos
xc i d
vd =
(24)

(25)
pd = vd i d

d = cos1 (vd /vdo )

Rci

Id

Vr t r cos

3X c
3 2
V t cos
Id
Vd =

By dividing to Vacbase either side of Eq. (21);

Vd

Rdc

(28)

3 2

Vi t i cos

their limits. The second way is to form initial population

of the certain individuals. The fitness values of individuals
within population are obtained to be put into objective function of the formed individuals. The individual number within
initial population is randomly determined by Eq. (29).


(29)
wi j = wmin, j + rand (0, 1) wmax, j wmin, j
where the parameters wmin, j and wmax, j show the minimum
and maximum of the variable w j .
3.2 Fitness scaling
The scaling stage is one of GA operators. The scaling prevents algorithm to get stuck on a local point. There are different scaling methods such as rank scales, top scales and
shift linear scales. In this study, the better individuals than
individual having average fitness value are selected and can
be formulated as follows:
Nk


Fave =

Fi

i=1

(30)

Nk

where Fave , Nk and Fi show the average fitness value within

population, the number of individuals within population and
the fitness value of ith individual, respectively.
3.3 Selection

3 Illustration of GA
GA is heuristic algorithm based on natural selection. GAs
were first utilized by Holland in 1975 for solving optimization problems [32]. The base logic of the algorithm is that
gens of powerful individuals are based to be carried over next
generation and others are based to be detached in next generation. In natural selection, a human born, grows and dies.
These stages of human life correspond to the different operators in the algorithm. GA operators related these stages can
be explained as the following.
3.1 Initial population

In this stage, the parents to be crossed for producing a child

are selected. There are different selection methods such as
stochastic uniform, remainder, uniform, shift linear, roulette
and tournament. In this study, the tournament method is preferred and can be formulated as follows:
Fi
i =  N
k
j=1

where i shows the weight of ith individual within population. Furthermore, the sum of the elective probabilities of all
the individuals within population is 1 as given in Eq. (32).
Nk


Initial population is determined in two ways. One of them is

to form random individuals as initial population size within

123

(31)
Fj

i=1

i = 1

(32)

Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

69

3.5 Mutation
In mutation stage, new individuals are produced to be
changed all or some gens of the selected individuals within
population. The number of individuals undergoing mutation
has to be determined in the beginning of the algorithm. The
individuals undergoing mutation are reproduced to be formed
all the gens of the selected individuals within algorithm.
Thus, new individuals same as the number determined by
Eq. (29) are randomly produced.
3.6 Stopping algorithm

Fig. 3 The simple flow scheme of GA [34]

The twice individual of the children number determined in

the beginning of the algorithm is selected from individuals
within population for crossover. The percentage distribution
of the individuals within population is proportional to its fitness value. The best individuals are shown by the high-level
percentage distributions in roulette selection. After all the
individuals are shown as the percentage distribution between
0 and 1, the roulette selection in the definite number is performed. Thus, the individuals are selected for crossover.

3.4 Crossover
In this stage, a child is produced to be crossed the parents.
New individuals who are the same as the determined number are produced in order to be used in the crossing method
with the scattered parameters from parents selected via the
tournament method as explained in the selection stage.
1 and 0 values same as gen number of individual are randomly produced. If the value is 1, then gen is taken from
mother, the value is 0, then gen is taken from father and thus
the child is produced.

Cross: 1 0 1 1 0
Mother: a b c d e
Father: x y z u w
Child: a y c d w

There are many criterions for the stopping algorithm. Some

of these are the fitness value, time and iteration number. In
this study, iteration number is preferred as the stopping criterion. More information related to GA operators is available
in Ref. [33]. Final population is formed to be included the
reproduced individuals in stages above to initial population.
After the individuals within final population are classified
according to fitness value, the individual same as initial population is carried over the next iteration. The simple flow
scheme of GA is shown in Fig. 3 [34].
4 GA-based optimal power flow solution of
two-terminal HVDC system
It is significant to determine the state and the control variables
to solve the OPF problem of two-terminal HVDC system.
Furthermore, these control variables should be the same as
those of the problem to be optimized. The control variables
of this optimization problem are selected as follows:
u = [u AC , u DC ]


u AC = pg2 , . . . , pgNg , vg1 , . . . , vgNg , t1 , . . . , t NT

(34)

u DC = [ pdr , pdi , qdr , qdi , i d ]

(35)

(33)

where pgi except the slack bus pgslack is the generator active
power outputs, vgi is the generator voltage magnitudes, Ng
is the number of generator buses and NT is the number of
transformers.
The state variables of this optimization problem are
selected as follows:
x = [xAC , xDC ]


xAC = pgslack , qg1 , . . . , qgNg , v L1 , . . . , v L Nl


xDC = tr , ti , , , vdr , vdi

(36)
(37)
(38)

where pgslack is the slack bus active power output, qgi is the
reactive power outputs, v Li is the load bus voltage magnitudes and Nl is the number of load buses.
Equations (39) and (40) are used for updating active and
reactive power in rectifier and inverter sides.,

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Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

vdo =

For rectifier bus:

update

pload

= pload + pdr

update
qload

= qload + qdr

(39)

For inverter bus:

update

= pload pdi

update

= qload + qdi

pload
qload

The fitness value for each individual is obtained by the

Eq. (41) as follows:

lim

Fi = K 1 Fcos t + K 2
pgslack pgslack

+K 3

Ng

lim

qgi qgi

+ K4

Nl

i=1

i=1

v Li v lim
Li

(41)
lim , q lim , v lim , t lim , t lim , lim , lim , v lim and v lim
where pgslack
r
dr
di
gi
Li
i
show the limits of the related variables, respectively;K 1 , K 2 ,
K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , K 8 , K 9 and K 10 are penalty weights of
total fuel cost, real power output of slack bus, reactive power
outputs of generator buses, load bus voltage magnitudes, the
effective transformer ratios of rectifier and inverter sides, the
angles of rectifier and inverter sides, the direct voltages of rectifier and inverter sides respectively. Note that the value of
penalty function grows with a quadratic form when the constraints are violated and is 0 in the region where constraints
are not violated.
The power flow calculation for each individual in heuristic
methods is performed and a fitness value Fi for each individual is calculated to evaluate its quality as follows:

Step 1: Update pload and qload in rectifier and inverter

sides using the Eqs. (39) and (40)
Step 2: Run NewtonRaphson
Step 3: Calculate the phase angle in rectifier and inverter
sides using Eq. (42)
= arctan

qd
pd


(42)

Step 4: Calculate the direct voltage at either side using

Eq. (43)
vd =

pd
id

(43)

Step 5: Calculate the ideal no-load direct voltage at either

side using Eq. (44)

123

vdo

3 2
v

(45)

Step 7: Calculate the ignition delay angle and the extinction advance angle at either side using Eq. (46)

vd + 3 xc i d
, = arccos
vdo

+K 5
tr trlim
+ K 6
ti tilim
+ K 7
lim

lim

lim

+K 8
lim
+ K 9
vdr vdr

+ K 10
vdi vdi

(44)

Step 6: Calculate the effective transformer ratios at either

side using Eq. (45)
t=

(40)

vd
cos ()


(46)

Step 8: Calculate Fcos t using Eq. (47)

Fcos t =

Ng 


2
ai + bi pgi + ci pgi

(47)

i=1

where Fcos t represents the total fuel cost, Ng the total

number of generators, pgi the active power generation of
ith generator and finally ai , bi and ci represent the fuel
cost coefficients of ith generator.
Step 9: Calculate the fitness value Fi using Eq. (41)
The application procedure of GA to OPF problem is illustrated step by step as follows:
Step 1. Read system data and GA parameters
Step 2. Generate initial population of m individuals via
control variable u
Step 3. Calculate the fitness value Fi of each chromosome
in the population
Step 4. Create a new population by repeating the following steps until the new population is completed
Step 5. Select the parents by tournament selection
Step 6. Crossover the parent chromosomes with scattered
to form a new child
Step 7. Mutate new individual with a mutation probability
Step 8. Calculate the fitness value Fi of each new child
Step 9. Include new individuals to initial population
Step 10. Classify all the individuals according to the fitness value
Step 11. Carry over the individual same as initial population the next iteration
Step 12. If the stopping criterion is satisfied, stop the
algorithm and show the best solution in current population else, go to Step 4.

Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

71
Table 1 Upper and lower limits of the control variables of the modified
5-node test system
Variables Case A/Case B

Variables Case A

Case B

u AC

u min
AC

u max
AC

u DC

u min
DC

u max
DC

u min
DC

u max
DC

pg2

0.1

2.0

pdr

0.1000 0.1500 0.1500 0.2250

vg1

0.90 1.10

pdi

0.1000 0.1500 0.1500 0.2250

vg2

0.90 1.10

qdr

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.1

qdi

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.1

id

0.1000 0.1000 0.1500 0.1500

Table 2 Upper and lower limits of the state variables of the modified
5-node test system
Variables

Case A/Case B

Variables

Case A/CaseB

Fig. 4 The modified 5-node test system with an HVDC link [35]

xAC

min
xAC

min
xAC

xDC

min
xDC

0.1

2.0

tr

0.90

5 Simulation results

qg1

3.0

3.0

ti

0.90

qg2

3.0

3.0

10

20

15

25

pgslack

To show the validity, efficiency and effectiveness of GA in

optimal power flow solution of two-terminal HVDC system,
the proposed method is tested on two test systems which are
the modified 5-node test system [35] and the modified WSCC
9-bus test system [36] in this study. The data for either test
system are given in Appendix [3537].
In the study, the stopping criterion of GA is selected as 100
iterations. This value is the same as that in the previous studies in the literature. The needed time to determine the global
optimum also increase as the iteration number is increased
(>1,000 iterations). Therefore, in selection of the iteration
number, several experiments are performed for different population sizes. As a result of the performed experiments, the
best individual number is determined as 50, the best child
number is determined as 25 and the best individual number
undergo mutation is determined as 10 for the GA. The running times of software for two test systems are obtained as
12.58 and 47.44 s, respectively.
5.1 The modified 5-node test system
This modified system having the five buses and two generators is extended with two-terminal HVDC link connected
between Lake and Main buses. In this contrived example,
the AC network and HVDC converters are assumed to work
under three-phase balanced conditions. The modified 5-node
test system with two-terminal HVDC link is shown in Fig. 4.
The study is performed for two different cases according
to power and current of DC link.
Case A: The current of DC link is taken into consideration
as 0.10 p.u.

max
xDC

1.10
1.10

v L1

0.90

1.10

v L2

0.90

1.10

vdr

1.00

1.50

v L3

0.90

1.10

vdi

1.00

1.50

Case B: The current of DC link is taken into consideration

as 0.15 p.u.
Upper and lower limits of the control variables and the state
variables related to two-terminal HVDC system are given in
Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
The generator active and reactive power outputs and nodal
voltages of the modified 5-node test system for cases A and
B are shown in Table 3. It can be seen that the minimum
generation costs for cases A and B are obtained as 748.0335
and 748.1335 $/h. These generation costs are obtained by
running 20 times of the algorithm. The voltage magnitude
obtained for North bus in Ref. [35] was 1.109 p.u. This value
is higher than its upper limit. Furthermore, the limit overflow
in the voltage of North bus is overcome by GA.
OPF results obtained by method in Ref. [35] and GA are
given in Table 4. It can be seen clearly from this that the
minimum generation cost obtained by GA is lesser than that
reported in Ref. [35].
DC link parameter results obtained using GA of the modified 5-node system for cases A and B are given in Table 5.
It can be seen clearly that all the parameters of DC link are
within their upper and lower limits.
The fitness value variation against iteration for cases A
and B is shown in Fig. 5. The optimum points for cases
A and B are obtained by 12 and 30 iterations, respectively.

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Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

Table 3 The generator active

and reactive power outputs and
nodal voltages of the modified
5-node test system for cases A
and B

Case A

Case B

Bus name:

pg

qg

pg

qg

North

1.099632

0.794997

0.140369

1.099498

0.810151

0.188901

South

1.094199

0.885547

0.064935

1.096783

0.870860

Lake

1.068605

1.067430

Main

1.077238

1.079512

Elm

1.071843

1.074457

Cost ($/h)

748.0335

748.1335

Losses (MW)

3.0544

3.1011

Table 4 Comparative results of OPF for 5-node system

Case A

Cost ($/h)

Case B

GA

Ref. [35]

GA

Ref. [35]

748.0335

748.156

748.1335

748.451

3.0544

3.094

3.1011

3.168

Losses (MW)

Again, the optimum points for cases A and B are obtained

within 1.5096 and 3.774 s, respectively.
The reactive power variations in rectifier and inverter sides
against iteration number for cases A and B are shown in Figs.

Table 5 DC link parameter results obtained using GA for the modified

5-node system
Control
angles
(degree)

Effective
transformer
ratio

Active
power
(p.u.)

Reactive
power
(p.u.)

DC
current
(p.u.)

Case A
Rec.

10.39955

1.052508

Inv.

15.26741

1.064044

0.149325

0.027793

0.1000

0.149292

0.040908

Case B
Rec.

10.55394

0.913851

0.194103

0.037022

Inv.

17.40562

0.930288

0.194028

0.061141

Fig. 5 Fitness value variations

against iteration number for
cases A and B

0.1500

0.142612

6 and 7, respectively. The transformer ratio variations at both

side against iteration number for cases A and B are shown in
Figs. 8 and 9, respectively.
max = p min = 0.1371 p.u. and p max = p min =
For pdr
dr
dr
dr
0.1945 p.u. which correspond i d = 0.1 p.u. and i d =
0.15 p.u., the fuel costs are obtained as 748.0708 and
748.2054 $/h, respectively. For the same pdr and i d , the fuel
costs were obtained as 748.156 and 748.451 $/h, respectively, in Ref. [35]. According to these results, it can be
seen that GA is more effective and superior than method in
Ref. [35].

5.2 The modified WSCC 9-bus test system

The modified WSCC 9-bus test system extended with twoterminal HVDC link is shown in Fig. 10. AC transmission
between buses 4 and 5 in the original WSCC 9-bus test system
is replaced with two-terminal HVDC link (Fig. 10) [36].
The upper and lower limits of the control and state variables related to the test system are given in Tables 6 and 7,
respectively.
According to the obtained results, the variations of the
best, the worst and the average fitness value for each individual against iteration number are shown in Fig. 11.

810
Case A

Fitness value

800

Case B

790
780
770
760
750
740

10

20

30

40

50

60

Iteration number

123

70

80

90

100

Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

0.065
Rectifier Side

0.06

Reactive power (p.u.)

Fig. 6 The reactive power

variations at either side against
iteration number for case A

73

Inverter Side

0.055
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

80

90

100

80

90

100

80

90

100

Iteration number
0.11
Rectifier Side

0.1

Reactive power (p.u.)

Fig. 7 The reactive power

variations at either side against
iteration number for case B

Inverter Side

0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Iteration number

Fig. 8 Transformer ratio

variations at either side against
iteration number for case A

1.1
Rectifier Side

Inverter Side

Transformer ratio

1.05

0.95

0.9

0.85

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Iteration number

Fig. 9 Transformer ratio

variations at either side against
iteration number for case B

1.1
Rectifier Side

Inverter Side

Transformer ratio

1.05

0.95

0.9

0.85

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Iteration number

123

74

Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

Table 7 Upper and lower limits of the state variables for the modified
WSCC 9-bus system
min
xAC

min
xAC

xDC

0.1

2.5

tr

0.85

qg1

3.0

3.0

ti

0.85

1.15

qg2

3.0

3.0

7.00

10.00

qg3

3.0

xAC
pgslack

Fig. 10 The modified WSCC 9-bus and 3-machine test system [36]

Table 6 Upper and lower limits of the control variables for the modified
WSCC 9-bus system
u AC

u min
AC

u max
AC

u DC

u min
DC

u max
DC

pg2

0.10

3.0

pdr

0.1000

1.500

pg3

0.10

2.7

pdi

0.1000

1.500

vg1

0.90

1.10

qdr

0.0

1.0

vg2

0.90

1.10

qdi

0.0

1.0

vg3

0.90

1.10

id

0.1

1.0

t14

0.85

1.15

t27

0.85

1.15

t39

0.85

1.15

min
xDC

max
xDC

1.15

3.0

10.00

15.00

v L1

0.90

1.10

vdr

1.00

1.50

v L2

0.90

1.10

vdi

1.00

1.50

v L3

0.90

1.10

v L4

0.90

1.10

v L5

0.90

1.10

v L6

0.90

1.10

Table 8 The obtained fuel costs for the modified WSCC 9-bus system

Cost ($/h)

Best

Worst

Average

1,145.9525

1,147.9315

1,146.942

Time (s)

7.116

The transformer ratio variations at either side against iteration number are shown in Fig. 13.
DC and AC load flow results of the modified WSCC 9-bus
system are given in Tables 9 and 10, respectively. As seen
from Tables 6, 7, 9, and 10, all the results are kept within
their upper and lower limits.
6 Conclusion and discussion

The best individual within these three individuals reaches

to the optimum point in almost 15 iterations. Again, the computational times are obtained in 7.116 s. In Table 8, the
fuel costs obtained via the best, the worst and the average
individual are given as 1,145.9525, 1,147.9315 and
1,146.942 $/h, respectively. The reactive power variations
of rectifier and inverter sides to iteration number are shown
in Fig. 12.
Fig. 11 The variations of the
best, the worst and the average
fitness value for each individual
against iteration number

12

x 10

In this study, OPF problem of the modified 5-node test

system and the modified WSSC 9-bus test system is first
solved to show the validity and the effectiveness of GA. The
results obtained for two different cases were compared to
that reported in Ref. [35]. As seen clearly from comparative OPF results, the results obtained by GA are better than
that obtained by numerical method proposed in Ref. [35].

Best

Worst

Average

Fitness value

10
8
6
4
2
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Iteration number

123

70

80

90

100

Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

75

Fig. 12 The reactive power

variations at either side against
iteration number

0.07

Reactive power (p.u.)

Rectifier Side

Inverter Side

0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

80

90

100

Iteration number

Fig. 13 Transformer ratio

variations at either side against
iteration number

1.2
Rectifier Side

Inverter Side

Transformer ratio

1.15
1.1
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
0.85

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Iteration number

Table 9 DC load flow results of

the modified WSCC 9-bus
system

Table 10 AC load flow results

of the modified WSCC 9-bus
system using GA

Control angles
(degree)

Effective transformer
ratio

Active power
(p.u.)

Reactive power
(p.u.)

DC current
(p.u.)
0.1000

GA
Rec.

9.417373

0.976568

0.136029

0.024080

Inv.

10.474138

1.109794

0.136019

0.026697

Bus number

pg

qg

Transformer tap ratio

1.063640

0.96905

0.01092

t14

1.016165

1.083900

1.22509

0.70183

t27

0.998110

1.061280

1.02942

-0.13526

t39

1.022753

1.047477

0.924871

1.034400

1.047932

1.034598

1.046922

Furthermore, GA has many advantages such as easy convergence and adaptability. GA converges reliably and rapidly
to the optimal solution and can be also adapted to the other

areas. In future, this algorithm and the other heuristic algorithms can be applied easily to OPF problem of the large-scale
multi-terminal HVDC systems.

123

76

Electr Eng (2014) 96:6577

Appendix

Table 15 AC transmission line characteristics of WSCC 9-bus system

A. 5-node system data

See Tables 11, 12, 13.
Table 11 AC system bus data of the 5-node system
Bus name
North

pload
0.00

qload
0.00

ai
60

bi
340

R (p.u.)

X (p.u.)

B/2 (p.u.)

0.0000

0.0576

0.0000

0.0170

0.0920

0.0790

0.0320

0.1610

0.1530

0.0390

0.1700

0.1790

0.0000

0.0625

0.0000

0.0085

0.0720

0.0745

40

0.0119

0.1008

0.1045

0.0000

0.0586

0.0000

0.20

0.10

60

340

40

Lake

0.45

0.15

Main

0.40

0.05

Elm

0.60

0.10

Table 12 AC transmission line characteristics of the 5-node system

From bus

To bus

R (p.u.)

X (p.u.)

B/2 (p.u.)

North

South

0.02

0.06

0.06

North

Lake

0.08

0.24

0.05

South

Lake

0.06

0.18

0.04

South

Main

0.06

0.18

0.04

South

Elm

0.04

0.12

0.03

Main

Elm

0.08

0.24

0.05

Table 16 DC transmission link characteristics of WSCC 9-bus system

Rectifier

Inverter

Bus number

Commutation reactance (p.u.)

0.0459

0.0518

DC link resistance (p.u.)

0.001

References

Table 13 DC transmission link characteristics of the 5-node system

Rectifier

Inverter

Lake

Main

Commutation reactance (p.u.)

0.01260

0.00728

DC-link resistance (p.u.)

0.00334

B. WSCC 9-bus system data

See Tables 14, 15, 16.
Table 14 AC system bus data of the WSCC 9-bus test system
Bus number

pload

qload

ai

bi

ci

0.00

0.00

140

200

60

0.00

0.00

120

150

75

0.00

0.00

80

180

70

0.00

0.00

1.25

0.50

0.90

0.30

0.00

0.00

1.00

0.35

0.00

0.00

123

To bus

ci

South

AC node

From bus

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