Behaviorism

The term behaviorism is referred to the school of psychology which was founded by John B.
Watson (Fernald, 2008). Behaviorism in psychology is based on the assumption that learning
occurs through interactions with the environment (Fernald, 2008). Two other assumptions of this
theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states into
consideration is useless in explaining behavior (Stanrock, 2000).
It is based on the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed (Stanrock, 2000).
In 1913 Behaviorism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper Psychology
as the Behaviorist Views It (Fernald, 2008).
A behaviorist investigates learning in term of observable behavior According to a behaviorist,
behavior is anything that ones do and it is directly observable (Wolfork, 2004). In general there
are two types of behavior, overt behavior and covert behavior. Overt behaviors are directly
observable while covert behaviors are not directly observable (Fernald, 2008).
Overt behaviors are directly influence by environment (Fernald, 2008). A behaviorist explore
environment role on behavior modification, it investigate the ways in which environment modify
the behavior (Stanrock, 2000). Many behaviors are caused by environment as well as many
behaviors are modified by environment (Fernald, 2008).
Environment influence the ones behavior in these ways: through the signals of upcoming events
and through the consequences of ones behavior (Stanrock, 2000).
Thus a behaviorist investigates the ways in which environmental events interact to produce
learning (Fernald, 2008).
Behaviorism holds that only observable behaviors should be studied. Aim of the behaviorism is
to study the observable behaviors and environmental events (Fernald, 2008). A behaviorist

focuses on learning as creating, changing or modifying the behavior using environment stimuli
(Stanrock, 2000).
Behaviorists focus only on the overt behaviors. The concern of behaviorism lies in the overt
activities it has nothing to do with memory thinking or other mental process that can not be
directly observed (Fernald, 2008).

MAJOR THINKERS IN BEHAVIORISM

1.

Ivan Pavlov

(1849 1936)

2.

Edward Thorndike

(1874 1949)

3.

John B. Watson

(1878 1958)

4.

B. F. Skinner

(1904 - 1990), (Fernald, 2008).

Ivan Pavlov presented one of the most important theories of behaviorism called classical
conditioning in 1920. He also received the Noble Prize in 1904 for his work in the field of
physiology (Fernald, 2008).
Edward Thorndike also provided great services for behaviorism and presented his law of effect,
which is also known as Thorndikes Law of Effect in 1905 (Fernald, 2008).
John B. Watson can be considered the earliest behaviorist, who was equally a controversial
figure. He rebelled against the introspection and other studies of consciousness. He presented his
theory stating that psychology should investigate or focus on those events which are directly
observable and can be tested by natural sciences rather than mental activities whatever they do
so. This approach is called methodological behaviorism (Fernald, 2008).
B.F Skinner a young college graduate who turned to psychology later on to behaviorism after
reading the Watsons book. He contributed a lot to the operant conditioning (Fernald, 2008).

BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO LEARNING

As stated earlier behaviorists investigate learning in term of overt behavior changing (Stanrock,
2000). So behavioral approaches also focuses on children learning looking, how children making
connections between experience and behavior (Fernald, 2008). There are two central approaches
in behaviorism (Stanrock, 2000).
1.

Classical conditioning

2.

Operant Conditioning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological
response such as fear increased muscle tension, salivation or sweating. These are sometimes
called respondent because they are automatic response to stimuli. Through the classical
conditioning human and animal can be trained to react involuntary to a stimuli that has
previously no effect or a very different effect on them (Wolfrok, 2004).
Classical conditioning is presented by the Ivan Pavlov in 1920. He was a Russian psychologist
(Fernald, 2008). In early 1900s, he was working on the digestion of food. He was doing his
experiments on dogs, for this purpose he routinely gave a piece of meat to dog Actually he was
interested to know how much time it took to secret the digestive juice after it had been fed
(Stanrock, 2000). He was surprised to know that interval kept on changing. At first dog salivated
in the expected manner but later he salivated when he saw the food after he start salivating on the
sight of scientist. These unexpected results made the Pavlov detour from the original experiment
and he decided to know the reason, why did dog behave in unexpected way (Stanrock, 2000).
He set up the new experiment apparatus. In his first experiment Pavlov tuned the fork before
giving food to dog no saliva was produced by dog at this stage (Stanrock, 2000). Dogs recorded

behavior was normal because at this stage tuning the fork was the neutral stimuli for the response
of salivation (Stanrock, 2000). The food was an unconditioned stimulus because food and
salivation had a natural relationship no prior training was given for this (Stanrock, 2000). The
salivation was also an unconditioned stimulus because it occurs automatically after food
(Stanrock, 2000). He did the same experiment repeatedly and finally dog salivated soon after
tuning the fork (Stanrock, 2000).
To understand the Pavlov experiment one needs to understand the two types of stimuli and two
type of response.
Unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus which produces a response without any prior
learning (Wolfork, 2004).
Unconditioned response (UR) is an unlearned response which is automatically created by the
unconditioned stimulus (Wolfork, 2004).
Conditioned stimulus (CS) is previously an unconditioned stimulus which eventually elicited
by a conditioned response after being association with (US) (Wolfork, 2004).
Conditioned response (CR) is a learned response to the (CS) after (US) and (CS) pairing.
In this experiment Pavlov began with tuning the fork which was neutral stimuli or unconditioned
stimuli (US), salivating was also an unconditioned response (UR) and later on tuning the fork
become conditioned stimuli (CS) and the salivating become conditioned response (CR)
(Wolfork, 2004).

PRINCIPLE OF THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Thus classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect and
associate, with a stimulus. (Stanrock, 2000)
Classical conditioning has great importance in field of education. It can be involved in creating
and modifying positive and negative experience of students related to the classroom (Stanrock,
2000).
GENERALIZATION, DISCRIMINATION, AND EXTINCTION
Pavlovs work identified three other processes in classical conditioning.
1.

Generalization

2.

Discrimination

3.

Extinction

Generalization
According to a generalization process once the dog has learned to response hearing the particular
sound. The same response salivation will be produce either the voice of that particular noise is
louder or lower (Wolfork, 2004).
Discrimination
The particular response will not be produce on the hearing of slightly different tone. Pavlov also
taught the dog discriminating in the different voices (Wolfork, 2004).
Extinction
It means the demolishing the conditioned response. Means if a conditioned stimulus occurs
repeatedly but is not followed by the conditioned stimulus (food). The conditioned response
salivating fades away gradually finally it is disappeared (Wolfork, 2004).

EVALUATING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning helps the educators in understanding some aspects of learning better than
other. It excels in explaining how neutral stimulus becomes associated with unlearned,
involuntary responses (LoLordo, 2000). It is important in understanding the students anxiety
and fear. However it fails to explain the voluntary behaviors (Stanrock, 2000).

OPERANT CONDITIONING
No doubt Edward Thorndike and B.F Skinner both of them had done a great piece of work in
developing the knowledge of operant conditioning (Stanrock, 2000).
THORNDIKES LAW OF EFFECT (1905)
In early 1900s when Ivan Pavlov was conducting classical conditioning experiment with dogs.
American Thorndike was busy in conducting experiment on cats (Fernald, 2008). He was
studying the behavior of cat in puzzle boxes (Stanrock, 2000). He put the cat into the puzzle box
and put the piece of fish outside. At first cat made the some random response to get outside but it
did not succeed. Eventually cat put the step on the treadle that released the door bolt and cat
came outside. The cat was again returned into the puzzle box it again made the random mistakes
and eventually got free. When cat was repeatedly gone trough this trial its random activities get
few and later fewer finally it learned how to get outside from the puzzle (Stanrock, 2000).
On the basis of above experiments Thorndike stated his law of effect in (1905). This law states
that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by
negative outcome are weakened (Stanrock, 2000).
According to Thorndike, the correct stimulus-response association strengthens, and incorrect
association weakens, because of the consequence of the organisms action (Stanrock, 2000).

Thorndikes view is called S-R theory because the organisms behavior is due to a connection
between a stimulus and a response (Stanrock, 2000).
No doubt that Thorndike provided the basic framework of the operant theory. B.F Skinner
further extended the work of Thorndike (Fernald, 2008).
SKINNERS OPERANT CONDITIONING
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on
Thorndikes law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect-Reinforcement.
Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated, behavior which is not reinforced tends to die
out-or be extinguished (Fernald, 2008).
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he
placed in a Skinner Box which was similar to Thorndikes puzzle box (Fernald, 2008).
Operant conditioning in which the consequence of behavior leads to changes in probability that
the behavior will occur, is at the heart of B.F. Skinners behaviorism. Consequence reward or
punishments are contingent on the organisms behavior (Santrock, 2004).
PRINCIPLE OF THE OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning is also known as the instrumental learning. According to the principle of
operant conditioning consequence of any response or behavior will determine the chances that
behavior will occur or not (Wolfork, 2004).
REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT
Reinforcement or the reward is the consequence that increases the chances of behavior will occur
again (Wolfork, 2004).
On the contrary punishment is the consequence which decreases the chances of occurring
behavior again (Wolfork, 2004).

Reinforcement is more complex than the reward. Reinforcement means to strengthen. There are
two types of reinforcement, positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement (Stanrock, 2000).
In positive reinforcement tendency of the behavior is increased by or the frequency of the
response is increased by positive stimuli (Wolfork, 2004). Opposite to it negative reinforcement
strengthens the frequency of response by eliminating the unpleasant stimuli (Wolfork, 2004). So
it can be said in positive reinforcement something is added or obtained while in negative
reinforcement something is subtracted or eliminated (Stanrock, 2000).
GENERALIZATION, DISCRIMINATION, AND EXTINCTION
The process of Generalization Discrimination and Extinction is also of great importance in
operant learning. The scheme of these processes is same as in the classical learning.
1. Generalization
2. Discrimination
3. Extinction
Generalization
In operant conditioning when the same response is given to the same stimuli it is called
generalization. The thing of interest is the extent to which behavior generalize from one class to
other (Wolfork, 2004).
Discrimination
Discrimination in operant conditioning means differentiating among stimuli and environment
event (Wolfork, 2004).
Extinction
In operant conditioning extinction means that previously reinforced response in no more long
reinforced and the response decreases (Wolfork, 2004).

APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN EDUCATION

Today many applications of operant conditioning have been made outside of research
laboratories on human in the wide world of the classroom, homes, business settings, hospitals
and other real world settings (Stanrock, 2000).
Applied behavior analysis involves applying the principles of operant conditioning to change
human behavior. The uses of applied behavior analysis are especially important in education:
increasing desirable behavior, using prompts and shaping, and decreasing undesirable behavior
(Alberto & Troutman, 1999).
These often begin with some general observations and then turn to determining the specific
target behavior that needs to be changed, as well as observing its antecedent conditions.
Behavioral goals are then set, particular reinforces or punishers are selected, a behavioral
management program is carried out, and the success or failure of the program is evaluated
(Santrock, 2004).

References
Fernald,D. (2008). Psychology:Six Perspectives, United State of America, Havad
University: SAGE Publishers.
Stanrock,W.J. (2000). Educational Psychology (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Wolfork, A. (2004). Educational Psychology ( 9th ed). McGraw-Hill.