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BJT Switches
Bipolar Transistor Saturation
Output (V-I for collector to emitter) looks like a current source
IC

IB = 0
VCE

Dashed line is a curve of constant power ICVCE.

Shaded region corresponds to area where VCE may drop no lower for a
given IC.
This is called Saturation.
Voltages at saturation are typically 0.1 to 0.3 V.

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Common Emitter Switch

+10 V
10 V, 0.1 A
lamp

= 100
1 k

Switch open: IB = 0 so IC = 0, and the lamp is off.

Switch closed: VB = 0.6 V, IB = 9.4 mA.
The rule is I C = I B so IC = 940 mA.
But the lamp will only draw 100 mA at 10 V.
The collector goes as low as it can (typically 0.1 V) and sinks 100 mA.

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Switch Using Transconductance

+10 V
10 V, 0.1 A
lamp

hfe = 100
1 k

Correct gain is RC / re = RCIC / 25 mA-

At the operating point, RC = 10 V / 100 mA = 100
The gain is (100 )(100 mA) / 25 mA- = 400
The base-collector junction is a diode with a diode drop < 0.25 V.
The reverse current is IS:
IC = IS ( e

V BE V T

1)

The base-emitter voltage is about 0.6 V

The correct hfe = IC / IB = 100 mA / 9.4 mA 10

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Two-state Electronics
Common Emitter
+20 V
1 k
Vout
1 k
Vin

When Vin = 0 V the transistor switch is open (off) and Vout = 20 V.

As Vin increases above 0.6 V then transistor turn on and current begins
to flow, lowering Vout towards ground.
The base of the transistor will hold at 0.7 V and when Vin = 0.9 V,
IB = 0.2 mA and IC = IB = 20 mA. The voltage drop to the collector
would now be 20 V and the transistor will be fully on and Vout = 0.2 V.
With the exeception of the range from 0.6 V < Vin < 0.8 V, this circuit
has only two output states.

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Photodiode as a Light Meter

Photodiode schematic symbol.

A resistor converts the current to a voltage

ID

Vout = RID
R

Typical currents are 1 A/W incident light.

With a reverse bias on the diode, the photocurrent produced is
proportional to the light intensity. A transistor amplifies the current.
+5 V
RC = 4.7 k
ID

Vout

V C = V CC I C R C
I C = ( V B 0.6V ) R E
VB = RD ID

Q1
RD =
20 k

RC
V C = V CC ( R D I D 0.6V ) ------R
E

RE = 47

V C = 65V ( 2M )I D

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Phototransistor
A base-collector junction is reverse-biased.
The base uses a photo-sensitive material.
Schematic symbol:
IC

The collector current is proportional to the light intensity.

The transistor acts directly to amplify the current:
I C = I B = I L

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LED Driver
Current should be either on or off. Typically a transistor switch, logic
gate, or saturated op-amp will drive the LED.
Use VCC = +5 V, VLED = 1.7 V, ILED = 10 mA.
V CC V LED
R = ------------------------------- = 330
I LED

Driving circuit (Vin > 0, LED is on)

+5 V
10 k

Vin

Vout

330

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