MIC COMPENDIU DE GRAMATIC

Grammar Compendium
Scurt istorie a limbii engleze
Historical Sketch of the English Language Inflections and Vocabulary
Limba englez este de origine vest-germanic, fiind nrudit cu olandeza, friziana i germana, avnd
ns i multe elemente de vocabular provenite din limbile francez, latin sau grec. Punctul de pornire al limbii
engleze l-au constituit diversele dialecte germanice aduse pe teritoriul Marii Britanii de triburile migratoare, n
timpul raidurile lor de cucerire. Dintre aceste triburi, cele mai semnificative sunt anglii, saxonii i iuii, altfel
spus, anglo-saxoni.
Originile englezei vechi (Old English) pot fi plasate n istorie la nceputul secolului al VIII-lea d.Hr.
n prezent, aproximativ 341 de milioane de persoane vorbesc engleza ca limb matern i nc 267 de milioane
o utilizeaz ca limb a doua, n peste 104 ri inclusiv Marea Britanie, Irlanda, SUA, Canada, Australia, Noua
Zealand, Africa de Sud, Samoa american, Andorra, Anguilla, Antigua i Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados,
Belize, Bermuda, Botswana, spaiul Britanic din Oceanul Indian, insulele Britanice Virgine, Brunei, Camerun,
Canada, insulele Cayman, Cook precum i Danemarca.
n zilele noastre, limba englez este folosit de peste 750 de milioane de oameni, fie ca limb oficial a
unei naiuni, fie mpreun cu alte limbi (pidgin i creola). Este una dintre limbile oficiale sau chiar limba
oficial pe teritoriul Marii Britanii, n Canada, Australia, i Noua Zeeland, n vreme ce n Statele Unite nu
exist o limb oficial.
Utilizarea larg a englezei la scar mondial n diplomaie, comer i tiin, i confirm importana din
acest punct de vedere i indic motivele pentru care milioane de oameni opteaz pentru a i-o nsui ca limb a
doua, dup cea matern.
Ar trebui precizat, totui, c nu superioritatea sa intrinsec n raport cu alte limbi a impus engleza ca
limba cu aria cea mai larg de rspndire pe glob. Bogia vocabularului su, flexibilitatea gramaticii,
expresivitatea sau muzicalitatea sa reprezint caliti care sunt, mai degrab, rezultatul i nu motivele sau
cauzele importanei ctigate. Includerea sa n categoria limbilor majore este determinat, n principal, de
utilizatori i de felul n care acetia o folosesc. ncepnd cu secolul al XVIII-lea, vorbitorii de limb englez
mai nti cei de pe teritoriul insulelor britanice i, mai trziu, cei din America i din dominioanele britanice au
exercitat o influen considerabil asupra fenomenului de expansiune colonial, asupra progresului industrial i
tehnologic, precum i asupra politicii mondiale. Locul pe care engleza l ocup n lume este rezultatul direct al
istoriei celor care o vorbesc.
Limbile Germanice Scurte consideraii istorico-lingvistice
n rndul limbilor indo-europene, engleza este plasat printre limbile vest-germanice de jos. Istoria
timpurie a limbilor germanice se bazeaz pe o reconstituire a limbii proto-germanice, care, ntre timp, evolund,
a condus la formarea limbilor german, englez, olandez, afrikaans, yidi i a limbilor scandinave.
Subgrupa limbilor germanice prezint multe diferene, n raport cu alte limbi de origine indo-european.
1. Legea lui Grimm (sau Prima Mutaie a Sunetelor) explic modificrile consonantice care s-au produs,
ncepnd cu etapa sa protro-indo-european pn la etapa germanic.
a. Oclusivele aspirate sonore au devenit oclusive neaspirate sonore (bh, dh, g s-au transformat n b, d, g);
b. Oclusivele sonore au devenit oclusive mute (b, d, g au devenit p, t, k);
c. Oclusivele mute au devenit fricative mute (p, t, k au devenit f, , x (h));
Legea lui Verner explic alte excepii care nu apar menionate n cadrul Legii lui Grimm;
2. Sistemul verbal bi-temporal: desinena de Past Tense (-ed) i cea de Present Tense (-s) (fr a se recurge la
prezena verbelor auxiliare).
3. Past Tense neaccentuat: pentru exprimarea sa, se utiliza un sufix dental sau alveolar ( -ed n englez,-te n
german, sau -de n suedez).
4. Adjective tari (accentuate) i slabe (neaccentuate): fiecare adjectiv avea o form diferit dac era precedat de
un determinant.
5. Accent fix pe prima silab.
6. Mutaii vocalice (proto-germanic).
o scurt la a scurt (n latin: hortus, n englez: garden);
a lung la o lung (n latin: mater, n engleza veche: modor).

7. Vocabularul comun: au aprut elemente lexicale noi, cum ar fi: rain, earth, loaf, wife, meat i fowl.
Perioada englezei vechi sau perioada anglo-saxon (449-1066 A.D.) s-a numit perioda infleciilor
ntregi. ntre 1200 i 1500 A.D. limba englez a traversat etapa medie, sau perioada infleciilor uniforme
(omogene), iar perioada englezei moderne ncepe aproximativ n 1500 A.D. i s-a numit, oarecum impropriu,
perioada infleciilor pierdute.
n perioada modern, s-au manifestat aceleai tendine ca n perioadele precedente, ns de semnalat
este faptul c schimbrile cu adevrat semnificative i rapide care au avut loc n aceast ultim perioad s-au
datorat apariiei tiparului i rspndirii educaiei.
Modificrile cele mai importante din perioada englezei moderne sunt:
- s semnul cazului genitiv;
- though, thee, thy, thine i ye au devenit forme arhaice, iar vechea form de acuzativ, youm, este folosit acum
ca form de nominativ i acuzativ singular i plural pentru pronumele personal, persoana a II-a plural;
- negaia dubl nu se mai utilzeaz pentru accentuarea unei forme negative;
- modul subjonctiv este acum rar folosit, spre deosebire de construciile cu acuzativul i cu infinitivul, acum
foarte utilizate;
- be este folosit n loc de have doar n cazul verbelor intranzitive de micare sau de modificare a strii.
Elemente istorico-lingvistive referitoare la vocabularul limbii engleze
Evenimentul care a avut un impact covritor asupra limbii engleze, att n ceea ce privete gramatica,
ct i inventarul lexical, a fost Cucerirea Normand. Dup acest moment istoric, tendina formrii de cuvinte
exclusiv din surse englezeti a luat sfrit, de acum ncolo recurgndu-se la mprumutul de cuvinte, ca o metod
de adaptare la noile realiti socio-istorice. Pentru a numi aceste realiti noi, engleza va prelua din vocabularul
altor limbi conceptele necesare. Acest proces a prezentat att avantaje ct i dezavantaje: multe cuvinte
provenite din tezaurul lingvistic din perioada englezei vechi au fost nlturate, substitutindu-li-se cuvinte noupreluate de ex. inwit a fost nlocuit cu conscience, (cp.the ayenbite of inwit devine remorse of
conscience), rime-craft cu arithmetic, wanhope cu despair.
Multe astfel de cuvinte nou-aprute n limb nu au supravieuit, ns ctigul a fost, se pare, mai
important dect pierderile, engleza devenind, potrivit unor descrieri, cea mai complet limb vorbit vreodat
pe pmnt.
n pofida influenelor diverse, limba englez nu i-a pierdut niciodat identitatea. n ciuda copleitoarei
preponderene a elementului strin, de mprumut, mai ales din limba latin, engleza este, fr ndoial, o limb
de extracie teutonic, indiferent din ce punct de vedere am privi-o, ca limb vorbit sau ca idiom scris.
Structurile sale gramaticale, prile de vorbire active, cum ar fi pronumele, adjectivele i adverbele
pronominale, prepoziiile i conjunciile sunt pur englezeti. Toate cuvintele, chiar i cele mai banale, sunt, de
regul, englezeti, i chiar i romancierii cu clare afiniti fa de cuvinte mari nu pot s nu recurg la
inventarul majoritar de cuvinte, care, fr doar i poate, sunt englezeti. n Biblie, spre exemplu, din 100 de
cuvinte, 97 sunt englezeti - chiar i n scrierile lui Milton, raportul e de 80 la 100. n scrierile n proz, raportul
e de 60 la 100, 30 latine, 5 greceti i 5 provenite din alte limbi.
Ptrunderea n englez a attor elemente strine a condus la apariia unui numr extrem de mare de
sinonime.
English is a West Germanic language related to Dutch, Frisian and German with a significant amount of
vocabulary from French, Latin, Greek and many other languages.
English evolved from the Germanic languages brought to Britain by the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and other
Germanic tribes, which are known collectively as Anglo-Saxon or Old English. Old English began to appear in
writing during the early 8th century AD.
Approximately 341 million people speak English as a native language and a further 267 million speak it as a
second language in over 104 countries including the UK, Ireland, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, American Samoa, Andorra, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize,
Bermuda, Botswana, British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cameroon, Canada,
Cayman Islands, Cook Islands and Denmark.
Today, the English language is spoken by more than 750 million people in the world as either the official
language of a nation, a second language, or in a mixture with other languages (such as pidgins and creoles.)
English is the (or an) official language in England, Canada, Australia and New Zealand; however, the United

States has no official language. If we are to ask what are the worlds most widely spoken languages we get a
rather complicated answer. Estimates of how many people speak a language are quite general and can vary
considerably. For example, English estimates vary from 275 to 450 million, Spanish from 150 to over 300
million, Hindi from 150 to 350 million, and Russian from 150 to 180 million.
The worldwide use of English in diplomacy, commerce, and science is evidence of its importance in this regard,
and serves to explain why many millions around the world find it desirable and sometimes necessary to learn it
as a second language.
It is not the intrinsic superiority of English over other languages that has made it the premier world language.
If it is richer in vocabulary, more flexible in grammar and more expressive than other languages (and some
would question at least the last two of these claims), these qualities are the results, not the causes, of its
importance in the world. Simply stated, what makes a language important is the importance of the people who
use it and the use to which they put it. Since the eighteenth century, speakers of English at first from the
British Isles and later from America and the dominions have played an important role in colonial expansion,
industrial and technological development, and the world politics.
Classification of language families
The position of English in the world is the direct result of the history of those who speak it.
The history of Indo-European language and people classifies English genetically as a Low West Germanic
language of the Indo-European family of languages. The early history of the Germanic languages is based on
reconstruction of a Proto-Germanic language that evolved into German, English, Dutch, Afrikaans, Yiddish,
and the Scandinavian languages.
Germanic Languages Brief Historical and Linguistic Considerations
The subgroup of Germanic languages contains many differences that set them apart from the other IndoEuropean languages.
1. Grimms Law (or the First Sound Shift) helps to explain the consonant changes from Protro-Indo-Europen to
Germanic.
a. Aspirated voiced stops became Unaspirated voiced stops (bh, dh, gh became b, d, g)
b. Voiced stops became Voiceless stops (b, d, g became p, t, k)
c. Voiceless stops became Voiceless fricatives (p, t, k became f, , x (h))
Verners Law explains other exceptions that Grimms Law does not include.
2. Two Tense Verbal System: There is a past tense marker (-ed) and a present tense marker (-s) on the verb
(without using auxiliary verbs.)
3. Weak Past Tense: Used a dental or alveolar suffix to express the past (such as -ed in
English,-te in German, or -de in Swedish.)
4. Weak and Strong Adjectives: Each adjective had a different form whether it was preceded
by a determiner or no determiner.
5. Fixed Stress: The stress of words was fixed on the first syllable.
6. Vowel Changes (Proto Germanic)
- short o to short a (Latin: hortus, English: garden)
- long a to long o (Latin: mater, OE: modor)
7. Common Vocabulary: words developed that had not been used before, such as nautical terms (sea). Others
include rain, earth, loaf, wife, meat and fowl.
The Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066 A.D.) has been called the Period of Full Inflection. The
period from 1200-1500 A.D. has been called the Middle English Period, or the Period of Levelled Inflections,
and the period of Modern English begins about the year 1500 A.D., and has been called, not quite adequately,
the Period of Lost Inflections.
The same tendencies have operated in the Modern Period as in the other two, but a check to great and rapid
changes in this last period has been given by the invention of printing and the spread of education.
The chief changes in the Modern English are:
- s is used as sign of the Genitive case.
- though, thee, thy, thine and ye have become obsolete, and youm the old Accusative, is used as Nominative and
Accusative singular and plural of the 2nd Personal Pronoun.
- double negatives are no longer used to strengthen a negative.
- the Subjunctive is very little used.
- the Accusative and Infinitive construction is greatly extended in use.

- be is used for have only with Intransitive Verbs of Motion or Change of State.
Vocabulary
The Norman Conquest had almost as great an influence on the vocabulary of English as on its grammar. It gave
a definite check to the tendency to form new words from purely English sources, and introduced the habit of
borrowing words to denote new needs from languages where they existed already. This process has caused loss
as well as gain. Many Old English words have been driven out by the new-comers e.g. inwit by conscience,
(cp.the ayenbite of inwit becomes remorse of conscience), rime-craft by arithmetic, wanhope by
despair.
Many new-comers themselves have failed to survive. But the gains greatly exceed the losses, and the result has
been described as the most complete language spoken by man.
English, however, has not lost its individuality. In spite of the overwhelming preponderence of foreign,
especially Latin, words in its vocabulary, English, as spoken, or written, is thoroughly a Teutonic language. All
the Grammatical Inflections, and the working parts of speech, such as pronouns, pronominal adjectives and
adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are purely English. All the commonest, shortest, and most graphic
words are generally English, and in writing a book even those fondest of using big words cannot avoid using a
majority of English words. For instance in the Bible out of every 100 words 97 are English, and even in Milton
there are 80. In ordinary prose probably about 60 would be English, 30 Latin, 5 Greek, and 5 from other
languages.
From the intrusion of so many foreign elements into English there has resulted a good deal of overlapping of
vocabulary, and English is therefore rich in synonyms.
A. Prefixe Prefixes
Prefixele sunt fie: a) de origine teutonic, anglo-saxon, ori englez sau, b) clasic sau romanic.
Grupa limbilor clasice sau romanice include toate limbile moderne ce provin din latin, inclusiv latina i greaca.
Prefixes are either: a) of Teutonic, Anglo-Saxon, or English origin or, b) of Classical or Romance origin.
Classical or Romance includes all modern langiages derived from Latin, as well as Latin and Greek.
I. Prefixe anglo-saxone Anglo-Saxon prefixes
a-, al-, afte-r, be-, by-, for(e)-, gain-, in-, mis-, n-, on-, out-, off-, over-, to-, un-, under-, up-, with-.
a- = on : ashore, afoot
al- = all : almost, always, alone
be- = verbal prefix : to befriend, to become
by- = aside, near : by-path, by-stander
for- = very (when it is an intensive) or against (when it is a negative particle) : forgive, forbid, forswear,
for(e)go,
gain- = against: gainsay (= oppose, contradict, argue with, refute, deny)
in- = (im, em, en) in, with adjectives = to make : income, imbed, inlay, embitter, enrich
mis- = wrong : mislead, mistake.
n- = not : never, n-one
on- = onwards, ongoing, onrush, onset
out- = outcome, outcry,
off- = offspring, offset
over- = oversea, overdo, overturn, oversee
to- = the, or asunder : today, tomorrow,
un- = not, back, or the opposite : unbelief, unroll, undo
under- = underfeed, underdone, underwood
up- = upturn, upheave, upland
with- = against, away from, withstand, withhold, withdraw
a. Prefixe clasice sau romanice Classical or Romance prefixes
n aceast categorie, intr majoritatea prepoziiilor de origine latin sau de origine greac.
These include most of the Latin and Greek prepositions.
b. Prefixe latine Latin prefixes
a-,ab-,abs-, ad-, etc = away from : avert abhor, absent, advance, ascend, accept, affirm, aggressor, ally, annex,
apply, arrive, assign attend

ambi- = on both sides, round : ambiguous, ambition

ante- or anti- = before : antecedent, anticipate
bi- = two : biscuit, biped
circum- = round : circumvent, circuit
cum- = together, with : compregend, coequal, collect, contact, corrupt
contra- = against : contradict, controversy, countersign
de- = down, from, away : descend, devious, decay
dis- = away from, asunder : distant, dissect, differ, delay
ex- = out of : except, event, evidence, effect
extra- = beyond : extraordinary, extraneous
in- = invite, import, irrupt, embrace, encourage
in- = not + adj. : intact, ignore, illegible, improper, irregular,
inter- = within : introduce, intromit
mis- = wrong, minus : mischance, mischief
non- = not: nonsense
ob- = against, away, upon : omit, obvious, occur, offer, oppress, ostensible
per- = through : perceive, perfect, perlucid
post- = after : postscript, p.m.
prae- = before : precede, pretend, prevent
pro- = before, for, instead of : provident, pronoun, pollute, porten, puchase, pusue
re- = back, again : reduce, receive, redeem
retro- = backwards : retrograde, retrospect
semi-,sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-,
vice- = in place of : viceroy
c. Prefixe greceti Greek prefixes
amphi- = on both sides : amphitheatre, amphibious
a- or an- = not : atheist, apathy, anarchy, anonymous
ana- = up, back : analyst, anatomy, anaphora
anti-, ant- = against : antipathy, Antarctic
apo- = from, back : apostrophe, apocalypse, apohorism
cata- = down : catastrophe, catalogue,
dia- = through : diameter, dialogue
ec- or ex- = out of : ecstasy, eccentric
en- = in : energy, emphasis, ellipse
epi- = on : epitaph, epigram
hyper- = over, above : hyperbole, hypermetrical
hypo- = under : hypotheses
meta- = change : metaphor, method
para- = alongside , contrary to : parallel, paradox
peri- = around : permeter, periphery, period
pro- = before : prolongue, programme
syn- = together with : syntax, syllable, sympathy, system
B. Sufixe Suffixes
Cnd un sufix care conine o vocal scurt este alipit unei rdcini, una dintre vocalele rdcinii se modific
pentru a facilita pronunia elementelor care urmeaz. Aceast prescurtare este cunoscut drept fenomenul
Umlaut (schimbare de sunet) sau Mutaie.
Often when a suffix containing a short vowel is added to a root, a vowel in the root is changesd in preparation
for what follows. This shortening is called Umlaut (change of sound) or Mutation.
Example:
cat kitten, thumb thumble, fox vixen
a. Sufixe teutonice Teutonic suffixes
Sufixe substantivale Noun suffixes

Agent: -er (-ier, -yer, -ar, -or), -ster, -en, -ther, (-ter), -nd, -le
Instrument : -le (-el), -r, -ther, (-der)
State, quality, action: -dom, -hood, -head, -ing, -ness, -ship
Diminutive : -ing, -ling, -kin, -en, -ock, -y, (-ie, -ey)
Augumentative -ard, -ar
doer, liar, sailor, spinster, father, daughter, friend, stair, water, feather, kingdom, manhood, goodness, hoping,
friendship, landscape, gift, sight, death, earth, Mickey, annie, drunkard
b. Suffixe adjectivale Adjective suffixes
-ed, -en, -ish (-sh, -ch,)-ly, -less (without), -ow, -some (with), -th (-d), -ward, -y
ragged, golden, sweetish, French, manly, witless, yeallow, narrow, awesome, fourth, (third) , westward, dirty,
heavy
c. Sufixe verbale Verb suffixes
- care exprim ideea de frecven / frequentative : k, le, er
brisk, grapple, glimmer/glitter
- cauzative / causative: en, se
gladden, hasten, cleanse
d. Sufixe latine Latin suffixes
Sufixe substantivale Noun suffixes
Persoan / Person: -ant, -ent, -ate, (-ee, -ey, -y), -ary (-ier, -eer, -ar, -er, -or), -ess or -ese
Instrument : -ment, -ory, -ter (-tre)
Stare, calitate, aciune / State, quality, action: -ance, -ence, -age, -ity (-ty), -ice (-ess), -tion (-son), -tude, -our,
-ure, -y
Diminutive / diminutives : -el (-le), -let (-et), -ule, -cle, -el, (-sel)
Colective / collectives: -ary, -ery, -ar, -er
Augumentative / augumentatives: -oon, -one, -on
servant, agent, advocate, trainee, attorney, army, adversary, engineer, vicar, archer, chancellor, baroness,
Chinese, countess, ornament, dormitory, monster, spectre, constancy, confidence, courage, enmity, beauty,
prejudice, largess, action, reason, magnitude, honour, morsel, panle, circle, rivulet, bullet, pocket, globule,
particle, vessel, cavalry, gutter, grammar, balloon, million
e. Suffixe adjectivale Adjective suffixes
-al, -ane, -ary, -ate, (-ete, -eet), -able, -ous(full of), -ory, -ive
loyal, humane, vulgar, ordinary, divine, ornate, complete, discreet, capable, cursory, plaintive
f. Suffixe verbale Verb suffixes
-ate : agitate
-esce : effervesce
- fy : glorify, testify
g. Sufixe de origine greac Greek suffixes
Sufixe substantivale Noun suffixes
-ic, (-ics) - science and arts : arithmetic, logic, politics, mathematics
-y, -ism - state or action : melody, theory, philosophy, theism, antagonism.
-ist, -te, -t - agent : antagonist, sophist, apostate, patriot, idiot
h. Sufixe adjectivale Adjective suffixes
-ic,- ical : epic, poetic, theological, skeptical
i. Sffixe verbale Verb suffixes
-ize or -ise = to make or do : theorize, sympathise
(partial source: http://www.ethnologue.com)

C. Alfabetul Reguli de Pronunare The English alphabet Pronunciation

(source: http://www.omniglot.com/writing/english.htm)
Sunetele reprezentate aici aparin dialectului engelzei britanice marcate de accentul R.P. (Received
Pronunciation). n ceea ce privete prounia, alte varieti ale limbii engleze difer de acesta n mare masur,
mai ales n ceea ce privete pronunia vocalelor i a diftongilor.
The sounds represented here are those of British English spoken with an R.P. (Received Pronounciation) accent.
Other varieties of English differ considerably in pronunciation, especially the vowels and diphthongs.
Pronunciation
The sounds represented here are those of British English spoken with an R.P. (Received Pronounciation) accent.
Other varieties of English differ considerably in pronunciation, especially the vowels and diphthongs.
a. Ghid fonetic / Pronunciation guide
/e/
/ai/
/u:/
//
/a:/

/ei/ sunet diftongic: a,h,j,k.

(difthong)
/i:/ sunetul lung: b,c,d,e,g,p,t,v
(long sound)

f,l,m,n,s,x,z
i,y
q,u,w
o
r

Sunete vocalice Vowel sounds

Sunete consonantice Consonant sounds

/a:/ fast
// cut, butter, but
// match, act, mass
/ai/ fly, mind, time
/au/ how, down, cloud
/ai/ buyer, tyre, fire
/au/ hour, tower, power
// ten, lend, men
/i/ day, play, same
// wear, fair, care
/i/ sit, tip, dish
/i:/ feel, bee, treat
/i/ clear, beard, here
// lost, pot, dot
/ua/ boat, note, phone
/:/ more, floor, board
/i/ boy, employ, join
/u/look, could, stood
/u:/ blue, you, choose
/u/ poor, pour, sure
/:/ bird, later, word
// the weak wovel in: about, forgotten, matter

/b/ cab
/d/ desk
/f/ farm
/g/ greet
/h/ house
/j/ young
/k/ call
/l/ like
/m/ mark
/n/ note
/p/park
/r/ route
/s/ safe
/t/ test
// shore
/u/ look
/v/ vote
/w/ where
/z/ zebra
/ / leisure
// bring
/t/ chairman
// thin, mouth, three
// that, mother, there
/d/ German, Japanese, danger

(source: http://www.omniglot.com/writing/english.htm)
I. Pronumele n nominativ i pronumele n acuzativ / Subject and Object Pronouns
I.1. Pronumele n nominativ Subject Pronouns
I.2. Pronumele n acuzativ Object Pronouns
Pronumele nominativ ndeplinete rolul de subiect al Pronumele n acuzativ ndeplinete rolul de
unei propoziii.
complementul direct sau indirect al unui verb.
The subject pronoun is a pronoun which functions as Pronumele n acuzativ este precedat de o prepoziie.
subject of a sentence.
We use the object pronoun to replace the direct or
indirect object of a verb. We use the object pronoun
after a preposition.
sg.
pl.
sg.
pl.
I
We
Me
Us
You
You
You
You
he/she/it
They
him/her/it
Them
Im late.
Wait for me, please
Shes (waiting) outside.
Maria doesnt have the book; I have it.
Were they present at the meeting, too?
I cant see Adrian and Susan; I cant see them.
Tell us the truth!

I. 3. Determinanii Determiners
Substantivele sunt adesea precedate de cuvinte cum ar fi: the, a sau an, aa-numiii determinani, care arat ce
fel de referin nsoete substantivul respectiv. Un astfel de determinant este articolul hotart, care preced substantive
la numrul singular i plural.
Nouns are often preceded by the words the, a, or an. These words are called determiners. They indicate the kind
of reference which the noun has. Such a determiner is the definite article. It is used before both singular and plural
nouns:
Singular: the day, the week, the anthem
Plural: the days, the weeks, the anthems
Determinantul a (sau an, atunci cand substativul respectiv ncepe cu o vocal) se numete articol nehotrt i se
folosete mpreun cu substantive la numrul singular. Aceste articole (an, a, the) sunt cele mai comune exemple de
determinani, ns limba englez cunoate multe alte tipuri de determinani.
The determiner a (or an, when the following noun begins with a vowel) is the indefinite article. It is used when
the noun is singular: a day, a week, an atom
The articles the and a/an are the most common determiners, but there are many others:
any day, some day, that week, those students, this paper, whatever question, whichever participant
Muli determinani exprim ideea de cantitate.
Many determiners express quantity.
each person, many people, several computers, all examples, every week, both parents, few occasions, enough food, no
escape.
I. 3. Numeralul Numerals/Numbers
I. 3. 1. Numeralul cardinal i numeralul ordinal Cardinal and ordinal numbers
Numeralul cardinal reprezint poate cea mai cunoscut modalitate de a exprima ideea de cantitate. Numeralele
se numesc determinani atunci cnd preced un substantiv. n aceast poziie, ele exprim ideea de cantitate.
Perhaps the most common way to express quantity is to use a cardinal number.
Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun. In this position, cardinal numerals express quantity:
one car, two cars, twelve cars.
I. 3. 2. Numeralul ordinal Ordinal numbers
Numeralele ordinale preced i ele un substantiv i indic succesiunea.
In the same position, ordinal numerals express sequence: first paragraph, second floor, third prize.
Numerale ordinale generale / General Ordinals: last, latter, next, previous,subsequent
Aceti determinani formeaz o subclas a numeralelor ordinale. n aceast categorie intr o serie de cuvinte care nu sunt
numerale propriu-zise (aa cum first este legat de one sau second de two), dar care sunt numite, totui, numerale
ordinale generale.
These words are determiners that form a subclass of ordinals which are not directly related to numbers (as first
is related to one, second is related to two, etc) but which are nevertheless called general ordinals.
next question, last meeting, previous paragraph, subsequent developments
Atunci cnd nu preced un substantiv, numeralele sunt considerate o subclas a substativului i, la fel ca acesta,
primesc determinani, sau pot fi precedate de numerale propriu-zise (n ultimul exemplu, twos este un substativ la
numarul plural i este precedat de determinantul five).
the two of us, the first of many; five twos are ten
When they do not come before a noun, numerals are a subclass of nouns. They can even have numerals as
determiners before them. And like nouns, they can take determiners. In the last example, twos is a plural noun and it
has the determiner five before it.
I. 3. 3. Pronumele i adjectivul posesiv i nehotart / Possessive and indefinite adjectives and pronouns
Pronumele i adjectivul nehotart / Indefinite pronouns and adjectives
Pronume / Pronouns:
- singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither,
nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
- plural: both, few, many, others, several
-singular sau plural: all, any, more, most, none, some
Adjective Adjectives:
- some books; every question; either side, etc

Adjectiv posesiv Possessive Adjective

sg.
pl.
my
our
Ive left my car Our room has no air
keys at home.
conditioning.

Pronume Posesiv Possessive Pronoun

sg.
pl.
mine
ours
This suitcase is not All these papers may
mine.
be theirs.

your
his
her
its

yours
his
hers
its

Your
Their
Their
Their

yours
theirs
theirs
theirs

Adjectivul posesiv se utilizeaz naintea unui substantiv, cu scopul de a indica apartenena acestuia unui
anumit posesor.
We use a possessive adjective before a noun to say who the noun belongs to.
My favourite writer is Petersen. I am sure the next award is his.
Her guess was right. The right guess was hers.
I. 3. 3. 1. Adjectivul demonstrativ / Demonstrative Adjectives
de apropiere of proximity
HERE

de deprtare of remoteness
THERE

sg.
this man

sg.
that man

pl.
these men

pl.
those men

What do you call this dish?

I cant see those students anymore.
II. Substantivul The Noun
n limba englez, substantivele sunt marcate de categoriile gramaticale numr, caz i gen.
II. 1 Clasificarea substantivelor reguli de baz Classification of nouns basic rules
Substantive numrabile Countable nouns
Substantive nenumrabile (cantitative/de mas) Uncountable
Individuale Individual
table, chair, boy, girl (mass) nouns
Concrete Concrete
Exemple Examples
Colective Collective
team, family, company,
Form
committee, board
glass,
invariabil
la bread,
There is some meat left in the
- denumesc elemente care, luate separat, se pot
singular
fridge.
paper,
numra.
Invariable
wine,
- sunt variabile, adic au form att la singular ct i
singular form
All that glitters is not gold.
gold,
la plural i fac acord cu un verb la singular,
glass,
iron,
respectiv la plural.
Any welder should wear
sand,
- sunt precedate de numerale sau de cuantificatori.
goggles.
water
Form
- denote items which, taken separately, can be
pliers,
invariabil la breeches,
counted.
plural
- are variable, which means they can be used both
goggles,
Invariable
in the singular and in the plural and agree with a
trousers,
plural form
singular, respectively with a plural verb.
tights
Abstracte Abstract
- are marked by the grammatical category of
Form
Exemple Examples
sympathy,
invariabil la beauty,
number, case and gender.
singular
I cant put up with all this
nonsense,
Invariable
information, nonsense.
singular form
wisdom,
patience, etc Beauty is in the eyes of the
beholder.

Form
invariabil la
plural
Invariable
plural form

news

I have some good news

regarding your new job.

- denumesc noiuni luate ca ntreg;

- sunt invariabile fie la singular fie la plural i se acord, dup
caz, fie cu un verb la singular, fie cu un verb la plural;
- nu se cuantific cu ajutorul numeralelor;
- se cuantific cu: some, a lot/a great deal of, any, no, a piece of,
a heap of, a lump of, etc.
- unele pot fi i numrabile, avnd un alt neles
paper (material) (a number of/several ) papers (documents);
bread (material) (several ) loaves (pieces of bread)
Denote notions taken as a whole.
- are invariable, which means they can have either singular or
plural form and agree with a singular, respectively a plural verb.
- dont take numbers as cuantifiers but determiners such as:
some, a lot/a great deal of, any, no, a piece of, a heap of, a lump
of, etc.
- some can be both counts and uncounts,with a different meaning.
II. 2. Pluralul substantivului / Plural of Nouns
II.2.1. Substantive cu plural regulat / Regular plural nouns
Cele mai multe substantive au terminaia -s.
Most nouns end in -s.
table tables; book books; train trains.
La substantivele terminate n -y precedat de o consoan, -y dispare i desinena final va fi -ies
city cities; duty duties.
If the noun ends in -y preceded by a consonant, the -y is dropped and plural ending changes to -ies.
Substantivele terminate n -y precedat de o vocal primesc desinena final -s
Nouns ending in -y preceded by a vowel, simply get an -s at the end.
day days, toy toys.
Substantivele terminate n -ch, -sh, -s, -x, -z sau -zz, primesc desinena final -es
Nouns ending in -ch, -sh, -s, -x, -z or -zz get -es
bench benches, dish dishes, gas gases, tax taxes, fuzz - fuzzes
Substantivele terminate n -o precedat de o vocal sau de o consoan, primesc desinena final -s sau -es, sau le accept
pe ambele.
Nouns ending in -o preceded by a vowel get -s or es or accept both.
piano pianos ; radio radios ; potato potatoes; tomato tomatoes; echo echoes; hero heroes
zero zeros /zeroes; buffalo buffalos/buffaloes; cargo cargos/cargoes; mosquito mosquitos/mosquitoes, etc.
Pronunia pluralului -s/-es / Pronunciation of s/-es plurals
Desinena -es pentru substantivele terminate n -ch, -sh, -s, -z, sau -x se pronun /iz/: box / - boxes;
wish - wishes.
With nouns ending in -ch, -sh, -s, -z, or -x, the -es ending is pronounced /iz/: box / - boxes; wish - wishes.
II. 2. 2. Substantive cu plural neregulat / Irregular plural noun
Schimbarea vocalei interne
Internal vowel change

Schimbarea consoanei finale

Final consonant change

Substantive strine
Foreign nouns

man men
woman women
child children
brother brethren (frai de
ordin spiritual)
brother brothers (membri
ai aceleiai familii)
tooth- teeth
foot feet
goose geese
mouse mice
louse lice
ox oxen
- form unic la singular i
la plural
same singular and plural
form
deer deer
fish fish/fishes (species of
fish)
fruit fruit/fruits (varieties
of fruit)
means means
offspring offspring
series series
sheep sheep
species species
vermin vermin

-f/-fe -ves
wife wives; shelf shelves,
loaf loaves
Unele dintre acestea i
pstreaz i forma de plural
regulat, altele au doar pluralul
regulat.
Some of these nouns have two
plural forms and some take
only the -s ending.
dwarf dwarfs/dwarves,
hoof hoofs/hooves
belief beliefs, chief chiefs,
cliff clifs, proof - proofs,
roof roofs,

Unele dintre acestea au ambele forme de plural,

neregulat si regulat.
Some have both regular and irregular plural
forms.
- um -a
bacterium bacteriacorpus corpora
criterion criteria
curriculum curricula
datum data
genus genera
medium media
memorandum memoranda
phenomenon phenomena
stratum strata
-a -ae
nebula nebulae antenna antennae /antennas
vertebra vertebrae formula formulae/formulas
- eau -eaux
beau beaux
bureau bureaus/bureaux
tableau tableaux/tableaus
- is - es
axis axes
analysis analyses
appendix appendices
basis bases
crisis crises
diagnosis diagnoses
ellipsis ellipses
hypothesis hypotheses
oasis oases
paralysis paralyses
parenthesis parentheses
thesis theses
matrix matrices/matrixes
synthesis syntheses
index indeces/indexes
-us - i/-es
cactus cacti
focus foci/focuses
alumnus alumni
radius radii
fungus fungi/funguses
stimulus stimuli
nucleus nuclei/nucleuses

II. 2. 3. Substantive cu form unic / Nouns with unique form

Tipul
substantivului
Type of Noun

Caracteristici Characteristics

Exemple Examples

- au forme doar de singular;

- cu forme de plural, nelesul lor se modific;
- sunt att concrete ct i abstracte.
- have only singular forms.
- with a plural form, their meaning changes;
- when they are referred to as items, they refer to the object
made of that material or to an isolated unit.
Substantive concrete Concrete nouns
iron, tin, sand, coal, bread, cheese, wine, tea, water, fruit,
money, hair, coffee, butter, furniture, clothing.
Substantive abstracte Abstract notions
advice, information, knowledge, news, weather, nonsense,

I use iron in my research. (material)

Today we use light and sophisticated
irons to press our clothes. (device)
Sand is used in glass industry.
(material)
Deep in the sands of Tunis you can
find the wonderful Tunisian rose.
(the desert)
The news is not what weve expected.
Your behaviour is is still a mystery to

Singularia
tantum
(nenumrabile)
(uncountables)

Pluralia tantum

Numele proprii
Proper names

behaviour, money, passion, love, hate, melancholy etc.

Denumiri de ramuri ale tiinei Sciences in -ics
physics, mathematics, phonetics, linguistics
Jocuri Games
billiards, bowls, cards, darts, dominoes, draughts
- cnd au valoare atributiv, -s este omis
a darts board.
- when used attributively -s is omitted

me.
Your phonetics are(is) as good as
anybody elses.

Boli Illnesses
measles, mumps, rickets, shingles
- acordul acestor substantive se face numai cu un verb la
plural.
- these nouns agree only with a verb in the plural.
annals, arms, ashes (=remains after burning or cremation),
belongings, barracks, brains, clothes, contents, credentials,
customs, data, damages, dregs, earnings, fireworks, goods,
grounds (= yard, evidence, justification, dregs), holidays,
manners, media, odds, outskirts, pains, particulars,
premises, quarters, remains, troops, spectacles (=glasses),
resources, shortcomings, surroundings, the Middle Ages,
the tropics, valuables, whereabouts, wages, wits.
- unele substantive au forme invariabile la singular si la
plural, intelesurile acestora fiind diferite.
- some nouns have different meanings in the singular,
respectively, in the plural.
custom customs; fund funds; ground grounds; honour
honours; letter letters; minute minutes; premise
premises; regard regards; spirit spirits; term terms,
etc.

The younger one gets measles the

easier one gets over it.
Coffee dregs were scattered all over
the sink.

Substantivele binare (formate din dou pri considerate

ca unitate) se comport la fel.
Summation plurals (made up of two parts seen as a single
unit) obey the same rule. These are tools or instruments
and some articles of clothing.
binoculars, forceps, glasses, goggles, pliers, pincers,
scissors, tweezers
jeans, leggings, overalls, panties, pants , shoes, sandals,
flip-flops, shorts, tights
La plural, substantivele att nume ct i prenume, primesc
desinena obinuit -s i sunt precedate de articolul hotrt
the. Cele care se termin n - ch, -sh, -x, -z, primesc
desinena -es. Excepie fac numele terminate n -s care se
pronun cu un [z ] puternic, caz n care substantivul nu
mai primete terminaie de plural;
When a family name (a proper noun) is pluralized, we
almost always simply add an -s, but when a proper noun
ends in an -s pronounced with a sonorous [z], no ending is
added in the plural. When a family name ends in -s,- x,- ch,
-sh, or -z, however, we form the plural by adding
-es;
the Robins, the Bundys, the Bobbys, the Marthas, the
Joneses, the Knoxes, the Welshes, the Valdezes, the
Flanders, ther Burgess
- n general, numele de organizaii i firme sunt considerate
forme de singular, se acord cu verbe la singular i nu sunt
precedate de articolul hotrt the, dect atunci cnd acesta

My old binoculars are very heavy.

but! Ive bought a new pair of
binoculars which is probably lighter.

I think darts is more enjoyable than

cards.

ash = resudue after burning

ashes = ruins, bodily remains
bearing = behaviour; yield
bearings = aspects of a problem
cost = price
costs = expenditure

Those overalls need urgent washing.

You have invited all your relatives to

the wedding, including the Morgans,
your neighbours.
I believe the Flanders (not the
Flanderses) know about your arrival
and will be waiting for you.
Panasonic is the strongest on the

Pluralul
substantivelor
compuse
Plural of
compound
nouns

face parte din numele propriu-zis;

- numele de echipe sportive sunt forme de plural i se
acord cu verbe la plural;
- the names of firms, organizations, companies are
considered singular nouns, agree with a singular verb and
are not preceded by the definite article, the.
- the names of sports teams are treated as plurals.
- cele mai multe dintre acestea primesc desinena -(e)s la
nivelul cuvntului de baz. Acesta este cuvntul care poart
ncrctura semantic i poate fi unul dintre elementele
cuvntului compus. Alteori, pluralul se marcheaz la
nivelul ambelor elemente. Sunt i cazuri n care se accept
dou tipuri de plural, cu desinena fie la un element, fie la
altul.
- most compound nouns form their plurals by adding -s to
the basis or the head , which is the principal word in the
compound; there are cases, however, when pluralization
happens with both elements of the compound noun.
mother-in-law mothers-in-law; governor-general
governors-general; passer-by passers-by,
trainee-doctor trainee-doctors
racecar racecars; housewife housewives; headpiece
headpieces
forget-me-not forget-me-nots
woman-surgeon women-surgeons; manservant
menservants
jack-in-the-box jacks-in-the-box/jack-in-the-boxes; head
of state heads of states/heads of state

market.
MacDonalds introduces to all dairy
products lovers MacJoghurt!
Seemingly, Universitatea are losing
their chance to qualify in the League.
The few passers-by who chanced to
be there stopped to admire the poster
exhibition set up in the street.
Exigent housewives not always make
good mothers-in-law.
The dancers had splendid costumes
and exquisite heapieces.
The seminar was held by three
trainee-doctors intead of one.
The field was brightky sprinkled with
the red of the poppies and the blue of
the forget-me-nots.
Surprises are colloquially
Jack(s)-in-the box(es).

called

II. 3. Formele posesive: s i of (Cazul Genitiv) / Possessive form: s and of

- pentru persoane i animale: s
for people and animals: s
the mans briefcase, the cats cushion
- dup unele substantive la singular sau plural, atunci cnd acestea nu se termin n -s.
for people and animals after singular nouns and plural nouns which do not end in -s
Jacks opinion, the childrens room
- dup substantive la plural terminate n -s, adaugm -s
after plural nouns ending in -s, we add -s
the students dorm, my friends house
- cnd sunt dou substantive, s se adaug celui de-al doilea substantiv, dac este vorba despre o posesie comun, sau
dup fiecare substantiv n parte, n caz de posesie individual:
When there are two nouns, s is added after the second noun in case of common possession, or after each noun in case
of individual possession.
John and Marys suggestion(s) but Johns and Marys suggestion(s)
II. 4. Exprimarea cantitii / Expressing quantity
Tipuri de substantive
Types of nouns

Caracteristici
Features
- can be preceded by cardinal or ordinal
numbers and by quantifiers.
a/one office two/several/more/many
offices
n propoziii afirmative
some/several/a lot of + substantiv la
plural
n propoziii interogative
any + substantiv la plural

Exemple
Examples
Id like a box of chocolates, please.
There are three streets named Leaf
in Boston.
Mary made some/several/many
suggestions regarding the project.
There are a lot of job opportunities
here.

Substantive numrabile
Countable nouns

n propoziii negative
any/no + substantiv la plural
In affirmative sentences
some/several/a lot of + plural noun
some/several/ a lot of students/groups
In interrogative sentences
any + plural noun
any ideas; any performances

John has a few problems with his

car
Lately, fewer and fewer students
have taken up upgrading couses.

In negative sentences
negative verb + any + plural nouns
affirmative verb + no+ plural nouns
any/no minutes (left)

Nobody made any coments about

the missing file.

Substantive colective (numrabile)

Collective nouns (countables)
Substantivele colective sunt numarbile,
deci accept forma de plural.
Collective nouns are count nouns, which
means they can be pluralized.
arms, assembly, band, board, cattle,
committee, class, clergy, crowd, family,
flock, group, heap, herd, jury, kind, lot,
majority, number, police, poultry, public,
staff, swine, team, etc.
Acordul se face fie cu un verb la singular,
dac referirea se face la substantivul luat
ca unitate, fie la plural, dac referirea se
face la elementele unitii.
The noun agrees with a verb in the
singular if the noun is seen as a unit or
with a verb in the plural if we refer to the
individuals which make up that unit.
Substativele colective denumesc grupuri
formate dintr elemente de acelai fel.
Adjectivele i denumirile unor regiuni
geografice sunt precedate de articolul
hotrt the.
Collective nouns refer to groups made up
of similar individuals. If they are
adjectives or a region name, the definite
article the precedes them.
the rich, the poor, the sick, the Midlands,
the Highlands.
- au doar forme de singular
- have only singular forms
advice/information/ weather/ music/
money/ knowledge, etc
- sunt precedate de some n propoziii
afirmative i de any n propoziii
interogative i negative care se acord cu
un verb la singular.
- sunt precedate i de much/a lot of,
respectiv de a little + verb la singular
Uncounts are used with some in
affirmative sentences and with any in
questions and negative sentences, in
which case they agree with a singular

Do you/does she have any other

questions?

They found no solutions to that test

They didnt find any solutions to
that test.

The committee votes last. (the unit

as a whole)/ The committee vote
last. (each member)
The police have decided to refrain
from making any declaration.
Nobody denies the fact that the
police is a corrective instrument of
the state.
The rich will never understand the
poor.
He moved to the Scottish
Highlands.

She has some (new) information.

Is there any good music here?
They havent got any money.
All you need is a little food and
rest.
There isnt much fun here.
It takes him a lot of courage to
practise this sport.

Substantive nenumrabile
Uncountable nouns

verb.
are also used with much /a lot of and a
little + a singular verb.
Cuantificarea substantivelor cantitative
Quantifiers
a piece of/an item of luggage/ furniture,
an article of furniture, a piece/word of
advice, a piece of information/ news, a
kilo of potatoes, a carton of cakes, a
bottle/glass of milk, a glass/ drop/ bucket/
gallon of water, a strip of land, a bar of
chocolate, a cake of soap, a slice/ loaf,
piece/ morsel of bread, a grain of rice, a
slice of cake, a film of dust, a ray of hope,
a bolt of thunder, a flash of lightning, a
round of applause, a pint of beer, foot of
wood, a pound of rice, an ounce of
courage, a piece of music, a sum of
money, a block of stone/ice, a
heap/mound of earth, a loaf of bread, a
lump of coal (sugar), a sheet of paper, a
sheaf of paper, a pile(heap) of rubbish, a
blade of grass, etc.
Note: some indicates
amount: some water

the

They moved all that furniture all

by themself, item/piece by
item/piece.
After another round of applause,
the actor left the stage.
There was a thin film of oil on the
water.
How many more sheets of paper do
you need?
There is no single blade of grass
left after this years terrible
drought.

indefinite

II. 5 Genul Substantivelor Gender of nouns

Majoritatea substantivelor din limba englez, fie ca denumesc fiine umane sau animale, nu au marcat
categoria gramatical a genului. Acest lucru este mai evident n cazul substantivelor care denumesc porfesii sau relaii
socio-umane, n aceste cazuri, genul substantivului respectiv fiind dat de context. Exist, totui, unele substantive nume
de profesii i ranguri sociale unde genul este marcat lexical prin desinena -ess, care se adaug pe forma de masculin a
substantivului pentru varianta de feminin a acestuia. Invers, de la forma de feminin la cea de masculin se ajunge
adugnd desinenele -er i -groom.
Most English nouns, whether they denote human beings or animals, are not marked by the grammatical
category of gender. This is true with most professions or other social relations where the gender of the noun is
contextualised.
doctor, mechanic, teacher, professor, musician, shop-assistant ,accountant, dancer, choreographer, director, novelist,
author, playwright, cook, painter, referee, coach, trainer, technician, friend, parent, visitor, guest, tourist, inhabitant,
local, neighbour, foreigner, etc.
There are some nouns denoting professions and ranks when the distinction is marked lexically by the ending
ess added to the noun root, which is masculine to obtain the feminine of the noun.
god godess; emperor empress; prince princess; count countess; duke duchess; baron baroness; host
hostess; master mistress; heir heiress, waiter waitress, etc
-er and -groom are two endings which are added to the feminine form of the noun.
widow widower; bride bridegroom
Cases when gender is lexically marked. With nouns denoting people.
man woman; boy girl; wife husband; father mother; (grand)son (gran)daughter; brother sister; uncle aunt;
nephew niece; king queen, monk nun; lord/gentleman lady, bachelor spinster; bachelor maid, wizard witch;
etc.
With nouns denoting animals, there is sometimes a neuter form, too, which fulfils a generic function, and a
form denoting the young of the animal.
adult
masculine
fox
drake

Feminine
vixen
duck

masculine

young
feminine

neuter-generic
neuter
cub
duckling

fox
duck

gander
ram
hogboar
buck/stag
hound/dog
drone
stallion
bull
billy goat
jackass
he-wolf/bear
rooster/cock
tom

goose
ewe
sow
roe
bitch
bee
mare
cow
nanny goat
jennyass
she-wolf/bear
hen
tibby

____________
lamb
piglet
_____________

goose
sheep
pig/swine
deer

pup(py)
colt
calf

filly
heifer

kitty

kid
donkey
cub
chicken
kitten

horse
cattle
goat
ass
wolf/bear
poultry
cat

III. Determinanii / Determiners

Aa cum le indic numele, determinanii determin un substantiv; unii dintre acetia a) identific un substantiv
iar alii b) ne dau informaii cantitative despre substantivul respectiv .
Determinanii cu rol de identificare sunt reprezentai de articolele hotrate, nehotrte, posesive i
demonstrative. Dintre cei care precizeaz cantitatea amintim: one, once, three, three times, each, every, either, neither,
few, several, both, some, each, many, much, all, what, one, etc.
Unii determinani din categoria b) pot fi precedai de prepoziia of: either/neither (of), which (of), most (of).
n aceast categorie mai exist 5 determinani care pot fi folosii mpreun cu determinanii din grupa a).
Acetia sunt: many, most, little, least i few.
His many ideas helped in the completion of the project. The three students who won the scholarship are X, Y and Z.
Exist unii determinani care nu se ncadreaz n nici una din cele dou categorii, i anume: other, such, what
(in exclamaii), only.
His only good friend is George.
What a shame!
Their other problem is the lack of time.
Such a boring class!
Other i such se pot folosi i dup unii determinani din grupul b).
Few other rules can be applied here. Several such reports have revealed the same mistake.
n rspunsurile scurte apare doar determinantul, substantivul subnelegndu-se.
A: Do you have some time for me?
B: Sorry, I dont have any (time).
A: Have you seen any swans on this lake?
B: Many (swans).
A: Which do you choose?
B: This (one)
n capitolele anterioare au fost prezentate deja adjectivul demonstrativ (this, that, these, those) i adjectivul
posesiv (my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their).
n afar de acestea, mai exist adjectivele nehotrt i negativ, adjectivul interogativ, articolul i numeralul.
III.1. Articolul The Article
Articolul face parte din grupul determinanilor. Acesta preced substantivul i l modific n funcie de
contextul situaional n care este folosit. El nu poate fi utilizat independent, ci doar mpreun cu substantivul pe care l
determin. Cele trei articole din limba englez sunt: articolul nehotrt, a/an, articolul hotrt, the i articolul zero.
Substantivele determinate de articolul nehotrat sunt utilizate pentru a face o referire individual, cele determinate de
articolul hotrat exprim o referire unic, iar cele determinate de articolul zero exprim o referire generic (n cazul
substantivelor numrabile la plural, a celor nenumrabile i n cazul unor nume proprii).
Part of the larger group of determiners, the article precedes and modifies nouns. It does not exist independently
of the noun it determines. The three English articles are the definite article, the, the indefinite article, a/an, and the zero
article. Nouns determined by the indefinite article are marked by a) individual reference whereas nouns derermined by
the definite article are marked by b) unique reference. Zero article is used for c) generic reference with countable nouns
in the plural and also with uncountable nouns or with some proper names.
a) I have found a note on my desk.

b) The note says that I should contact the project manager immediately.
c) Lilies symbolise purity; Coffee is a remedy against low blood pressure; Italy is a preserver of priceless artistic
treasures.
When used with a singular noun, the definite article and the indefinite article can also express generic reference.
a) A lily is a symbol of purity; b) The lily is a symbol of purity.
Tipul articolului
Type of article
1. Nehotrt: a/
an
- prim referire
Indefinite a/an
- first reference

2. Hotrt: the
- referin unic,
generic, referire
antrerioar
Definite: the
- unique, generic,
prior reference

3.
Omisiunea
articolului
Omission/Elypsis
of the Article

Trsturi
Characteristics
a + consoan
an + vocal
a + consonant
an + vowel
a thesis, an element, a
doctor, an agency

the + consonant
the + vowel
Reguli de pronunare
Pronunciation rules
the
//
naintea
substantivelor care ncep
cu o consoan; the /i/
naintea
substantivelor
care ncep cu o vocal.
the // before nouns
which begin with a
consonant; the /i/ before
nouns begin with a vowel.

Utilizarea articolului
Use of articles
- cu substantive care denumesc
o profesie;
- cnd nsoete anumite
formule de cantitate;
- n exclamaii, precedat de
what + substantiv numrabil
- cnd preced substantive care
denumesc mri, ruri, nume de
hoteluri, localuri,
teatre,
muzee, ziare;
- cnd substantivul denumete
un concept unic;
- referire generic: clas/
specie/
regn;
substantive
colective formate din the +
adjective
- cu nume de persone, denumiri
geografice cu referire specific,
restrictiv

Exemple
Examples
Mark is already a college
student.
a pair of shoes; a little patience;
a couple of times; a few
discretion; a hundred/thousand;
once a week; forty miles an hour

with
nouns
denoting
professions
- with some expressions of
quantity
- in exclamations with what +
countable noun
- before nouns denoting seas,
rivers, hotels, pubs, theatres,
museums, and newspapers
- with nouns that denote a
unique concept
- for generic reference:
reference to class/ species;
collective nouns (the +
adjective)
- with proper names (of people,
geographical names) to make a
specific/ restrictive reference.
Sunt cazuri n care articolul este
omis n mod deliberat, din
motive stilistice, ca de exemplu
n: tiluri, telegrame, note i
anunuri scurte, n indicaiile
regizorale, precum i n textele
literare sau n licenele poetice.
For stylistic purposes, the
article is deliberately left out
in:
headlines, telegrams/ short
notes, stage directions, literary

The Daily Telegraph, The

Thames, The Pacific, The Andes,
The Mediteranean, The Globe,
The Ambassador, The Eagle
and the Child; the Sun, the
Morning Star, the Pope

What an interesting idea! What a

pity! What a terrible thing (to
say-happen)!

The blue whale is on its way to

extinction.
The Germans are precise and
hardworking.
The meek will inherit the Earth.
The Venice I saw this summer is
not the same Venice I saw two
years ago.
This is the Mary Brown whom
Ive just mentioned.
Night train derrays before
Calcutta (headline)
Minister arrives to noon by 4.45
plane.(telegram)
Postman delivers parcel to
buttler.(stage direction)
Mary will buy bananas as she
doesnt like strawberries.
Coffee keeps you awake.
We will soon enter Braov.
Dont
buy
Vogue,
buy
Cosmopolitan.

texts.
4. Zero article

Se folosete naintea:
- pluralelor sau substantivele
nenumrabile, pentru o referire
general (generic);
- substantivelor ce denumesc
ri, orae, strzi, limbi,
naionaliti, feluri de mncare,
reviste, aeroporturi, gri.
- denumirilor de sporturi i
discipline colare.
- structurilor de tipul limbaj
tiinific sau proverbe;
- substantivelor nume de
membri ai familiei;
- substantivelor nume de
persoane cu sau fr apoziie
- substantivelor ce denumesc
momente al zilei, mese ale zilei,
anotimpuri, nume de instituii;
- unor nume de boli
- unor construcii paralele.
It is used before:
- plural and uncountable nouns
for general (generic) reference.
before countries, towns, streets,
languages,
nationalities,
magazines, meals, airports,
station;.
names of sports and of
academic subjects;
volleyball, hockey, baseball,
mathematics, history, computer
science;
- nouns used in scientific
statements or proverbs;
- set phrases with no article:.
on foot, in context, in use, go
to/be at school,
- nouns denoting times of the
day: at noon/dawn/midnight; by
night/day,
before
noon/dinnertime
- in parallel constructions:
hand in hand; bit by bit; step by
step; face to face; man to man;
from beginning to end/north to
south/right to left
- certain names of institutions
- nouns denoting family
members;
- names of persons preceded or
not by a given title;
- some names of institutions:
be/go to school; go home; be at
home; go/be at sea; be in/go to
class;
go
to/be
in

What beautiful weather!

Such relaxing music!
Winter is the season when Sinaia
is most visited by tourists.
Scholars in oriental religion
should know a little bit of Hindi
or Bengali.
I met one of my school pals at
Paddington (station) who said he
worked not far from Oxford
Street.
Geography and athletics are my
sons favourites.
Father took baby brother for a
walk in the park.
Professor Brown will lecture
tomorrow in Leeds.
Glass breaks when hit.
Familiarity breeds contempt.
Children can easily get scarlet
fever from other children in
kindergarten or at school.

While in prison, the woman

studied law hoping for a positive
solution to her case.
In his youth, he spent a couple of
years at sea as in command of a
cruise ship.
She built her career step by step
working hand in hand with her
husband.
The manager said he wont see
anyone before lunch.
I hate chateaubriand but I love
paella.

church/prison/bed; be in/leave
town
- seasons
in spring/summer, autumn
-with meals
have/at/before/after
breakfast/tea/lunch
- names of illnesses
to suffer from/have pneumonia;
flu; rheumatism; bronchitis
III. 2. Ali determinani Other determiners
Tipul adjectivului
Caracteristici
Type of adjective
Features
- identific global sau parial
substantivul
determinat
de
Adjectivul nehotrt i negativ
acestea.
Indefinite and negative adjective
- every = toi/toate
- each = fiecare
- either = fiecare/oricare/ambele
din dou elemente
neither = nici unul nici cellalt
Nehotrt Indefinite
- both = att unul ct i cellalt
each, all, none, every, either, both, some, - all = toi/toate elemente
any
mpreun (mai multe de dou) sau
la toat cantitatea.
- none = nici unul / una din doi /
dou sau nimic din tot.
- these adjectives refer globally or
partially to the noun they
Negativ Negative
determine.
neither, no (not a)
- every = each and all member
- each = one or two or more taken
separately
- either = the one or the other/
any/ whichever of them/ both
elements
- neither =
not one or the
other/not either.
- both = one and the other (of
two)
- all = the total number or amount
- none = not one, nobody, not at
all
Adjectivul interogativ
Interrogative
adjective
who, who to, whom, which(of) , what, to
whom, whose, how much/many, how long

Aceste adjective se folosesc la

obinerea de informaii referitoare
la un obiect/o persoan/o noiune.
- whose se refer att la persoane
ct .i la obiecte.
- which este folosit cu sens
selectiv.
These adjectives are used to
obtain information about a
person/ an object/a notion.
- whose refers both to people and

Exemple
Examples
There are some people waiting
outside.
I have some (more) time left.
Do you need all these books?
Ask each of those who were present
in the meeting.
Can I use any of these application
forms?
Ive got no room /I havent got any
room in my car for another bag.
I will take either of these (two)
boxes (whichever of the two).
The are two aspects to be considered
here and either is equally important.
(both)
A: Which chapter will you discuss, I
or II ?
B: Either will do, I dont mind.
(whichever)/
Neither. (not any)
There is no time left (not a single
minute)
Both these colurs equally suit you.
Its taking all our time to prepare the
article.
They appreciated none of your
effort/ none of your suggestions.
Whose car are you driving ?
Who(m) has she invited to the
wedding?
To whom are you writing?/ Who are
you writing to?
What do you want to do with another
dishwahser?
Which do you prefer (which of these
activities)? Swimming, playing
tennis or horseriding?

object.
- which has a selective meaning.
IV. Adjectivul i adverbul / Adjectives and Adverbs
a) Clasificarea adjectivelor / Classification of adjectives
b)
Rolul adjectivului este de a informa cu privire la substantivul pe care l determin. Exist patru tipuri de
adjective, i anume, calificative (cele mai multe), demonstrative, pronominale i cantitative.
- ndeplinesc funcie atributiv pe lng substantive;
- pot fi determinate de un adverb cu funcie emfatic (extremely, entirely, terribly, very, etc);
The novel was terribly boring.
His behaviour was regarded as entirely outfashioned.
- pot ndeplini funcie de nume predicativ i de element predicativ suplimentar;
- formeaz grade de comparaie.
The function of an adjective is to inform about the noun it determines. There are four types of adjectives : descriptive (the
greatest majority), demonstrative, pronominal and of quanity.
- they occur in attributive position (premodifyiers) to a noun.
- can, in turn, be premodifyied by an intensifyier (extremely, terribly, very, etc).
- can be used as subject or object complements.
He was declared superintelligent by all who knew him. (object complement)
He looked superintelligent to everyone who saw him. (subject complement)
- have comparison degrees inflectionally (-er; the -est) short (monosyllabic and bisyllabic) adjectives or by
premodification. (more; the most) long (polysyllabic) adjectives.
Tom is the youngest and the most hardworking of us all.
a) regular adjectives and adverbs: (mono-/bisyllabic or polysyllabic) quick, blue, fit, comfortable, fast, correctly etc. b)
irregural adjectives and adverbs: good,well, ill.,bad, far, little, much, many, some.
b) Formarea i clasificarea adverbelor / Adverb formation and classification
- majoritatea adverbelor de mod i unele adverbe care indic procese graduale se formeaz dintr-un adjectiv la care se
adaug desinena ly;
- sunt pri de vorbire care informeaz referitor la o aciune, o stare sau o calitate (indic caracteristicile acestora);
- ndeplinesc funcia sintactic de complement circumstanial;
- urmeaz n propoziie verbului pe care l determin;
- formeaz grade de comparaie;
- adverbele de mod sunt poziionate dup verb, sau dup complementul direct sau indirect
- adverbele de loc sunt poziionate dup verb; cu verbele come, go, be, adevrbul este folosit n scop emfatic i este aezat
la nceputul propoziiei;
- adverbele de timp sunt poziionate la nceputul sau la sfritul propoziiei. Dac sunt timpuri compuse, atunci locul lor
este dup auxiliar.
- unele adverbe de frecven sunt flexibile ca poziie, ele putnd aprea n diferite locuri n propoziie. n propoziiile
interogative i n construciile cu auxiliare, poziia lor este dup auxiliar. Unele dintre ele nu se ascociaz cu un verb la
negativ.
- most adverbs of manner and some adverbs of degree are formed like this : adjective + -ly
rapid rapidly; total totally; clear clearly
-y -i gay - gaily ; merry merrily; gaudy gaudily (but: coy colyly; shy shyly)
- consonant + - le: gentle gently; ample amply, etc.
- final e is kept: fine finely; tense tensely; conclusive conclusively; terse tersely, etc. (but: true truly; due
duly).
- are morphological items which refer to an action, state or a quality (by describing them);
- syntactically, they are adverbials (of place, of time, of manner, etc);
- adverbs of manner come after the verb, or after the object if it is short;
They spoke to the shop-assistant calmly./They spoke calmly to the shop-assistant.
We stronlgy tried to persuade them to try to get their examination again.
- adverbs of place come after the verb; emphatically, here/there + be/go/come/away/down/off/round, etc.may begin the
sentence:
Here is our train! Here comes our train! There goes the group!

- adverbs of time are placed at the beginning or at the end of the sentence; if there are compound tenses, they come after
the auxiliary.
We dined late/immediatel.(only at the end)
He came afterwards/then. Then/Afterwards he came.
They will soon arrive/They will arrive soon/ Soon they will arrive.
She has been ill since she returned form the trip./Since she returned from the trip, she has been ill.
I am still your friend. They still work on their project.
- some adverbs of frequency can be placed either at the beginning, after the subject or at the end of the sentence .
(always, sometimes, usually, often). Others, such as hardly, ever, never, just, rarely, scarcely, barely, seldom, appear
after the subject and are not used with a negative verb.
He has repeatedly asked (me) the time.
He has asked (me) the time repeatedly.
Sometimes we take long walks in the neighbouring wood.
We sometimes take long walks in the neighbouring wood.
We take long walks in the neighbouring wood sometimes.
Have you often been in such a situation?
We barely entered when dog started barking with joy.
- adverbs of degree are placed before the adjective or the other adverb they modify.
The cake is almost burnt, so take it out of the oven.
I didnt walk quickly enough to catch upo with the rest.
This car is (by) far more expensive than the one we saw last week.
We nearly dropped dead when we heard the news.
- adjective i adverbe cu aceeai form
adjectives and adverbs with the same form
well, high, dead, straight, near, back, fast, far, enough, still, low, little, long, etc.
c) Tipuri de adverbe / Types of adverbs
De timp /Of time: now, then, today, yet, already, then, still
De frecven / Of frequency: seldom, always, hardly, scarcely, periodically, no sooner, never, ever, sometimes,
frequently, repeatedly
De loc / Of place: here, there, up, down, near(by), next to, anywhere, nowhere
De grad / Of degree: very, terribly, hardly, too, rather, quite, fairly, far, a little, a lot, very, so, too, extremely, entirely,
enough, barely, quite, etc.
De mod / Of manner: fast, quick, slowly, gladly, happily, hard, well, lazily, diligently, perhaps, probably, definitely,
likewise, otherwise, elsehow, anyway, anyhow, etc.
Relative-interogative / Relative-interrogative: where, when, why
Sentence adverbs: definitely, possibly, certainly, surely, evidently, actually, apparently, possibly, presumably, seemingly,
perhaps, obviously, etc.
Alte adverbe / Other adverbs: (un)fortunately, honestly, admittedly, (un)luckily,
Adverbials: by no means, on the spur of the moment, at once, in the nick of time, on no account, hardly ever, now and
then/again, from time to time, willy-nilly, by fits and starts, back and forth, to and fro, once on a while, as a matter of
fact, by the way, as a rule, yes (of course), no, by no means, by all means, not at all, hardly so,
IV. 1 Formarea gradelor de comparaie / The Comparison Degrees
Gradul de comparaie
Degree of comparison
Pozitiv
Positive

Form
Form
Adjective i adverbe de
mod
Adjectives and adverbs of
manner
mono- i bisilabice
monosyllabic and bisyllabic
polisilabice
polysyllabic

Caracteristici
Features
- este forma de baz a
adjectivelor
i
a
adverbelor;
nu
exprim
o
comparaie.
the base form of the
adjective or adverb; it
does
not
show
comparison.

Exemple
Examples
hard;
hot;
(adjectives)
fast (adverb)

pretty;

fast

important;
sensational;
tempermental (adjectives)
easily/gladly/beautifully
(adverb)

Comparativ
Comparative

Comparaia sintetic
pentru adjectivele i
adverbele mono- i
bisilabice
Synthetic comparison
for monosyllabic/bisyllabic
adjectives and adverbs
superiority
adjective + -er
inferiority
less + adjective + than
not so + adjective + as
equality
as + adjective + as
Comparaia analitic
pentru adjectivele
polisilabice i pentru
adverbe
Analytic comparison
for polysyllabic adjectives
and for adverbs
superiority
more + adjective/adverb
inferiority
less + adjective/adverb +
than
not so + adjective/adverb +
as

harder/hotter/prettier/faster
than
- realizeaz comparaia
de superioritate
compares by expressing
superiority
- realizeaz comparaia
de inferioritate
compares by expressing
inferiority

less hard/hot/prettyt/fast
than
not so hard/hot/pretty/fast
as
as hard/hot/pretty/fast as

- realizeaz comparaia
de egalitate
compares by expressing
equality

more
important/sensational/
tempermental than(adjectives)
more easily/gladly (adverbs)
less
important/sensational/
tempermental than (adjectives)
not so important/sensational/
tempermental as
less gladly than (adverb)
not so gladly as

equality
as + adjective + as

as
important/sensational/
tempermental as (adjective)
as gladly as (adverb)
Superlativul relativ
Relative superlative

Adjectives
the + adjective +
-est for mono and bisyllabic
adj

(the) most important

Superlativul absolut
Absolute superlative
very; extremely; terribly;
indescribably;
astonishingly; unbelievably,
etc

- compar mai multe

elemente indicndu-le pe
cele care sunt superioare
tuturor
celorlalte
elemente.
It is the form an
adjective or adverb
takes to compare three
or
more
things
indicating the element
which is above all of
them in quality.
- indic o calitate sau o
proprietate excepional,
fr a face o comparaie
propriu-zis.
It stresses an exceptional

(the)
hardest/
prettiest/fastest

hottest/

the most hard/hot/pretty

Due to the extraordinary

performance on stage, the
debutant
received
terribly
tempting
several
contract
proposals.

property without making

a direct comparison.
Adverbs
the + adverb + -est
(the) + most + adverb

Adjective compuse Compound Adjectives

adjective/adverb/noun/numeral + past participle
ill-meant/willed; well- known; heart-broken; far-fetched;
tight-fisted; green-fingered; quick/short-sighted; threesided; self-made, bad-tempered; short-sighted; blackeyed; fair-haired, wind-blown; home-made, half-cooked;
underestimated, overrated, overloaded, second-class, etc

Structuri comparative
Similes

iruri de adjective
(Adjective multiple)
Sequence of adjectives
(Multiple adjectives)

- toate adjectivele preced

substantivele pe care le
determin, iar atunci cnd
exist un ir de adjective
calificative, ordinea este
urmtoarea.
-all adjectives precede the
nouns they determine and if

sunt
adjective
calificative.
- dintre toate adjectivele
compuse,
grade
de
comparaie au doar acele
adjective compuse la
care cel puin unul dintre
elementele cu putere
semantic este adjectiv.
- are a variety of
descriptive adjectives
- of all compound
adjectives, only the ones
that contain at least one
semantically
strong
adhective
have
comparison degrees.
Comparaia sintetic
Synthetic comparison
- cnd adjectivul este
elementul
forte
al
combinaiei
i
i
pstreaz
sensul
nemodificat.
Comparaia analitic
Anayitic comparison
- cnd ambele elemente
formeaz
o
unitate
omogen ca sens.
as cold as ice, as good as
new, as patient as Job, as
drunk as a lord, as sober
as a judge, as busy as a
bee, as pure as snow, as
precious as gold, as poor
as a church mouse, as
bright as day, sa clear as
crystal, etc

the fastest/earliest/hardest/latest
Sheila worked the hardest of all
and she deserves the prize.
(the) most easily/gladly
Ill most gladly help you.
This book was the most easily
written of the three books she
has published so far.
I
consider
Adriana,
my
colleague, the epitome of the
self-made person. (not the
selfest- made person, or the
most self-made person)
My green-fingered aunt spends
most of her time tending her
garden.
Why dont you try this
absolutely scrumptious homemade pastry?
I tried to book an economy class
ticket but they only had business
class ones left.
I saw it first, which makes me
quicker-sighted than you.

What a pity! The project was

much more underrated than we
expected.
This lawyer is definitely the
most smooth-tongued person
Ive ever heard.
Although a great party fan, Brian
always manages to remain as
sober as a judge.
I was told that mechanics and
archaeology are as different as
chalk from cheese, but I
wouldnt be that sure, though
He was wearing a
Genuine (opinion), mediumlarge, rectangular, 1940, Swiss,
gold watch.
The bid was for an expensive,
long,
flamboyant,
saffron,
Turkish, embroidered, silk shawl.

there are several adjectives

to describe a noun, the
order is the following:

A too long and boring film!

A juicy,
cold
slice
watermelon!

of

Opinion Size Shape

Age Color Origin
Material Purpose

Formele neregulate ale adjectivelor i adverbelor

Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs
Positive
good (adjective); well (adverb)

Comparative
better

bad (adjective); ill/badly(adverbs)

far

worse
further (in time)/farther (in space)

little (countables)/ few (uncountables)

less

much (countables)/ many (uncountables)

more

some (countables and uncountables)

less/more

Superlative
the best (relative)
very/extremely good/well (absolute)
the worst (relative)
very bad/badly/ill (absolute)
the furthest (relative)
very far (absolute)
the least/fewest (relative)
very little/few (absolute)
the most (relative)
very much/many(absolute)
the least/fewest/most (relative)
very little/few/much/many (absolute)

IV. 2. Forme adjectivale compuse: substativ + numeral / Compound adjectives : noun + numeral
n acest caz, substantivul este folosit doar la forma de singular.
The noun in the compound is always singular.
A four-mile journey; a fifty-dollar banknote, a three-piece suit
IV. 3. Indicarea direciei prin adverbe de loc / Adverbs of place for giving directions
next to; at the corner of; continue straight ahead/to; across from; far from; go up the street; go up the boulevard;
go up the avenue; take the street/boulevard/ avenue; near to; turn left/right/at the corner; cross the bridge/ the square;
take the second street on the right, at the end of the street.
V. Verbul / The Verb
Formele gramaticale ale verbului sunt determinate de categoriile de timp, aspect, diatez, mod, persoan i
numr. n acest sens, distingem dou mari categorii de verbe: formele predicative i formele nepredicative.
Modurile indicativ i subjonctiv alctuiesc formele predicative, care pot forma singure predicatul i care se
acord n numr i persoan cu subiectul.
Modurile infinitiv, gerunziu, participiul prezent i participiul trecut formeaz modurile nepredicative, care nu
pot forma singure predicatul propoziiei.
The grammatical forms of the English verb are rendered by the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, mood,
person and number, which divide its forms into finite and non-finite.
The finite forms include the indicative and the subjunctive moods, while the non-finite forms include the
infinitive, the gerund, the present and the past participle. The finite moods form predicates by themselves, whereas the
non-finite forms cannot.
Verbele limbii engleze se grupeaz n dou clase mari: verbe regulate i verbe neregulate.
La Past Tense i la Past Participle, verbele regulate primesc desinena -ed, n timp ce verbele neregulate nu primesc
aceast terminaie, rdcina celor mai multe dintre ele suferind modificri interne la preluarea acestor forme. Exist o
list de verbe neregulate la sfritul oricrui dicionar sau manual de gramatic.
English verbs fall into two major classes: regular and irregular verbs.

Regular verbs receive the -ed ending at Past Tense and Past Participle. Irregular verbs do not receive this ending and
most of them change the form of their root while passing to one of these forms. There is a list of Irregular verbs at the
end of any dictionary or grammar books.

Verbe Regulate Regular verbs

Infinitive
(to) ask
(to) intend
(to) change
Verbe neregulate Irregular verbs
Infinitive
(to) take
(to) see
(to) understand

Past Tense
asked
intended
changed

Past Participle
asked
intended
changed

Past Tense
took
saw
understood

Past Participle
taken
seen
understood

V. 1. Verbele be, have i have got

Verbul to be este folosit att ca verb noional, n construciile cu Simple Present, ct i ca verb auxiliar n construciile
cu Prezentul Continuu.
- to be is used to build up the Present Tense Simple its short infinitive as well as the Present Tense Continuous, as
an auxiliary verb.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural

To Be
I am, you are/ he/she/it is
we are, you are, they are
To Have (got)
I have (got), you have (got), he/she/it has (got)
we have (got), you have (got), they have (got)

Caracteristici
Features
- have i have got exprim ideea de posesie
- have apare n construcii ca: have breakfast/dinner, etc/a shower/
a bath / a good time/ fun
- interogativul lui have se formeaz la fel ca interogativul oricrui
alt verb (cu excepia lui be) la Indicativ Prezent.
- have i have got sunt folosite doar la prezent.
- have particip i la construirea timpurilor Past i Future.
- numai have got prezint forme contrase la pozitiv.

Exemple
Examples
Jack has (got) a comfortable house.
We usually have breakfast at home.
Do you have any time to have a look at my
presentation slide?
I have/Ive got a lot of ideas

- have and have got are used for possession.

- have is used in phrases like: have breakfast/dinner, etc/a shower/ a
bath / a good time/ fun
- the question form for have follows regular Present Simple:
- have and have got are only used in the Present Simple.
- use have for the Past Simple or Future forms
- there is no contracted form for have in the positive form, only for
have got.
V. 2. Timpurile gramaticale

The Tense System

Do you have/have you got a car?

She will not have time for two jobs.

V. 2. 1. Exprimarea Timpului Prezent Expressing Present Time

Timp
Tense
Prezentul
Simplu
Present
Simple

Construcie
Formation rules
Afirmativ
Affirmative
S + verb (all persons
except IIIrd person
singular)
S + verb + -s (IIIrd
person singular)
Interogativ
Interrogative
Do + S + verb? (all
persons except IIIrd
person singular)
Does + S + verb?
(IIIrd person singular)
Negativ
Negative

Formule
adverbiale
Adverbial
constructions

S + verb + do
not/dont
(all persons except
IIIrd person singular)
S + verb + does
not/doesnt
(IIIrd person singular)

Caracteristici
Features
- exprim adevruri
general-valabile
(adevaruri eterne,
rutine
personale,
legi al naturii, legi
consemnate
tiinific),
aciuni
generale,
aciuni
repetate;
Este folosit
- n instruciuni sau
n
demonstraii/
prezentri;
n
titluri,
comentarii
(n
pres);
- ca timp narativ;
- pentru a descrie
sentimente;
- ca mijloc de
exprimare
a
viitorului (exprim
aciuni
stabilite
oficial).
- e nsoit de
adverbe i locuiuni
adverbiale specifice.
- expresses general,
habitual
and
recurrent
truths,
habitual
or
repeated actions,
- is also used in
giving instructions,
directions or for
making
demonstrations;
in headlines,
commentaries or as
a narrative device;
- in describing
feelings;
- as a means of
expressing
future
actions
(official
actions).
accompanying
adverbials:
in the afternoon/
evening/morning/
at noon/
(mid)night/
one
oclock/ weekend,
on Monday /time,

Exemple
Examples
We
spend
our
holidays abroad
I never leave
home late.
She works hard.
My train leaves at
5.42 p.m.
Does my train leave at
?
I get up late at
weekends.
Mary often drops by
for a cup of coffee.
Do you ever watch the
Discovery Channel?
The
constitution
stipulates that every
citizen should vote.
She feels like a fish in
the pond.
The museum closes at
6 p.m.
Exposed aluminium
alloys corrode under
the
influence
of
oxygen and humidity.

Ortografiere
Spelling rules
- verbele de persoana a III-a
singular primesc desinena
de pers./nr.
-s sau -es, pentru verbele
care se termin n -ch, -sh,s, -z, -x
- verbele care se termin n
consoan
+ -y, la adugarea - s,
schimb -y n- ies
- verbelor care se termin n
vocal + -y se adaug doar
s.
- IIIrd person singular
verbs always get the -s
ending
- verbs ending in o, -ch,sh, -s, -z, -x get -es
verbs which end in
consonant t + -y, when
receiving -s change -y
-ies
verbs which end in vowel
+-y, only
add s

often, sometimes,
usually,
always,
never, as a rule.

Prezentul
Continuu
Present
Continuous

Afirmativ
Affirmative
S + be + verb +
-ing

Interogativ
Interrogative
be + S + verb +
-ing ?

Formule
adverbiale
Adverbial
constructions

Negativ
Negative
S + be + not + verb +
-ing

- exprim aciuni
care se petrec n
(sau aproximativ)
acest moment
- expresses actions
which
are
happening now or
around now
- temporary actions
and habits
plans
or
arrangements (as a
means of expressing
future time)
- annoying habits
(+ always/ forever/
continually)

(right) now, at the

moment , this week,
tonight,
this
afternoon, etc

We are spending our

holiday abroad.
I am leaving for Sibiu.
She is working hard.
(now)
Are you talking to
me?
Is the student coming
today?
They are not/arent
listening!
We are not/ arent
travelling home.

we double the consonant

and add ing:
cut cutting; run running;
swim swimming.
- dup y, -w sau x se
adaug direct ing
after y, -w or y, we
simply add
ing:
mix mixing; delay
delaying, snow - snowing
- la adugarea -ing la vb.
terminate n ie, -ie -y
when adding -ing to vbs.
ending in
- ie, ie y
lie lying, die-dying

A: Are you busy?

B: At the moment
Im working to finish
my project.
After a busy month,
Julia is resting this
week.

V. 2. 2. Exprimarea Timpului Trecut Expressing Past Time: Past Simple and Past Continuous
to be past forms:
I/he/she/it was we/you/they were
n mod invariabil, verbele regulate primesc, la forma de baz (rdcina), terminaia -ed, care rmne neschimbat la
toate persoanele.
Regular verbs end invariably in ed
Verbele neregulate i schimb forma de baz, i, prin urmare, trebuie nvate ca atare. La finalul oricrei gramatici sau
dicionar al limbii engleze exist o list cu verbele neregulate.
Irregular verbs change their form and must be learnt as such. Any grammar or dictionary is provided with a list of
irregular verbs.
Timpul
Tense

Caracteristici
Features and meaning

Construcie
Formation rules

Exemple
Examples

Adverbe
Adverbials

Past
Tense
Simple

Past
Tense
Continuous

pstreaz, n mod
omogen, aceeai form
pentru toate persoanele.
Exprim
- o aciune nceput i
ncheiat n trecut;
- o aciune repetat n
trecut (+ advebe de
frecven: often, rarely,
seldom,
frequently,
always,
never,
sometimes)
- este nsoit de adverbe
sau locuiuni adverbiale
de timp i loc sau de o
propoziie subordonat
care indic mprejurrile
n care a avut loc
aciunea.
- has the same form for
all persons; it
- expresses a completed
past action.
- is used together with
adverbials
of
time
and/or
place
ora
subordinate clause to
indicate
the
circumstances in which
the action took place.
- expresses a repeated
past action (+ often,
never, sometimes, rarely,
frwquently, seldom, etc.)
Exprim
- o aciune care se afla n
desfurare
la
un
moment dat sau pe o
perioad limitat de timp
(aciuni temporare);
Expresses
- an action in progress
at a certain moment or
during a limited period
of
time
(temporary
actions)
- with always/ forever/
continually, criticism of
annoying
habitual
actions.
Aciuni simultane
Simultaneous actions:
Past Continuous + Past
Continuous
Past Continuous + Past
Tense

Affirmative:
S + verb +-ed
(for regular verbs)
S + 2nd from of
verbs (Past Tense)
(for irregular verbs)
Interrogative:
(for all persons)
Did + S + verb?
Negative:
S + did not/didnt +
verb
Ortografiere
Spelling rules
- consoan final
precedat
de o
vocal scurt i
neaccentuat + -ed

dublarea
consoanei finale
- consoan + -y +
-ed -ied
- short and stressed
vowel before final
consonant + -ed
double
final
consonant
stop stopped
permit permitted
- consonany + -y +
-ed -ied
cry - cried
study - studied
Affirmative:
Pentru persoanele I
si III sg
S + was /were +
verb + -ing
Pentru persoanele I
pl; II sg/pl; III pl
S + were +
verb + -ing
Interrogative:
Was/Were + S +
verb + -ing ?
Negative:
S + was/were +
not/wasnt/werent
+ verb + -ing.

of Time and Place

We met last year in
Brussels.
The asked the tourists
to check out before
midday.

last year/month / week

yesterday, two years ago,
at 2.30, in the park, in
front of the university, etc.

Mary managed to get

to the airport by taking
a shortcut.

subordinate clauses
He liked listening to
music while (he was)
working.

What did you do when

you found out about
that accident?

I
stopped
reading
when/after/before
they
returned.

Its a pity you didnt

buy the book I
mentioned last week.

Mark told me to hurry as

I had to be there in time.

She always visited all

her relatives when she
came to Romania.
Didnt you ever try to
learn to drive while
you had the car?

If she needed money, she

tried to get it.
I always felt awful
talking/having to talk
about
that
tragical
accident.

Before I got married I

sometimes/often spent
my summers at my
grandparents cottage.

At around 5.30 I was

driving back to Cluj.
I saw Mary when she
was getting off the car.
A; What were you
doing
when
she
called?
B: I was (just) looking
for my car keys.
My music teacher was
always falling asleep
during our tutorials.
She was cooking
dinner while he was
mending the car.
She was cooking
dinner
while
he
mended the car.
They were watching

Adverbials
pentru Past Continuous
for Pase Continuous
at the moment, at 2.30,
all that time, that
week(end), then, at the
time
pentru aciuni simultane
for simultaneous actions
while, whereas, when, as,
during which time

Past Tense + Past Tense

Past Tense + Past
Continuous
Aciune n desfurare
i aciune incident
Action in progress and
incidental action

Would
and
Used to

Used to + verbe de
aciune i verbe de stare
+ both state and action
verbs
Would + exclusiv verbe
de aciune
+ only action verbs
- sunt forme echivalente
ale lui Past Simple
folosite n contextele
narative pentru evitarea
redundanei.
- exprim aciuni sau
stri recurente n trecut,
care
s-au
ncheiat
demult.
- are forms equivalent to
Past Simple used in
narrative contexts in
order
to
avoid
redundancy.
- express repeated events
and actions in the past,
usually
things
that
happened a long time
ago and are now
finished.

the film when the

doorbell
rang
(incidental).

Afirmativ
Affirmative
S + used to/would +
verb

The accommodation
used to be better last
year.
They used to /would
exercise more when
they were younger.
When we lived in
Andalusia we used
to/would visit places
like
Crdoba
or
Mlaga.

Interogativ
Interrogative
Did + S + use to +
verb?
Would + S + verb?
Negativ
Negative
S + did not/didnt
use to + verb
S
+
would
not/wouldnt + verb

Did you really use to

like going out every
weekend?
Didnt your parents
use to tell you bedtime
stories when you were
little?
My sister didnt use to
be like that, picky and
moody as she is today.

Past Perfect
Simple

Past Perfect
Continuous

Exprim
- o aciune ncheiat
naintea unei aciuni sau
unui moment trecut.
- o aciune anterioar ce
are consecine asupra
altei aciuni trecute.
- succesiuni de aciuni
trecute n care Past
Perfect e folosit ca
marc temporal.
- o relaie cauzal ntre
dou aciuni trecute.
- dup conjuncia after i
nainte de before, poate
fi nlocuit de Past Tense.
used for actions
previous to and affecting
a nominated time in the
past.
- expresess sequences of
past actions with the
past perfect used as a
time marker.
- used to show causal
relationship
between
past actions.
- Past Tense can replace
it when followed by after
or preceded by before.
-de obicei, acest timp se
afla n raport de variaie
liber cu Past Perfect
Simple.
- exprim o aciune care
se afla n desfurare de
o perioad de timp pn
la un moment dat sau
pn cnd a intervenit o
alt aciune.
- usually this tense is at
free variation with the
Past Perfect Simple;
- expresses an action
which was in progress
forsoem timeup to a
given moment or until
another past action
occurs.

Afirmativ
Affirmative
For all persons
had
+
Past
Participle

Your friends had left

the airport by noon.
Your friends had left
the airport by the time
you got there.

S + had + Past
Participle (III form)

When the secretary

enetered the office she
found out that her boss
had left.

Interogativ
Interrogative
Had + S + Past
Participle

Negativ
Negative
S + had not/hadnt +
Past Paticiple

until, before, after

By weekend all the

staff had written their
proposals.
She had completed a
cooking course before
she found that job. /
After
she
had
completed a cooking
course, she found that
job.
They ran home as it
had already started to
rain heavily.

Afirmativ
Affirmative
For all persons
had + been + verb
+ -ing + (since/for)
Interogativ
Interrogative
Had + S + been +
verb + -ing
Negativ
Negative
S + had not/hadnt +
been + verb + -ing

They
had
asked
several times whether
there was anyone on
duty that night.
They had been asking
whether ther was
anyone on duty that
night.
George and Diana had
already been living
there for a month
when
the
Smiths
moved nextdoor.
The two teams had
been fighting for the
final goal for already
half an hour when the
referee gave the endof-game signal

V. 2. 3 Prezentul Perfect The Present Perfect

Timpul
Tense

Caracteristici
Features

Construcie
Formation rules

Exemple
Examples

Adverbe
Adverbials

Present Perfect
Sinple

- face legtura dintre

timpul trecut i timpul
prezent
(uneori
i
viitor);
- aruncnd o privire
retrospectiv
ctre
trecut, ne informeaz ce
s-a petrecut pan n sau
nainte de momentul
present;
- exprim o aciune sau
o stare care continu
nc;
- exprim evenimente
care pn acum au fcut
(i nc mai fac) parte
din viaa noastr;
- aciuni trecute cu
consecine/ efecte n
present;
- exprim ideea de
aciune ncheiat, mai
ales atunci cnd este
nsoit de o construcie
adverbial cantitativ
- relates past actions
and states to the
present. It looks back
from the present into
the past, and expresses
what has happened
before now.
- expresses an action
or state which began in
the past and continues
to the present.
- expresses events that
are up to now part of
our life.
- expresses past actions
with a result in the
present.
- expresses completion
of an action when it is
followed
by
a
quantitative marker.

S + have/ has + Past

Participle
(IIIrd
form)
Afirmativ
Affirmative
I/we/you/they have
(ve) lived
(irregular vb)

Ive been to many

places and Ive known
a lot of people (so
far/up to now)

He/she/it has (s)

lived
(regular vb)

Theyve had this car

for a year (they still
have it).

Interogativ
Interrogative
Have you lived?
Has he lived?

Diana has learned a lot

of French so far (she is
still learning it).

Negativ
Negative
I have not lived
He has not lived

Have you ever visited

Romania?
Theyve never seen
Braov.

Ive (always) loved to

sit in the garden in the
long summer evenings.
George has taken
computer classes (he
can use it ).
She has (already)
corrected three papers.
Theyve changed two
trains to come to Cluj.

Adverbials
so far, lately, just,
already,
yet,
always, usually,
never,
ever,
seldom/
rarely,
often/
frequently
or with no time
specification
since (beginning
of action) for
(duration
of
action)

- exprim aciuni care

au nceput i nc
continu (pe o durat
nespecificat)
- actions that started in
the past and are still
going on (indefinitely)

S + have/has + been
+ verb+ - ing

Afirmativ
Affirmative
Present Perfect
I/you/they
have
Continuous
been walking
He/she/it has been
walking
Interogativ
Interrogative
Have you been
walking?
Has
he
been
walking ?
Negativ
Negative
Ive (have)not been
walking
Hes (has) not been
walking
n unele cazuri, diferena dintre cele dou forme este insesizabil.
Pentru verbel care implic ideea de durat (work, wait, travel,
learn, play), se prefer forma continu; cu verbe ca buy, die, take,
shut, etc, i care nu exprim aceast idee, folosim mai degrab
Present Perfect Simple.
- verbele de stare nu se folosesc la Present Perfect Continuous.
Sometimes the difference between the two Present Perfect forms is
very slight
Present Perfect Continuous + verbs that express the idea of long
time;
Present Perfect Simple + state verbs

Weve been waiting for

four days to get the
result!
Its been raining for
days!

since (beginning)
/for (duration)

A: You look tired

B: I am tired because
Ive been working
hard.

I have worked here all my life/Ive been

working here all my life.
Theyve (already) been walking for a long
time.
Shes passed the exam. Ive been working/
trying so hard to finish in time.
Shes understood you perfectly well.

V. 2. 4. Exprimarea Timpului Viitor Expressing Future Time

Forma de viitor
Future form
1. will Future

Caracteristici
Features
and
meaning
consecin
consequence
- previziune
prediction
- certitudine
certainty
- promisiune
promise
avertisment
warning
- hotrre
determination

Construcie
Formation rules

Exemple
Examples

Adverbe
Adevrbials

S+ shall/will +
short infinitive
(+ adverbial of
future time)

- If you wait too long,

youll (will) get bored.
- It will be fine
tomorrow.
- This letter will be for
me.
- Ill always stand by
you.
- There wont be too
much time left, so wed
better hurry.
- I shall never smoke.

tomorrow, next
week,
(some
time) later, on
Friday, at four
oclock, etc

3. Future
Continuous

2. Future Perfect

4. Present
Continuous

5. Present Simple

6.Going to

6.be to
= urmeaz s

8. be about to/
be on the point
of/be on the

- exprim aciuni
viitoare vzute n
desfurare.
- expresses future
actions in progress
- la fel ca Past
Perfect, exprim
anterioritatea unei
aciuni/stri viitoare
fa de o alt aciune
viitoare, sau fa de
un moment viitor.
- like Past Perfect, it
expresses a future
action/state
completed before
another future action
or moment.
- exprim
aranjamente sau
planuri personale.
- prezena adverbului
e obligatorie.
- expresses personal
arrangements, plans
always
accompanied by a
near future time
expression.
- exprim aciuni sau
demersuri oficiale.
- expresses official
actions.
viitorul inteniei i al
prediciei/ deduciei
logice.
- the future of
intention and of
prediction/logical
inference.
Exprim
iminena
unei
aciuni/stri.
un
aranjament
formal
expresses
the
imminence of an
action/state.

S + will + be +
verb + -ing +
adverbial
of
future time

Who knows what I will

be doing tomorrow this
time?
In a weeks time they
will be enjoying every
moment of their holiday.

in ten years
time;
this time next
month; at 2 p.m.

She will have left when

they reach the hotel

by 4.30;
by the time she
returns; by noon,
by then, etc

What are you doing

later? Are you going out
with the group?

- adverbe care
indic
viitorul
apropiat
adverbias
indicating
the
near future
tomorrow, next
(week)end, today,
in the afternoon,
on
Friday,
nextMonday.

S+ will + have +
Past Participle +
adverbial
of
future time

S + be + verb +
-ing + adverbial
of future time

S
+
infinitive

short

S + going to +
short infinitive

S + be to + short
infinitive

S + be about to +
short infinitive
S + be/verb on

The train leaves at 8.45

a.m.
The library closes at 10
p.m.
Are you going to start or
not? Im going to ask
when the next train
leaves.
Its not going to be any
better than it is now.
Look! Its going to rain
soon.
They are to arrive in the
afternoon/in a moment.
The team of workers
are/is to sign the
documents tomorrow by
12 oclock.
The speaker is about to
end the presentation.
The play is on the point

at 10 p.m

when the next

train leaves

soon
in the afternoon/
in a moment

verge of
= e pe punctul de
a/ e ct pe ce s/
st s
9.be due to+
infinitive
be due at

10. be bound to

- se refer la un
program/ orar deja
stabilit.
refers
to
a
scheduled time
- exprim aciuni care
se
impun
ca
obligatorii.
- expresses actions
one
expects
to
happen for sure

the point/verge
of
+
-ing
participle

of starting.
She seems on the verge
of breaking out.

S+ be due to/at +
verb

The group of students is

due to arrive at 8.30.
Their plane is due at
15.15.
.

S + be bound to
+ verb

The group leader is

bound to know the
details regarding their
tour programme.

V. 3. Forme verbale simple i continue - Verbe de stare i verbe de aciune

Simple and Progressive verb forms - Stative, dynamic, process verbs
Majoritatea verbelor pot avea att aspect continuu ct i simplu, exprimnd, n funcie de context, o aciune
static-informativ sau o aciune dinamic.
Most verbs can take on either of the aspects, expressing, according to the context, a stative-informative action,
retrospectively, a dynamic-progressive one.
John lives in this house. (it is his permanent residence)
John is living in this house. (it is his temporary residence)
The stative form of the verb lie, means be situated gepographicaly and its dynamic form means having a recumbent,
horizontal position
Forma static a verbului lie nseamn a fi situat geografic, iar cea dinamic nseamn a sta culcat, a se
ntinde, a zace.
This country lies north of Spain.
He left the papers lying on the table.
Verbe care descriu evoluia gradual a unui process Process verbs show gradation of a process
grow,change, deteriorate, mature, narrow, widen, slow down., etc.
- verb de aciune: dac exprim un proces.
- verb de stare: exprim o stare
If it expresses a process, then the verb is an action verb. If it expresses a state, the verb is a stative verb.
Verbe statice Stative verbs
be, hate, like, love, need, belong, believe, cost, get, impress, know, reach, recognize, taste, think/consider, understand.
Se cunosc patru grupe mari de verbe statice
Generally, stative verbs fall into the following four groups:
Tipul
verbului
Type of verb

Exemple
Examples

neles de baz = stare

Basic meaning = state

1. Verbe care
exprim o opinie
sau un proces
cognitiv
Verbs which
express thought or
opinions or mental
cognition

know, recognize,
think/consider,
imagine, impress,
intend, mean,
mind, perceive,
please, forget,
prefer,
presuppose,
realize, recall,
recognize, regard,
remember,
suppose, think,
understand.

I think it will be a
successful seminar.
(opinion)
I consider it would be
proper to wait.
I dislike rudeness.
They didnt forget about
the documents.

neles
schimbat
=
proces/aciune
Changed
meaning
=
process/action
I am thinking of leaving.
I am (seriously) considering
leaving.
He was forgetting/(again) was
remembering to walk. (the
process of degradation or of
recovery of an ability)

2. Verbe de relaie
(relaionale) sau
care exprim
posesia
Relational verbs, or
verbs which
express possession

be, belong to,

concern, consist
of, contain, cost,
depend on,
deserve, equal,
fit, have, include,
involve, lack,
matter, need, owe,
own, possess,
require, resemble.

see, hear, feel,

smell, taste,
sound
3. Verbe senzoriale
Verbs related to
senses and
perception

4. Verbe care
exprim
sentimente sau
triri
Verbs expressing
feelings and
attitudes

astonish, love,
hate, like, desire,
detest, dislike,
believe, want,
wish, forgive,
guess, abhor,
adore, worship,
doubt, feel
(presume),
wonder.

We dont have such a lot of

time.
The land belongs to
nobody.
I only own a bicyle.
Susan is (as a rule!) a
discreet person.
This dress doesnt fit you at
all. (is not your size)
Our trip depends on the
weather.
This sandwich tases sour.
It also smells odd.
The blouse feels rough
against my skin.
She sees well with her new
glasses.
This song sounds familiar
to me.
This idea sounds great!
I hear you very well, dont
shout.
I feel/ I am feeling better.

The child astonished

everybody with the
precision in fortelling
events.
Believe it or not, I simply
abhor speaking about
death.
I feel you are not entirely
right.

They are not having lunch right

now.
Today Susan is being very nosy.
They are fitting the window
frame for a new window.
(=adapting)
Only you can help me; I am
depending on you.
I am tasting the food. (action)
Before I taste it, I always smell
the food.
I am feeling the cloth to see if
its smooth or rough.
She is seeing the eye doctor.
tomorrow. (has an appointment)
Jane is no longer seeing George.
(is not dating him anymore)
She is seeing things
(=imagining)
They are sounding their
complaints (=announcing/
wording)
They began hearing voices
(they began imagining they hear
voices).
Sometimes, for the sake of
emphasis, we can say:
Im simply loving being here!
(Im fully enjoying every single
moment of my stay here).
Couldnt you see he was hating
the conversation?

V.4. Expresii existeniale Existential sentences

- au o structur gramatical aparte i exprim existena real sau imaginar a unui element (fiin sau obiect). De
asemenea, introduc elementul respectiv ntr-un discurs. An existential clause has a distinctive grammatical structure
and expresses the real or imagined existence of an item (a person, place, or thing), asserting its existence or
nonexistence. It introduces the item into a discourse.
Subiectul propriu-zis (noional - locul, obiectul) este diferit de subiectul gramatical (there), care se mai numete i
pseudo-subiect.
a) there + be/exist/ seem/ appear
There is no place like home.
Who knows if there truly exists anyone named Wy.
The notional subject (place, anyone) the grammatical subject (there)
The existential there (also called dummy subject) is a device which empties the subject position of semantic content.
It serves as the subject in infinitive phrases and infinitive an participle phrases, e.g.
We dont allow there to be any misunderstanding regarding the title of the article.
There being no one to give us any relevant information, we left.
- with To Infinitives Phrases:

There are still many good things to come.

Have as Component of Existential Sentences:
b) Sentences with pleonastic there but with some verbs other than be.
There came another guardian all dressed in red and black.
Dont worry, there exit many other situations better than this.
c) there is vs. it is
There is a new film by Steven Spielberg coming soon. (existential)
It is his latest film. (it = the film - subject pronoun)
V. 5. Acordul subiectului cu verbul Subject-Verb Agreement
1. pronume la singular legate prin or/nor + verb la singular.
singular (pro)nouns connected by or or nor + singular verb.
Neither the horse nor the rider was hurt.
The red dress or the black blouse is in my handbag.
2. subiect compus ale crui elemente sunt legate prin or/nor + verb la singular sau plural, n funcie de numrul
elementului care l urmeaz (singular sau plural).
compound subject whose elements are connected by or or nor + singular or plural verb according to which element is
closest to the verb.
The book or the pencils were on the desk.
The pencils or the book was on ther desk.
3. subiect compus + verb la plural: dac elementele sale constitutive (substantive sau pronume) sunt legate prin and.
compound subject + plural verb: if its consituent elements ((pro)nouns are connected by and
The envelopes, stamps and the pens were all scattered on desk
4. subiect + phrase + Verb
This tests, let alone the exams with the Dean, terrifies everybody.
Look! One of the footprints is visible.
Days which are foggy and cold seem awful to me.
5. subiectul exprimat printr-un pronume nehotrt
Indefinite pronouns as subjects + singular verbs: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
+ plural verbs : both, few, many, others, several
+ singular or plural verbs: all, any, more, most, none, some
Either situation leads to the same result.
Each of my friends thinks the same thing about bank loans.
Everybody hates being in debt.
6. unele substantive terminate n -s
some nouns ending in -s + singular verbs
news, phonetics, linguistics, shingles, mumps, measles, civics, mathematics, etc.
No news is good news.
- obiecte bipolare + verb la plural
a unit made of two parts + plural verbs
pincers, breeches, pliers, compasses, glasses, scissors, tweezers, trousers, shears, etc
These are not my glasses!
7. substantive colective
collective nouns
- cnd sunt vzute ca grup unitar, sunt singulare i fac acord cu un verb la singular.
when seen as a group are considered singular and take a singular verb
family, government, clergy, board, group, team, committee, class, etc.
The cergy in our district has come to consacrate the new church.
Which board decides how to proceed ?
The Johnes family is on holiday.
- cnd sunt vizate elementele grupului, acordul se face cu un verb la plural.
when the members of the group are pointed out, the nouns are considered plural and take a plural verb
The police are looking for new hints.
VI. Construcii interogative / Questions
1. ntrebri cu cuvinte care conin grupul wh
Wh questions

Where is the station? (Close to the city center.)

Who gave you this direction? (The deans secretary.)

what; who; whose; which; where; when; why; how;

how + adjectiv/adverb ( how much/ how far/ how fast)

How can I get to the Library? (Youll see the sign right
away.)
Why were/are you late? (I missed the bus.)
When do I pay for the trip? (Even now if you wish.)
Which does she prefer?
(She is still undecided.)
What were you doing at the time? (I was looking for
the hostel.)
Whose car are/were you washing? (My own.)
How long have you studied/ been studying ? (Not too
long.)

2. ntrebri care cer rspunsuri de tipul da/nu

Yes/no questions
Pronumele interogative who i what pot ndeplini n
fraz att rol de subiect (subject) ct i rol de
complement (object).
n cazul n care ntrebarea vizeaz subiectul, nu se
produce inversia subiectului cu predicatul i nici nu e
nevoie de auxiliarul do.
n cazul n care ntrebarea vizeaz complementul, e
nevoie de inversie i de auxiliar.
Who and what can function either as subject or as
object of the sentence.
In subject questions, there is no inversion and no do
auxiliary, whereas in complement question both the
inversion and the auxiliaries are required.

Are you sitting comfortably?

Yes, I am/ No, I am not (Im not).
Did you see the presentation?
Yes, I did/ No, I didnt (see the presentation)
Do you find the lecture interesting?
Yes, I do/ No, I dont (find it interesting).
Were you children sleeping when I rang?
Yes, they were/No, they werent (listening).
Have you been to the new theatre performance?
Yes, I have/No, I havent.

5. ntrebri disjunctive Tag (Disjunctive) questions

- propoziia interogativ scurt apare doar la
sfritul unui enun (afirmativ sau negativ), de care
este desprit prin virgul;
- dac enunul este afirmativ, ntrebarea disjunctiv
este negativ, i invers dac enunul este negativ,
ntrebarea disjunctiv este afirmativ (polaritate
formal invers)
- verific dac este adevrat sau sigur ceea ce credem;
- uneori sunt folosite cu tent sarcastic sau pentru a
ntri o afirmaie;
- forma predicatului propoziiei din disjunctiv este
inversul formei predicatului din propoziia pe care o

Mary is not your sister, is she?

This cant be the question, can it?
She misunderstood it all, didnt she?
One/We would never do anything like that, would
they/we?
You should try again, should you not?
I am your friend, am I not?/arent I?
They wont be very late, will they?

Who asks the candidate some questions ?

The committee asks the candidate some questions ?
(the committee = subject)
Who does the committee ask some questions?
The committee asks the candidate some question.
(the candidate = (direct) object)
Alte tipuri de construcii interogative
Other types of interrogative constructions
3. ntrebri care vizeaz Subiectul
ntrebri care vizeaz Complementul
Subject Questions
Object Questions
Who makes the schedule?
Who did she ask?
The group representative does.
She asked no one.
What has he pointed out?
What did he do with the folders?
Who left the plan on the table?
Who has been to Romania before?
4. ntrebri descriptive: Cum e/ Cum sunt?
What is your home town like?
Descriptive questions: What.like?
Its a nice, quiet, provincial town.
What is it/he like? = Describe it/him to me, please.
What are your room-mates like?
How is he? = What is the state of his health?
Theyre rather noisy, Im afraid.
How is your friend now, after that nasty flu?
Shes much better now, thank you.

A: We have to be there before 8, dont we?

B: Yes, we do./No, we dont.
We have to be there by 8, dont we? (of course, we

nsoete;
- doar cnd folosim o intonaie ascendent, avem o
ntrebare real;
- cnd folosim o intonaie descendent, ntrebarea este
mai mult retoric.
- the short question is placed at the end of a statement
(affirmative or negative) from which is separated by
comma;
-- when the statement is affirmative, the tag question
will be negative and vice versa;
- are used to verify or check information that we think
is true or to check information that we arent sure is
true;
- we just use them for effect, when we are trying to be
sarcastic, or to make a strong point;
-if the tag is a real question it has a rising intonation.
6. Rspunsuri interogative Reply Questions
- exprim interes sau surpriz i se pronun
ntotdeauna cu intonaie ascendent;
- ntrebarea va avea ntotdeauna acceai form ca i
enunul iniial (spre deosebire de ntrebrile
disjunctive). (polaritate formal identic)
- are used to show interest or surprise;
- they always have a strong rising intonation;
- the question will always have the same form with the
initial statement.

do)
__________

A: They havent got money anymore.

B: They dont?
A: That isnt the right way back.
B: Isnt it?
A: Didnt you notice the lamp burning?
B: Was it?

VII. Construcii cu verbele modale Modal Constructions

Verbele modale: can ; could; may; might, must; have to; will; would; shall; should; ought to; dare (to); need (to).
Verbele Modale sunt semi-auxiliare, deci se comport altfel dect verbele obinuite, adic, i formeaz interogativul i
negativul singure, fr a se ajuta de verbele auxiliare clasice be i do, nu primesc -s la persoana III sg. prezent i nu au
forme nepersonale (infinitiv, gerunziu).
(*I can to to).
Excepie fac have to, need to, be bound to, be going to, la care se regsesc toate aceste trsturi i care se numesc semimodale. Aceste verbe au n cele mai multe cazuri dublu neles.
De asemenea, majoritatea au o expresie sinonimic care s le nlocuiasc n construciile n care acestea sunt improprii.
Modal verbs are semi-auxiliary verbs, therefore they have other characteristics than notional verbs, that is, they dont
take be or do to form the interrogative and the negative, nor do they get an -s in the III person sg. Also, they do not
have non-finite forms (gerund or infinitive).
Exceptions are have to, need to, be bound to, be going to, dare to, which are called semi-modals. They generally carry
two meanings and have a synonymous expression to replace them in various situations where they are not fit.
I may go at last! (I am allowed to)
I may go today. (I will probably go).
They can swim (present) They will be able to swim (future).
Toate construciile modale au dou forme de baz:
All modal constructions can be found under two major forms:
A. Simple Modal constructions referring to present or future situations.
B. Perfect Modal constructions referring to past events
A. construciile modale simple, care se refer la situaii prezente sau viitoare
Modal constructions thast refer to present or future actions
S + modal + short infinitive
Paul may be leaving on Monday (It is possible that Paul is leaving on Monday);
This book may be what I really need. (This book is likely to be what I really need.)
B. construciile modale perfecte, care se refer la evenimente trecute
Modal constructions thast refer to past actions
S + modal + have + Past Participle (IIIrd form)
He should have arrived by now. (We expected him to arrive by now.)

The course must have started. (I am sure the course has already started.)
VII. 1. Can Could
Verbul modal Forma alternativ
Modal verb
Substitute form

Sens
Meaning

Exemple
Examples

1. be able to

- exprim capacitatea fizic sau

mental prezent de a face ceva
- expresses ability to do
something in the present

They can /are able to ski very

well.
I could never /was never able to
learn lie.

2. be likely/ possible
to (happen)

- posibilitatea sau presupunerea

ca un lucru s fie sau s aib loc.
possibility/
probability/
conjecture or a characteristic

3.
cant = its
impossible;
its
unlikey/ not likely

- imposibilitate este exprimat

doar cu ajutorul formei negative.
- impossibility, only with the
negative form.

4. be permitted/
be allowed to

- permisiunea/ ncuviinarea n
prezent a unei aciuni.
- permission to do something. in
the present
- rugminte, solicitare
- request
- propunere
- suggestion
- o nsuire/caracteristic trecut
- past ability

The
temperature
can
(sometimes) drop to 35 C in
these parts. (=it is very
likely/possible to get that low)
Can it really happen to me (Is it
really happening to me?)
It cant be true (its impossible to
be true)!
He cant have said such a thing!
(Its impossible/not likely that he
said such a thing.)
Can Susan come with us, too?
Yes, Susan can come with us.

CAN

5. would you?
6. how about?
1. was/were able to
2. was/were allowed
to
.
3. its just not
possible/ its hard to
accept/believe
4. why didnt you?
5. it is probable that it
happens/to happen; it is
quite likely that

COULD

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

VII. 2. May Might

- permisiunea/ ncuviinarea unei

aciuni n trecut
- past permission
- imposibilitatea
- impossibility

Can you help me, please?

Can we better stay at home
tonight?
I remember that ten years ago
they could speak Spanish much
better (were able to speak).
The students could finally leave.
This is line 4, so this couldnt be
the train to Braov.

- repro
- reproach
- presupunere
- supposition, conjecture

You could hurry up a bit!

She could have come in time!
This could be the right way.

rugminte,
solicitare
politicoas
- polite request
- adresare politicoas
- polite requirement to do
something
- ofert de ajutor
- polite offer
- propunere
- polite suggestion
- posibilitate
- possibility

Could my sister
please?

stay,

too,

Could you enter your personal

information here, please?
I could type the article for you.
Couldnt/Could we better stay at
home tonight?
It could sometimes rain heavily
in these parts.

Verbul modal
Modal verb

Forma alternativ
Substitute form
be allowed/permitted

Sens
Meaning
- exprim permisiunea/aprobarea de a
face ceva; forma negativ exprim
interdicia de a face ceva
- expresses permission/consent for an
action; the negative form expresses
interdiction to an action

Exemple
Examples
You may not enter the building during
conference hours.
May I add something?
Past form:
They will not be/were not allowed/
permitted to enter without a permit.

maybe/ probably

- probabilitatea unei aciuni - e mai

puternic dect might.
- probability of an action stronger
than might
- propunere/ ofert
- polite offer

He may be at home.

- probabilitatea (mai mic)

unei
aciuni e mai puin puternic dect
may
- likeliness of an action less strong
than may

Her neighbours might tell you where

shes moved. (I am not sure whether
they know or whether they are willing
to
tell
you.)
Attending the class only might have
been enough to understand the course.
You might at least stay until the
speech ends.

MAY

do you want me to?

it is/was probable,
possible that/to
MIGHT

- repro
- reproach
- aciune ramas ca ultim, nu tocmai
placut,alternativ
- it also shows that the action is seen
as the last alternative left, which the
speaker resents doing.
VII. 3. Must Have to
Verbul modal
Forma alternativ
Modal verb
Substitute form
be
compulsory/
obligatory/mandatory

its sure/certain

Sens
Meaning
- exprim obligativitatea
(convingere personal, nu
constrangere) de a face ceva;
- obligation ( personal
conviction
rather
than
imposition)
- certitudine
- certainty

MUST
its very likely

- posibilitatea
- possibility

it would be nice/
it is recommendable

- sfat, recomandare
- advice, recommendation

May I help you?

Weve lost the document! We might

as well start it all over again!

Exemple
Example
Well, I really must go
now. (I know its the
right thing to do)
The passengers must
first pass through the
sanitary filter.
This must be the way to
the hostel (I am sure it
is)
The train must have
already left the station
by now.
You must be terribly
happy!
She must have left by
now (yet Im not 100%
sure).
You must attend next
years conference, too.

be interdicted/
be forbidden/prohibited
MUST NOT/
MUSTNT

HAVE TO

its compulsory/
obligatory/mandatory

VII. 4. Shall Should Ought to

Verbul modal
Forma alternativ
Modal verb
Substitute form

- ca i may, dar mai puternic

dect acesta, exprim o
interdicie, sau un repro.
- similar tomay, it expresses
interdiction/prohibition to an
action (in a stronger way
than may) or reproach.

You mustnt speak to

anyone like that!

- obligativitate impus
external
obligation,
imposition

I have to open the

meeting today.
They had to run to catch
that bus.
The tutor will have to
give you the right
advice.

The passengers must not

open their safety belts
unless told to.

Sens
Meaning
- obligativitate puternic
cu effect de lege
- very strong obligation/
compulsion - stronger than
must; it is sometimes
followed by have to

Exemple
Examples
All books shall be
returned in due time.
The citizens shall (have
to) pay their levies before
the close of the year (if
they want to avoid being
fined).

Would you like me to?

- ofert de ajutor/serviciu
- offer of help

Shall I carry call the

elevator?

be determined to

- hotrrea de a face ceva

dublat de certitudinea
efecturii aciunii.
- an action which the
speaker feels strong for
and is certain to happen.
- sfat, recomandare, uneori
un repro blnd sau un sfat
advice,
recommendation,advice,
mild criticism

I shall (definitely) give up

smoking.

be to

SHALL

it
is
advisable/
recommendable;
it is met that

SHOULD

Im in two minds

How
funny/strange/odd!

- indecizie
- hesitation
- coincidena exprimat
cu ajutorul unor expresii
ca: it is strange/funny/odd
that
coincidence,
when
doubled in meaning by it is
strange/funny/odd that

You should be careful with

your money (!)
No one should judge
others.
You
should
have
completed your studies
before applying for the
job.
You should check the
electricity before you go
abroad.
Should I stay or should I
leave?
It is really odd that George
should be here now!

- recomandare moral = sar cdea, ar trebui s, ar fi

bine s.
moral/etical
recommenadtion

OUGHT TO

Laws ought to
be obeyed by every
citizen!
We ought to be caring
with the needy.

VII. 5 Need Dare

Verbele need i dare sunt folosite mai ales in propoziii negative i interrogative.
The verbs need and dare are mainly used in negative sentences and in questions.
there is a/the need for/to
- necesitate n prezent/
it would be welcome to
viitor.
NEED
necessity
in
the
present/future.

TO NEED
__________

- nu este un verb modal,

deci se comport la fel ca
orice verb noional (de ex.
primete -s la persoana III
sg, afirmativ ) i exprim
ideea necesitii unei stri
sau unei aciuni.
- it is not a modal verb, it
behaves like any notional
verb (gets -s in III person
sg, etc.) and expresses the
necessity of a state or
action.
lipsa
necesitii
(prezent/viitor)
- lack of necessity in the
present/future.

NEEDNT/
DONT/DOESNT NEED
TO

its not necessary/

there is no need for/to/
dont/doesnt have to/
dont/doesnt need to

NEEDNT HAVE DONE/

DIDNT NEED TO

there was no
requirement to

DIDNT HAVE TO

there
was
need/requirement to

DARE/DARE TO

- modal verb:
have the courage to do
something

- lipsa necesitii (trecut)

aciune efectuat dei nu
se cerea efectuat
- lack of necessity in the
past action performed
albeit not necessary.
- aciune nenecesar i
neefectuat
- action not necessary and
not performed either
- main verb + to infinitive;
- (semi) modal verb + bare
infinitive

- regular verb:
to challenge

Also correct:
I dont dare ask.

need/

no

You need to ask the

physician
for
another
prescription because Ive
mislaid it.
Need she really speak like
that?
My friend keep saying he
needs to cut on his sweets
as his blood sugar is too
high.
Do you need anything else,
sir?

You neednt come to work

today. Its holiday.
He doesnt need to check
the text anymore (someone
else already has)
I told them they neednt
have called the ambulance
as their mother was already
feeling better.
Thank God we didnt need
to call the ambulance.
Mother was already feeling
better.
Nobody dares to defy our
group leaders authority.
dared to go there.
Do you still dare to argue
with him?
Maria hasnt dared to
approach her boss yet.
I see you darent read your
essay.
Dare we return there?
I dare not enter the
classroom now.

VII. 6. Will Would

Verbul modal
Modal verb

Forma alternativ
Substitute form
I promise to
If you keep/ insist
on.
Im sure it is

WILL

Will you be so kind

as
to/Could
you.?
I am available and
willing
He does nothing else

may/
could/can
WOULD

might/

May I ask you to?/

It is/would it be
possible fot you to?
used to

Sens
Meaning
- promisiune
- promise
- hotrre ferm
- stubborn determination
- deducie logic
- logical deduction,
prediction, assumption
- dorin, solicitarea
ajutorului, ordin
- wish, request, demand,
order
- decizie spontan
- spontaneous decision
- deprinderi, uneori
dezaprobate sau chiar
criticate
- habits, sometimes
criticised
- presupunere
- supposition similar to
could/may/might/can
dorin,
cerere/
solicitare mai politicos
dect will
- wish, request more
polite than will
- deprinderi n trecut
- habits in the past

Exemple
Examples
I will write as soon as I arrive. (I
promise)
If you will refuse to attend the course,
youll fail the exam.
This message will be for me. (I have
been expecting it, so I know)
I feel little John will get better.
Will you please park the car?
Will you leave me alone?
A: I need someone to get the book for
me.
B: I will.
I think John isnt himself nowadays.
Hell lie in bed for hours without
hearing when I call him.
Phoning the station may spare you the
effort to go and ask yourself.
Would you do me a favour and drop this
note at the deans secretary, please?

My colleagues would often visit me

when I was in hospital.

VIII. Construcii cu diateza pasiv Passive Constructions

Timpuri care pot fi pasivizate Tenses that can be used in the passive voice
Present Tense Simple : be (present) + Past Participle
The streets in our city are washed every morning and every night.
Present Continuous : be + being + Past Participle
Look! The streets are just being washed!
Present Perfect Simple: have + been+ Past Participle
Diana has been invited to the party.
Past Perfect Simple : had + been + Past Participle
I had been trained to attend patients long before I was accepted in that hospital.
will Future : will + Be + Past Participle
The parcel will be delivered tomorrow.
going toFuture: The painting is going to locked into a safe until further investigations.
Perfect Future: You will have received your scheduled programme by noon.
Simple Modal: Jenny must be informed, too.
Perfect Modal: Jenny must have been informed, too.
Passive + short/bare Infinitive: The bank is rumoured to close soon.
Passive + Progressive Infinitive: The bank is believed to be closing this week
Passive + Perfect Infinitive: The bank is rumoured to have been closed already.
with (instrument) vs. by (agent)

S + Passive Voice + by(agent) + with (instrument) (Complement de agent ; instrumental)

The mistake was made by Helen. (agent)
The window has been broken with a rod. (instrument)
VIII 1. Verbe cu dou complemente Verbs with 2 objects
Dac ntr-o propoziie exist dou complemente, ordinea lor este persoan, obiect. n cazul verbelor say, present,
explain, describe, report, obiectul preced persoana. Dac obiectul este exprimat printr-un pronume, acesta va fi situat
dup verb. Acest tip de verbe genereaz dou tipuri de passive, care au dou complemente (direct i indirect).
If there are two objects in a sentence, the normal word order is: person (p), thing (t) . With verbs such as say, present,
explain, describe, report, the person comes after the thing. If the thing is a pronoun, it stands behind the verb.
You should write your parents (p) a postcard (t) before you leave Paris.
(t) + to (p)
I explain this rule (o) to you (p).
Mary will present the new programming technique to the staff.
I must buy (verb) it (o) for my sister (p).
These verbs generate two kinds of passive sentences, the subject of each sentence with indirect object and direct object
respectively.
The organisers have offered the participants (indirect object) a set of useful brochures (direct object).
a) The participants have been offered a set of useful brochures by the organisers.
b) A set of useful brochures have been offered (to) the participants by the organisers.

ACTIVE VOICE
1. Present Simple
They always tell me to be careful.
2. Present Continuous
They are discussing the plan.
3. Past Simple
They didnt open the museum last year.
4. Past Continuous
The Committee was amending the project.
5. will-Future
They will soon check my documents.
6. Future Perfect
They will have closed the office by the time we get
there.
7. Present Perfect Simple
They have passed the new ordinance.
8. Modal Simple
Any of us can easily do it.
9. Modal Perfect
I think they could have told me about the schedule
change.

PASSIVE VOICE
I am always told to be careful.
The plan is being discussed.
The museum wasnt opened last year.
The project was being amended by the
Committee.
My documents will soon be checked.
By the time we get there the office will have
been closed.
The new ordinance has been passed.
It can be easily done by any of us.
I think I could have been told about the
schedule change.

VIII. 1.1. Verbe care nu pot fi pasivizate Verbs which do not take on a passive form
arise, consist of, depend on, exist, fall, happen, lack (even if it takes a direct object) occur, result from/in, rise.
n cazul n care verbul este urmat de un complement direct, el poate fi pasivizat. Dac nu exist acest complement direct
post-pus verbului, pasivizarea nu are loc.
If the verb can be followed by a direct, it can be made passive. However, if there is no direct object to become the
subject, the verb cannot be transformed to the passive.
Leaving England occurred to me many times.
* I was occurred to leaving England
VIII. 1. 2. Cazuri speciale al diatezei pasive Special passive cases
VIII. 1. 2. 1. Have something done (to you by somebody else than you)
She will have her classes rescheduled next week.
(Se vor efectua schimbri n orarul ei sptmana viitoare.)
My boss has had his office redecorated. (Biroul efului meu a fost redecorat)
VIII. 1. 2. 2. Get something done
Spre deosebire de have something done, get something done presupune ideea c aciunea trebuie s aib loc.
As compared to have something done, get something done is used where it is implied that an action must be done.
Get your things done today!
VIII. 1. 2. 3. Impersonal Passive (used in news)
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered + that + .. (se zice/se zvonete/se crede/se consider c)
Impersonal Passive
It is said that sometimes trains can arrive with great delays.
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered that Mary is/was the best candidate for the job.
It was said that Mary was the best candidate for the post.
Passive + infinitive
S + is/was said/rumoured/thought/considered + to be/ to have been.(Se zice()/s-a zis ()c)
Trains are said to (be likely to) arrive sometimes with great delays.
Mary is said to be the best candidate for the job.(Se zice c Mary este)
Mary is said to have been the best candidate for the job. (Se zice c Mary a fost/ar fi fost)
Mary was said to have been the best candidate for the job.(S-a zis c Mary a fost/ar fi fost)
VIII. 1. 3. Omisiunea agentului Omission of agent
- Agent neimportant Unimportant agent
John will be given all the instructions for the project.
- Agent necunoscut Unknown agent
She was attacked nor far from her house.
- Agent general Generalised agent
The merchandise is sent by road.
- Agent impersonal Impersonal agent
The new car protptype was put to test yesterday.
- Agent subneles/implicit Obvious agent
The culprit has been sentenced to 7 years of prison.
IX. Vorbirea Direct i Indirect Reported Speech
Cu ajutorul vorbirii indirecte, cuvintele unui vorbitor sunt preluate i redate de ctre un alt vorbitor. Astfel, se schimb
perspectiva (locul/poziia/timpul/persoana) din care este emis un enun.
In indirect speech, someones words are reported by someone else. A change of perspective takes place: the place,
position, time and speaking person are modified.
Transformri Changes
Din punct de vedere semantic, timpul la care se face referire n vorbirea direct NU SE SCHIMB. Modificarea este
doar una formal, pentru a se respecta legea concordanei timpurilor din limba englez.
Semantically speaking, the reference time from the Direct Speech statement DOES NOT CHANGE the change is only
a FORMAL change, to obey the SEQUENCE OF TENSES law.
Pronumele Pronouns
personal pronouns
possessive pronouns
I he/she
my his, her, my
you he/she/they
your his, her, my
he/she I/he/she
his, her his, her

we they
our their
they they
their their
Construciile adverbiale de timp Adverbials of Time
yesterday the day before
today that day, yesterday, the day before
tomorrow the next day
the day after tomorrow in two days
the day befire yesterday two days before
last year, last month, last week the year/month/week before
next week/month/year the following week/month/year
this morning / afternoon / evening/night that morning / afternoon / evening/ night
last week/month/year the previous week/month/year
three days/weeks/months/years ago three days/weeks/months/years before
Alte transformri Other changes
this that
these those
here there
Timpurile gramaticale Tenses
La transformarea n vorbirea indirect, de obicei, forma timpului gramatical se schimb, dac verbul din propozitia
principal (verbul declarativ) este la trecut. Totui, prezentul se poate pstra atunci cnd afirmaia se bazeaz pe ideea
unei situaii la fel de valabile pentru timpul afirmaiei raportate ca i pentru acela al afirmaiei iniiale.
When reporting speech the tenses usually change to a past form if the reporting verb (form the main clause) is in the
past. The present tense in reported speechis also accepted if something is still true.
will future future-in-the-past (would)
present tense past tense
past tense/present perfect past perfect
Modalele rmn neschimbate, cu excepia lui can, care la timpul trecut devine, n funcie de nelesul cerut de context,
could sau was able to.
Modals dont change, except the Past Tense of can, which is eithercould and was able to.
Topica Word order
Propoziiile interogative sufer n plus i o modificare de topic la trecerea n vorbirea indirect.
Questions will also undergo a word order modification when changing into indirect questions.
Vorbirea direct
Vorbirea indirect
Direct speech
Indirect speech
Fr parafrazare
Cu parafrazare
Without paraphrasing
With paraphrasing
She is my friend, Ann said
Ann said/told us/me (that) she was her Ann declared/admitted/insisted/let us
friend.
know that she/I was/is her friend.
Come here right now!
He told him that/said (that) I (should)
go
there
that
very
moment/immediately.
I cant do it by myself."
She
told
him/us
(that)
she
couldnt/wasnt able to do it by herself.

She ordered me/her/him/us/them to go

there that very moment/immediately.
She complained (that) she was not
able/couldnt do it by herself
She complained of not being able to do
it by herself.

You should think it over, dont

you think so?

He said/told me (that) I should think it

over.

He advised me to think it over.

The session
started.

They said that the session couldnt

have started.

They agreed/concluded that the session

couldnt have started.

I/He said it was/is an incredible

landscape.

He exclaimed what
landscape it is/was.

couldnt

have

What an incredible landscape!

an

incredible

How tall youve grown!

The woman/My uncle said I had grown

a lot.

How old are you, where do you

live and how many brothers
and/or sisters do you have?

She asked me how old I am/was, where

I live/lived and how many brothers and
sisters I have/had.

Do you think you are right?

I asked (you/him) whether you/he

thought he was right.

The
woman
exclaimed
admiringly/remarked that I had grown a
lot.
She wanted to know how old I am/was,
where I live/lived and how many
brothers and sisters I have/had.
I wanted to know whether you/he
thought he was right.

___________
Lets go out tonight./How
about going out tonight?

They suggested going out that night.

They proposed/suggested that we should
go out that night.

Dont look down or youll get

dizzy!

They said I/ we should not look down

or else/for fear we could/might get
dizzy.

I did not take anything from

your desk.

He daid he did not take anything from

my desk.

They warned us not to look down so as

not to get dizzy/or else I may/could get
dizzy.
He denied having taken/taking anything
from my desk.

IX. 1. Verbe de declaraie (declarative) Reporting verbs

With if/whether
ask, know, remember, say, see
Peter asked whether/if anyone should leave by the
morning train.
With an object + long infinitive
advise, ask, beg, command, forbid, instruct, invite, teach,
My parents advised me to stay in tonight.
tell, warn
With that+(should) clauses or an infinitive
He added that all candidates (should) wear suits and
ties.
The chairman expected everyone to be on time.

With question words

He asked me how we could explain all that.
I cant say who could have imagined the
consequences.

- add, admit, agree, announce, answer, argue, boast,

claim, comment, complain, confirm, consider, deny,
doubt, estimate, explain, fear, feel, insist, mention,
observe, persuade, propose, remark, remember, repeat
reply, report, reveal, say, state, suggest, suppose, tell,
think, understand, warn.
- advise, beg, demand , insist, prefer, propose,
recommend, request, suggest.
- decide, expect, guarantee, hope, promise, swear,
threaten
decide, describe, discover, discuss, explain, forget,
guess, imagine, know, learn, realise, remember, reveal
say, see, suggest, teach, tell, think, understand, wonder.

X. Formele verbale nepersonale (infinitivul, gerunziul, participiul)

Non-finite verb forms (infinitive, gerund and participle)
Gerund = the -ing form of a verb (e.g. going, talking, writing, etc)
Infinitive
Simple
to + verb
to talk, to dance, to write
Continuous
to + be + verb + -ing
to be talking, to be dancing, to be writing
Perfect
to + have + been + Past Participle
to have been talking, to have been dancing
Participle
Formle participiale intr n alctuirea anumitor timpuri verbale i a unor forme adjectivale. Ele sunt folosite i pentru a
scurta o fraz.
The participial forms are the present participle, the past participle and the perfect participle. The first two are part of
certain tenses and adjective forms; additional uses: to shorten sentences.

Forma
verbal
nepredicativ
Form of nonfinite verb

Caracteristici generale
General features

Construcie
Form

Exemple
Examples

Utilizri Uses
- intr n combinaie cu structuri ca:
- we use infinitives in combination with
structures such as:
(Im) honoured/ delighted/ pleased/
surprised + to meet you

Types of infinitive
Simple
to + verb
- used with verbs such as:
advise, agree, ask, expect,
intend, offer, plan, pretend,
hope, promise, refuse, try,
want, would like + to
infinitive

Shes delighted to see you

They promised not to be too
late.
Mary hoped to pass her
exam.

- pentru a exprima scopul:

- to express purpose

Read the instruction to be

able to use this device
correctly.
She is here (because she
wishes) to learn a new
language.

- exprim o dorin nemplinit.

- expresses an unfulfilled wish.

INFINITIVE
-exprim
un
eveniment
trecut
nerealizat.
- expresses an unreal past event.

Progressive
to + be + verb + -ing
to + have + been + verb +
-ing
modal + be + verb + -ing

Perfect
- to + have + Past
Participle
- modal + have + Past
Participle
- it is used with verbs such
as:
appear, happen, pretend,
seem

Passive
to + be + Past Participle
to + have + been + Past
Participle
Verb + (Pro)noun +
toInfinitive
remind, invite, permit,
allow, warn, ask, would

They are believed to be

working in Rome.
Their work seems to have
been advancing rather slowly.
The children could/may/must
be sleeping by now.
Sarah would like to have
gone to Bucureti, too =
Sarah would have liked to go
to Bucureti, too. (she did
noy go)
The plane seems to have
landed successfully.
He pretended not to have
heard.
You should have arrived by
now.
If I had ordered the books,
you would have had them.
You should have told me you
were coming.
There are many more
problems still to be solved.
The thief is rumoured to have
been caught.
She told me to be here before
9 oclock. (passive : I was
told to be here.)
The policeman waved the
driver to pull left.(no passive

- ndeplinete funcia de subiect al unei

propoziii;
- urmeaz unele expresii (infinitivul
fr to);
- urmeaz unele verbe n propozitii
interogative (construcii infinitivale);
- urmeaz unele adjective;
- urmeaz anumite substantive de
origine verbal;
- functions as subject of a clause
- follows certain expressions (without
to);
- follows certain verbs with
interrogatives
(infinitive
constructions);
- after certain adjectives and their
comparisons ;
- after nouns deriving from verbs;

GERUND

- este o form verbal n

-ing care ndeplinete funcia
morfologic de substantiv i sintactic
de subiect, complement direct, nume
predicativ si parte dintr-o locuiune
prepoziional;
- nsoete anumite adjective, verbe,
substantive, verbe cu prepoziie;
- it is a verb form in -ing which
functions as a noun, having the
syntactic role of: subject, direct object,
subject complement, and object of
preposition.
- after certain adjectives
- after certain verbs

like, expect, invite, force,

require, encourage, advise,
tell
+ someone + to do

form !)
Compare:
They expect to pass the test
(expectation
about
themselves)
and
They expect me/the candidate
to pass the test.
(expectation about someone
else)

Omisia lui to
Omission of to
- cnd este urmat de
anumite verbe
- when it follows certain
verbs
feel, hear, help, let, make,
see, and watch.

My colleagues decided to let

me speak with the manager.

Split infinitive

My roommate always tries to

make everyone do his way.

We wanted to quickly leave

the room for fear the gas
device might go off.
To read is to know.
Why not try the new
computer programme?
I dont know where to stop.
Its longer to drive this way.

verb +- ing

We made a promise to return

safe.
- subject
They enjoy staying here (=
they enjoy their stay here)
Studying (= the study of)
biology is fun.
- direct object
She said she loved my
cooking.
- subject complement
Davids new way of getting
money became gambling.
- object of preposition
His uncle blames her of
stealing.
I (dont) like working in large
groups. (= the work)
Hes afraid of making a
mistake
Hes fond of swimming far
from the shore.

- after certain nouns

We enjoy painting in
watercolour.
Compare:
Writing (subject) essays is
useful in language study
They are writing (present
participle) an essay.
We are looking forward to
meeting our new colleagues.

- verbs with prepositions

- preposition + Gerund
- to (= preposition, not infinitive
particle) + Gerund

This is writing (- adj.) paper.

Mary talked about leaving for
Canada soon.
He is in charge of organizing
the trip.
Are you interested in joining
us?
She is used to working late.
They
look/are
looking
forward to meeting you.
I do not object to (their)
postponing the meeting.
I am already accustomed to
not sleeping very much.

- not preced un gerunziu

- not precedes a gerund
Verbe urmate de un gerunziu
Verbs followed by a gernund
avoid, consider (think about), delay,
discuss (talk about), enjoy, keep(on),
mention, postpone(put off), suggest,
stop (stop working)

Beating about the bush is

some politicians strategy.
(subject)
I fear that they will reject my
leaving today. (direct object)
One of our hobbies used to be
travelling
around
the
countryside.
(subject
complement)
He was praised for saving
many peoples life.(object of
the preposition for).

Locuiuni gerunziale
Gerundial phrases
- grupuri de cuvinte ce conin un
gerunziu, un substantiv sau un
pronume.
group of words consisting of a gerund
and a noun or a pronoun.

- se folosete pentru a forma timpuri

continue;
- are valoare de adjectiv;
- se folosete mpreun cu verbe
senzoriale;
- it is used to form progressive tenses
(Present Progressive);
- as an adjective;
- with verbs of the senses if we do not
want to emphasise that the action was
completed.
see, watch, notice, feel, smell, hear,
find, listen to

- se termin n -en, -d, -t, sau -n

- end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or
-n, as in the words asked, eaten,

Type of Participle
Participiul
Prezent
Present Participle

I am listening!

Ortografiere
Spelling:
-ie final se transform n -y
- consoana final dup o
vocal scurt i accentuat
se dubleaz
- final -ie becomes -y
dye dying ; lie lying
- final consonant after
short, stressed vowel is
doubled
refer referring; permit
permitting

Are
you
somebody?

Participiul trecut

waiting

for

Did you notice her leaving

the office?

saved, dealt, and seen

- este forma a treia a verbelor ce intr
n alctuirea timpurilor perfecte, a
diatezei pasive, a formelor adjectivale
i adverbiale.
- it is the third form of verbs used
either to build up perfect tenses
(Present/Past/Future
Perfect
Simple/Perfect Modals, etc), passive,
adjective and adverbial forms.

PARTICIPLE

- relaioneaz (unete) propoziiile care

au acelai subiect, atunci cnd aciunea
exprimat de construcia cu participiul
perfect s-a ncheiat nainte de nceperea
altei aciuni.
- exprim o aciune care se afl n
desfurare de ctva timp, iar o alta
ncepe.
- face parte din construciile active i
pasive.
- joins clauses that have the same
subject when the action expressed by
the perfect participle was completed
before the next action begins.
- one action has been in progress for
some time, and another action starts.
- it is used for active and passive
constructions.
Punctuaia
Punctuation
n fraza relativ
In relative sentences
- se desparte de restul propoziiei prin
virgul dac:
- se afl n poziie iniial n propoziie;
- se intercaleaz n propoziie ca
informaie neesenial;
- se afl la finalul propoziiei i este
desprit de cuvntul pe care l
modific.
- a participial phrase is set off with
commas when it:
a) comes at the beginning of a sentence
b) interrupts a sentence as a
nonessential element
c) comes at the end of a sentence and
is separated from the word it modifies.

Past Participle
Ortografiere
Spelling:
- consonant + -y = -i:
marry - married
- final consonant after a
short, stressed vowel:
permitpermitted

The running water was

polluted and therefore not
allowed
for
human
consumption.
Determined, the customer
walked asked to speak with
the manager.
I have/had read this book.

Participiu perfect
Perfect Participle
active voice: having + past
participle
passive voice: having been
+ past participle

The book, which is very

well-written, was edited in
Chicago.
They came invited by their
cousins.
He lay down reading.

Having read the bibliography,

they wrote an article. (= They
read the bibliography and
wrote an article.)
Having been looking for a flat
for a good while, he wanted
to give up.(= He had been
looking for a flat for a good
while and he wanted to give
up.)
Having arrived at the hotel,
they checked in.
Having been redecorated, the
house looked neat.
(On)Ending the session, the
reader left the hall.
Working hard, they succeeded
in all their endeavours.
The little boat, sailing along
the shore, was tossed here
and there by the waves.
No boats built of wood
should be allowed in the
competition
The dresses made of silk are
for the show.

Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives

- ambele au funcie de substantiv
- both function as nouns
- verbe care sunt urmate doar de infinitiv
- verbs that take only infinitives
agree, attempt, decide, expect, hesitate, hope, intend,
learn, need, neglect, plan, promise, propose, pretend,
swear, want.
She said she needed/agreed/ planned/intended, etc to stay
(not staying) a little longer.
Why do you hesitate to sign (not signing) these papers?
-verbe care sunt urmate doar de gerunziu
- verbs that take only gerunds
abandon, stop, finish, put off, admit, appreciate, avoid,
be/get accustomed to, be fond of, enjoy, be/get used to,
be/get through, be/get tired of, cant help, consider, delay,
deny, detest, dislike, give up, quit, risk, keep, mind, miss,
oppose, practice, postpone, recall, recommend, regret,
renounce, suggest, tolerate.
I admitted leaving the door unlocked.
Try to get used to getting up earlier.
He delays giving a definite answer.

Your colleague looked at me,

confused and shy. (he was,
not I)
Many people often stop
before
the
shopwindow
reading their newspapers or
smoking.
Comparing Gerunds and Participles
She stopped looking at their fighting for survival. (gerund)
(they were fighting)
She stopped looking at them, fighting for survival
(participle) (she was fighting)
Julias manouvering was despicable (gerund) (her action
was despicable.)
Julia, manouvering, was despicable. (participle) (she was
despicable acting like that)
I was annoyed by their reading. (the(ir) reading annoyed me
me) (g)
I was annoyed by them, reading. (I was annoyed by them
while I was reading) (p)
- verbe de percepie + participiu/infinitiv scurt
- sense verbs + participle /bare infinitive
feel, hear, notice, observe, see, smell, watch.
We can see them swimming in the sea. (continuous action)
We can see them swim in the sea. (continuous action)
Mother noticed little John drawing on the walls.
(continuous action)
Mother noticed little John draw on the walls. (occasional
action)
- sensuri diferite
- different meanings

-verbe care se potrivesc cu ambele forme

- verbs that take gerunds or infinitives
begin, continue, hate, like, love, prefer, remember, start,
try.
The children like to play with our neighbours cat.
They like playing with it.
He stopped to listen. (in order to listen)
Please, dont continue to write that report because its He stopped listening. (no longer listened)
already outdated.
Continue working like this and youll get promoted.
Its lucky they remembered to come today. (they came)
Two meanings:
Its lucky they remembered coming today. (the fact they
they came) (to come)
Like doing would like to do
Like/love to/prefer to do/doing
- exprim plcerea/opiunea preferenial a vorbitorului de a face ceva.
- expresses the fact that the speaker is attracted towardsand finds pleasure in an action or state.
They like to spend their weekends in the mountains. (le place s/ prefer s)
You prefer spending yours at home.
Would like/love to
- exprim dorina vorbitorului de a face ceva.
- expresses the speakers wish/desire to do something.
They would like to spend their weekends in the mountains. (le-ar place/ar dori s)

XI. Structuri Sintactice: Coordonarea i Subordonarea

Syntactic Structures: Coordination (Correlations) and Subordination
Cu ajutorul coordonrii i subordonrii, unitile simple gramaticale de tipul expresiilor sau propoziiilor simple se pot
combina, obinndu-se uniti complexe.
Grammatical units (phrases and the simple sentences) can be combined to make new, more complex units by means of
coordination and of subordination.
XI. 1 Subordonarea Subordination
Subordonarea este relaia sintactic dintre dou sau mai multe propoziii, una principal i una sau mai multe
subordonate, care se afl n raport de interdependen.
Legtura dintre ele se realizeaz cu ajutorul
- conjunciilor
- a unui element wh
- cuvntului that
- prin inversie
- orice propoziie subordonat are, n mod obligatoriu, att subiect ct i predicat. Ea nu este, ns, o propoziie de sine
stttoare, ea depinznd ca sens de o propoziie principal, ntregindu-i,astfel, sensul.
- virgula se cere pus n mod obligatoriu doar dac subordonata apare n faa propoziiei principale, altfel utilizarea ei nu
este obligatorie.
Subordination is defined as the syntactic relation between two or more clauses, a main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses, which are in a position of interdetermination.
The connection between them is made by dependent signals:
- subordinating conjunctions
- a wh word
- that
- inversion
- a subordinate clause - also called a dependent clause - will contain both a subject and a verb. This combination of
words will not form a complete sentence. It will instead make a reader want additional information to finish the thought.
- when you attach a subordinate clause in front of a main clause, use a comma.
Not having been able to finish our task in time, we were frowned on by the project coordinator.
Were we to be busy on Tuesday, find someone to substitute for us.
but:
Nick needed additional explanations because he had missed the past three courses indicated in the course.
My team is very likely to win again the leading position in the district since he attracted the sympathy of
most of his electors.
- subordination is there to be used to combine ideas effectively, for example, two ideas in a single sentence:
My son called. A woman asked about me.
Since the two simple sentences are related, you can combine them to express the action more effectively:
My son called when a woman asked about me.
If the two ideas have unequal importance, save the most important one for the end of the sentence so that your reader
remembers it best. If we rewrite the example above so that the two ideas are flipped, the wrong point gets emphasised:
When a woman asked about me, my son called.
Conjuncii subordonatoare Subordinating conjunctions
after
once
until
although
provided that
when
as
rather than
whenever
because
since
where
before
so that
whereas
even if
than
wherever
even though
that
whether
if
though
while
in oder that
unless
why

Pronume relative Relative pronouns

that

who

whose

which

whoever

whosever

whichever whom

X. 2 Coordonarea Coordination
Conjunctions: or, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Punctuation: comma (,) and semicolon (;)

COORDINATION
Examples

whomever

Functions of and
- simple addition (2nd clause adds something to the
1st clause)
- sequence (2nd clause comes after the 1st clause)
- result (2nd clause results from the 1st clause).
- contrast (2nd clause is in contrast to the 1st clause)
- concession (1st clause concedes something while
2nd clause gives the actuality or truth)
- condition (1st clause is a condition for the 2nd
clause)
- similarity (2nd clause makes a point similar to that of
the 1st clause) .
- explanation (2nd clause comments on or explains the
1st clause)

- This museum houses ancient items, and it also has a

collection of recent international currency.
- Mark checked in, and (then) he went to meet his
colleagues.
- The maid found the wallet under the bed, and John
cryed out for joy.
- Catleen prefers the seaside, and her husband loves
the Scottish mountains.
- Your ambition is to come up with a breakthrough,
and yet you always seem to miss it in the last second.
- We should try harder, and youll reap your success.
- The new subscribers benefit from a 20% deduction,
and the regular clients can enjoy similar advantages
with each renewal.
- He needs to take steps immediately, and thats to
change completely both his food and work habits.

XII. Construcii condiionale Conditional Constructions

Acest tip de propoziie (adverbial) se structureaz n jurul unei condiii (coninut n subordonata condiional) i al
rezultatului sau efectului acesteia (coninut n propoziia principal).
This kind of adverbial clause is structured around a condition (contained in the conditional subordinate clause) and its
result or effect (contained in the main clause)
Atenie
Note
if even if
If she studies hard, she will pass the exam. (this is the requirement for his success)
Even if she studies hard, she wont pass the exam. (she will fail to pass anyway).
n funcie de felul condiiei, se cunosc trei tipuri de subordonate condiionale.
According to the kind of condition implied, there ar three types of conditional sentences.
Tipul I al condiiei reale (general sau viitoare)
- exprim o situaie anticipat posibil/foarte realizabil. (Acest tip de condiional este identic n ceea ce privete
structura cu subordonat temporal, introdus de un adverb de timp: when, as soon as, the moment, etc.)
If anything happens, I will stand by you.
If/When/As soon as/ The moment Mark comes, I will talk to him.
- mai exprim o situaie de tipul cauz-efect (n acest caz, avem Present Tense n propoziia principal i tot Present
Tense n propoziia condiional):
If you work, you have money, if you dont work, you starve.
- n propoziia principal avem, de regul, Future Tense (uneori Present Tense sau un Modal), iar n propoziia
condiional avem Present Simple sau Continuous sau Present Perfect Tense.
- mai exist i aa-numita condiie cauza-efect sau condiie zero, atunci cnd n ambele propoziii ale frazei avem
timpul prezent.
Type I Conditional Probable Condition
- expresses a factual or predictive condition based on situations that are always trueand very likely to happen if a
condition is met.
- this use is similar to, and can usually be repleaced by, a Time Clause using a time adverbial.
- we have Future/Present/Modal in the Main Clause and Present Simple/Present Continuous/Present Perfect in the
Conditional Clause.
- the zero conditional is formed with both clauses in the present tense.
If everybody arrives in time, we can leave.
Nobody will understand anything if you dont explain the problem again.
I am leaving if you are leaving.
I will/can clean up if you have painted the kitchen.
If we boil the egg for 5 minutes, we get hard-boiled egg.

Tipul II al condiiei ipotetice, improbabile sau nereale

- exprim situaii ipotetice, imaginare sau chiar nereale (pentru situaiile nereale se folosete forma were la toate
persoanele).
n propoziia principal avem Present Conditional (would + verb), iar n propoziia condiional, Past Tense (sau Past
Continuous).
Type II Conditional Imporbable Condition
- expresses a hypothetical, improbable or unreal condition.This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given
situation (in case of unreral situations, we use were for all persons).
If he had a student card, he would travel cheaper.
I wouldnt jump to conclusions if I were him.
I would build a castel for you if I were the lamp spirit.
Tipul III al condiiei imposibile
- se refer doar la situaii trecute, nerealizate. Poate fi privit, n unele cazuri, i ca un regret tardiv, exprimat foarte bine
de constatarea consecinei acestei nempliniri. Aceasta nou fraz este introdus de but iar predicatele din ambele
propoziii ale acesteia sunt la Past Tense.
Type III Unfulfilled, impossible condition
- refers only to past, unfulfilled situations, often referred to as the late regrets because it concerns only past situations
with no perspectives of their being fulfilled.
The Dean would have reconsidered their proposal, if they had requested a meeting with him. (but (since)
they did not request a meeting with the Dean, their proposal was not reconsidered.)
If Al Gore had been elected president, the situation would have been different/ would now be different.
XII. 1. Alte conjuncii n afar de if care introduc Subordonata Condiional Other subordinating conjunctions
Whether or not
- indiferent de condiiile propuse, rezultatul va fi acelai.
- whatever the condition, the result is the same.
Whether they have money or not/whether or not they have money, they are determined to leave.
Unless are aceeai valoare cu if not.
- se folosete doar n Condiionalele de Tipul I
- expresses the idea of if not and is only used in the first conditional.
Unless she takes the pills, she wont get any better. = If she doesnt take the pills, she
wont get any better.
In case; In the event
- se folosesc atunci cnd nu ne ateptm ca un eveniment sa aib loc. Ambele expresii se folosesc n special pentru
exprimarea evenimentelor viitoare.
- are used to express future events that we dont expect to happen.
In case it rains, take the bus.
I'll be studying upstairs in the event he calls.
Only if
- nseamn doar n cazul n care, i numai atunci.
- dac only if se afl la nceputul propoziiei, atunci trebuie s inversm propozia principal.
- it means then and only then/only in that case.
- when only if begins the sentence you need to invert the main clause.
I will look over your essay only if you promise not to disturb me while reading it.
Only if the participants attend the entire section of the workshop will certificates be released.
If only (!) (o fals Condiional) exprim, de fapt, o dorin ipotetic, o intenie prea puin realizabil.
Propoziia Principal se deduce din contextual semantic al ideii de dorin.
If only is a false Conditional, in fact, expressing a wish, a hypothetical desire or a hardly accomplishable dream. The
main clause is understood from the semantic context of the wish.
If only they were given the right directions ! (they would be able to reach the hotel for the check in)
When = if
When (=if) unasked (if nobody asks me), I keep silent.
But for = if it wasnt for/ if it hadnt been for
If it wasnt/hadnt been for your help, we would now be bankrupt. = But for your help, we would now be
lost.
If it wasnt for the car we would be late. = But for the car, we would be late.

If it hadnt been for the sandwiches we would have starved. = But for the sandwiches, we would have
starved.
Suppose/ Imagine
Suppose no one showed up! (What if no one showed up?)
Imagine she would have won the pools. (What would have happened if she had won the pools?)
XII. 2. Subordonarea condiional pentru Tipul I de condiie
Condiionala de Tipul I (Condiia Real cu referire la viitor sau la prezent) Type I Conditional Clause
TYPE I
Propoziia Principal
Conjuncia
Propoziia Condiional
Main Clause
Conjunction
Conditional Clause
ndeplinirea aciunii are
FUTURE
PRESENT
un grad mare de
You will get a room
you check in in time.
certitudine -condiie
Im going to miss the
you dont leave now.
posibil.
beginning
Probable, highly
GOING TO FUTURE
fulfillable condition
Youll be late
youre not going to hurry.
-promise/prediction
if
PRESENT
PRESENT
CONTINUOUS
- warning
You wont finish
you are not working faster.
it is watered regularly.
The plant grows
- cause-effect
MODAL
you finish.
You can/may leave
PRESENT PERFECT
you havent written the
You cant/wont take the
essay. (stress on action
exam
completion)
XII. 3. Subordonarea condiional pentru Tipul II de condiie
Condiionala de Tipul II (Condiia ipotetic, improbabil sau nereal) Type II Conditional Clause (Present and
Future Unreal condition)
TYPE II
Propoziia Principal
Conjuncia
Propoziia Condiional
Main Clause
Conjunction
Conditional Clause
ansele
ca PRESENT CONDITIONAL
PRESENT
aciunea s se You would get a room
you checked in in time.
realizeze sunt mai
mici dect n cazul I would try again
I were you/I were 18 again
condiionalei
de
(unreal, because I can never
tipul I condiie
if
be you/ Im no longer 18)
improbabil
Improbable
condition,
less
PAST
likely to be fulfilled PAST
it was watered regularly.
hypothetical The plant grew
condition
unreal/absurd
condition
- past cause-effect
XII. 4. Subordonarea condiional pentru Tipul III de condiie
Condiionala de Tipul III (Condiia imposibil/nerealizat) Type III Conditional Clause (Past Unreal Condition)
TYPE III
Propoziia Principal
Conjuncia
Propoziia Condiional
Main Clause
Conjunction
Conditional Clause
aciunea nu a fost
efectuat - condiie PAST CONDITIONAL
PAST PERFECT
imposibil
you had checked in in time.

Impossibe
condition,
not
fulfilled
sometimes called a
late regret or a
wasted
opportunity
(even if it is not
expressed, we feel
there is an implied
but)

You would have got a room

if

(but you did not check in in

time,
so/therefore/in
conclusion/consequently,
you did not get a room)

XII. 5. Condiionale mixte Mixed conditionals

Uneori subordonatele condiionale de diferite tipuri se pot combina ntre ele.
Conditional sentences allow for mixed structures, too, with differences in the the time of reference in the two clauses.
XII 5. 1. Structuri Patterns
Past + Present (III + II)
If Mary had gone over her paper (III), (now) there would certainly be fewer mistakes in it. (II) (globally this is aIIIrd
type of conditional, as the condition was not fulfilled: but Mary since did not revise her work beforehand, it (still)
has a lot of tmistakes.
Past + Future (III + II)
The Group would be visiting (II) Venice on Tuesday is the tour operator hadnt been taken suddenly ill (III).
.Present + Past (II + III)
If any of us here knew (II) any Japanese, we might have helped (III) you with the translation..
Future + Present ( I+ II)
Dont you think we would be leaving ( I) on holiday (this weekend) if we didnt have to finish (II) our assignments by
next Monday?
Future + Past (I + III)
If we werent going abroad (II) tomorrow, we would have subscribed (III) for next weeks conference (III).
XII. 6. Inversiunea n propoziia condiional Inversion in Conditional Clauses
Se folosete cu scopul de a accentua condiia.
It is used for emphatic purposes.
Were she to come, I would talk to her. = If she were to come, I would talk to her.
Had we decided to leave sooner, we would have met Tom at the airport. = If we had decided to leave sooner,
we would have met Tom at the airport.)
XII. 7. Alte moduri de a exprima o condiie Other ways to express condition
1. Supposing
I might give Mina the book, supposing she drops by (which I hardly think will happen)
2. If it werent/wasnt for/ If it hadnt been for = but for
Type II
If it wasnt for Michael, I would be lost! (dac n-ar fi Michael, as fi pierdut())
But for Michael, I would be lost!
Type III
If it hadnt been for Michael, I would be lost (NOW) /I would have been lost. (THEN)
(dac n-ar fi fost Michael, as fi pierdut (acum)/as fi fost pierdut (atunci)
But for Michael, I would be lost (NOW) /I would have been lost. (THEN)
3. If so
Ken may refuse to substitute for me. If so, (= in this situation) Ill have to find someone else.
4. Should (= it is rather unlikely to happen)
If Ken should refuse to substitute for me, which I doubt it will happen, Ill have to find someone else.
(with inversion) Should Ken refuse to, Ill have to resort to someone else.
5. Happen to expressing chance
Tell Ann I wont be able to be there in time, if you (should) happen to see her.
6. When expressing condition (also with temporal meaning)
When she has finished reading, she might want to write something.
XII. 8. Alte conjuncii n afar de if care introduc Subordonata Condiional Other subordinating conjunctions
Whether or not
- indiferent de condiiile propuse, rezultatul va fi acelai.

- whatever the condition, the result is the same.

Whether they have money or not/whether or not they have money, they are determined to leave.
Unless are aceeai valoare cu if not.
- se folosete doar n Condiionalele de Tipul I
- expresses the idea of if not and is only used in the first conditional.
Unless she takes the pills, she wont get any better. = If she doesnt take the pills, she
wont get any better.
In case; In the event
- se folosesc atunci cnd nu ne ateptm ca un eveniment sa aib loc. Ambele expresii se folosesc n special pentru
exprimarea evenimentelor viitoare.
- are used to express future events that we dont expect to happen.
In case it rains, take the bus.
I'll be studying upstairs in the event he calls.
Only if
- nseamn doar n cazul n care, i numai atunci.
- dac only if se afl la nceputul propoziiei, atunci trebuie s inversm poziia verbului i auxiliarului n propozia
principal.
- it means then and only then/only in that case.
- when only if begins the sentence you need to invert the main clause.
I will look over your essay only if you promise not to disturb me while reading it.
Only if the participants attend the entire section of the workshop will certificates be released.
If only (!) (o fals Condiional) exprim, de fapt, o dorin ipotetic, o intenie prea puin realizabil.
Propoziia Principal se deduce din contextual semantic al ideii de dorin.
If only is a false Conditional, in fact, expressing a wish, a hypothetical desire or a hardly accomplishable dream. The
main clause is understood from the semantic context of the wish.
If only they were given the right directions ! (they would be able to reach the hotel for the check in)
When = if
When (=if) unasked (if nobody asks me), I keep silent.
But for = if it wasnt for/ if it hadnt been for
If it wasnt/hadnt been for your help, we would now be bankrupt. = But for your help, we would now be
lost.
If it wasnt for the car we would be late. = But for the car, we would be late.
If it hadnt been for the sandwiches we would have starved. = But for the sandwiches, we would have
starved.
Suppose/ Imagine
Suppose no one showed up! (What if no one showed up?)
Imagine she would have won the pools. (What would have happened if she had won the pools?)
XIII . Alte tipuri de propoziii subordonate Other Types of Subordinate Clauses
1.Noun Clauses are classified into: Subjective, Predicative, Direct Object, Prepositional, Appositive
2. Adverb(ial) Clauses of Time, of Place, of Purpose, of Reason, of Result, of Manner (Comparison), of Cause and
Effect, Conditional (see ch. XII), of Concession (Contrast), Relative, Participle (Participial)
Tipul propoziiei
Type of clause

Caracteristici
Features
- elementele subordonatoare;
- funcie de subiect;
- funcie de nume predicativ;
- funcie de subiect;
- funcie de complement direct;
- funcie de complement
prepoziional;
- propoziia subiectiv incorporat
n propoziia adverbial;
- propoziia subiectiv incorporat
n propoziia adjectival;
- funcie de apoziie;
- dependent signals introduce noun

Exemple
Examples
What Mary told us sounded
unbelievable (subject).
The terrible part of the story is that
the car was completelty destroyed.
(subject complement)
She never tells us where she goes.
(direct object)
She said she wanted to be of help for
whoever needs it .(object of
preposition)

1. Noun Clauses

clauses: who, whom, whose, which,

that, if, whether, what, when,
where, how, why
combinations with ever: whoever,
whatever, whenever,wherever.
- fulfills the function of a subject;
- fulfills the function of a subject
complement;
- fulfills the function of a direct
object;

Even if you dont deny what youve

said, it still doesnt make us
appreciate you more.
Whoever accepts what we offer is
lucky.
I know (that) she is right.
I remember where I put the book.

- it fulfills the function of the object

of a preposition;
- noun clause inside an adverb
clause;
noun clause inside an adjective
clause;
- appositve function
- the conjunction that before a noun
clause may be omitted in some
sentences
- sunt introduse de conjuncii
Presently the night wind died out.
subordonatoare; unele sunt eliptice; The strom started almost instantly.
- modific verbe, adjective,
Where I live, everybody is used to
adverbe, infinitive, gerunzii,
this kind of weather.
2. AdverbClauses
pariticipii, sau chiar fraza n care
apar;
Now there are a lot of job
- ocup diferite poziii n fraz.
oportunities locally, too (= where we
- are introduced by subordinating
live)
conjunctions.; some adverb clauses Drive carefully (in order to avoid
may be elliptical.
accidents)
after, before, until, while, because,
I wont tell you anything unless you
since, as, so that, in order that, if,
promise to be discreet.
unless, whether, though, although,
even though, where.
- may modify a verb, an adjective,
an adverb, an infinitive, a gerund, a
participle, or even the rest of the
sentence in which it appears.
- can take various positions in a
sentence.
Types of Adverb Clauses
2.1. Adverb
Characteristics
Examples
Clauses of Time
- fac legatura dintre aciunea din
John (had) made some phone calls before
subordonat cu cea din propoziia he answered his e-mails.
principal;
John answered his e-mails talked to his
- sunt introduse de adverbe i
secretary after he (had) made some
locuiuni adverbiale de timp care
phone calls.
arat cnd are loc aciunea;
John opened his mail box when he made
- relate other actions to the
some phone calls.
activity in the main clause.
John opened his mail box while he made
- are introduced by adverbs of
some phone calls.
time which indicate the time when John had (already) made some phone

something happens.
such as before, after, while, as
soon as, by, when, as.

- indic locul unde are loc

aciunea.
indicate the place where
something happens.

calls by the time he started reading his emails.

John will have (already) made some
phone calls by the time he checks his
mail box.
I arrived where I was appointed for the
job
Nobody should work where they are not
rightfully appreciated.
Wherever they choose to sit is all right.

2.2. Adverb
Clauses of Place

2.3. Adverb
Clauses of
Purpose

2.4. Adverb
Clauses of

Go wherever you want, but choose the

place wisely.

- precizeaz scopul aciunii din

propoziia independent;
- state the purpose of the action in
the independent clause;
- dintre toate conjunciile i
locuiunile conjuncionale
subordonatoare, cea mai des
utilizat este infinivul lung (to
infinitive); mai formale sunt in
order to/that, so as to, so, so that
(exprim intenionalitate n
efectuarea aciunii);
- conjunciile or the purpose of,
with a view to, with the intention
of, with the object/aim of; cer o
form verbal n -ing;
- the to-infinitive is the most
common type of construction, but
in formal writing, in order to and
so as to, so that or in order that
are preferred;
- the difference between so and so
that is that so that implies that the
cause was deliberately done by
someone in order to get a specific
result;
- other ways of expressing
purpose are:
- lest and for fear + S +
should/would + short infinitive
- for the purpose of, with a view
to, with the intention of, with the
object/aim of;
- with these phrases the verb must
be in the -ing form.
- indic cauza pentru care are loc
aciunea;

You will find them waiting exactly where

they are now.
I accept tofollow you wherever you
decideto go.
I tried to buy the car to be able to come
into the city more easily.
The report was written in order to give a
brief presentation of the research results.
The lecturer came up with additional
explanations so that the students would
be able to/could get the
point more easily.
We offer new courses on cultural matters
with a view to upgrading the general
publics knowledge in the domain.
They know they must hurry a bit lest they
(should) arrive late at the course.
I will not walk to work today for fear I
would be late.

As I needed more information on the

subject, I decided to enroll for an extra

Reason

2.5. Adverb
Clauses of
Cause and
Effect

- sunt introduse de conjunciile

because, as, since, when sau de
locutiunile prepoziionale because
of, i on account of.
- they say why something
happens;
- are introduced by the
conjunctions because, as or since,
when or the prepositional phrases
because of and on account of.

semester.
They didnt buy the house because it was
too deteriorated.
My room mate was unable to work on his
project on account of a malfunction in
the computer. (because the computer
malfunctioned.)

Because
- se poate construi cu diferite
timpuri gramaticale, n funcie de
context.
- can be used with a variety of
tenses based on the time
relationship between the two
clauses.
As
- are acelai neles cu because,
dar are o valen formal mai
mare.
- means the same as because but
is used in more formal, written
English.
As long as
- are acelai neles cu because,
dar are o valen informal,
proprie englezei vorbite.
- means the same as because, but
it is more informal, spoken
English.
Since
- are acelai neles cu because,
dar are o valen informal,
specific englezei vorbite. Since
are i implicaie semantic
temporal, ns because indic
doar cauza sau motivul aciunii.
- means the same as because;
- it tends to be used in more
informal spoken English;
however, the conjunction since
also refers to a period of time,
while because implies only a
cause or reason.
Due to the fact that
- means the same as because but
is generally used in very formal,
written English.
Inasamuch as
- means the same as because and
is used in very formal, written
English.
- it is used with these words or
expressions:
despite + noun/possessive

They received a high mark on their exam

because they had studied hard.
Im studying hard because I want to pass
my exam/because I know too little.
As the test is difficult, you had better get
some sleep.
As long as nobody will be in this house
for a while, why dont you move in
yourself?
Since his application was rejected, he
decided to apply somehwere else.
Its clear we shall have get up earlier
since work starts at 8.

We will be staying for an extra week due

to the fact that we haven not yet finished.
Inasmuch as the students had succesfully
completed their exams, their parents
rewarded their efforts by giving them a
trip to Paris.

Although/even if/though we are loaded

with work, you can take a few days
leave.

adjective + gerund,
in spite of + noun/possessive
adjective+ gerund
(al)though, even if/though,
however, whoever (and the rest of
the words combined with
ever), yet, while, whereas, at the
same time, all the same, or to
inverted structures:
adj. + as + S + may/might be/was

2.6. Adverb
Clauses of
Contrast
(Concession)

2.7. Adverb
Clauses of
Manner
(Comparison)

- indic modul n care se

efectueaz aciunea.;
- toi conectorii au acelai neles;
- comparaia poare fi att real ct
i ipotetic;
- as poate fi conector adverbial de
timp, mod i cauz.
- it tells us how to do something;
- its connectors (all have the same
meaning): as, as if, and as though;
- the comparison can be either
realistic ( normal tenses are used)
or unrealistic (were and past tense
are used).
Note that as can be an adverb
clause connector of time, manner
and reason.

You can leave for a few days

Although/even if/though we are loaded
with work.
Despite the fact that we loaded with
work, you can take a few days leave.
Despite our being loaded with so much
work, you can take a few days leave.
In spite of our being loaded with work,
you can take a few days leave. /In spite
of the fact that we are loaded with work,
you can take a few days leave.
However loaded with work we may
be/are, you can leave all the same.
Loaded with work as we are/as we may
be, you can (still) leave.
We are loaded with work indeed, yet/but
you can leave anyway.
We are loaded with work, all the same,
you can leave.
We are loaded with work, yet you can
leave.
We are loaded with work; at the same
time you can leave for a few days.
We are loaded with work; nonetheless
you can take a few days leave.
The directions should be complied with
as the organizers indicated you to.
Read the text aloud as if you were an
actor on stage.
Apply for that college as though it
was/were the ultimate solution.
She looks at me as if its a joke. (its
possible that its a joke.)
The child trembles as though he saw
something terrible.
Maybe he really saw something terrible.
He cries as though he were stabbed.
Nobody stabbed him.
He dances as if you were Nureev.
Hes not Nureev.

- arat rezultatul unei aciuni sau

situaii;
- sunt introduse de conjunciile so,
so that, sothat, or such that
precum i de alte cuvinte cu
aceeai valoare semantic:
therefore, thus, in consequence,
consequently, for this/that reason,
sau as a result sau with the result
that.

As you refused to help me, I asked

someone else.. (reason)
We will keep you informed as the
decision is made. (time)
Behave as you were told to. (manner)
The lecture was boring and irrelevant, so
some of the students began to fall asleep.
Peter was having problems with
mathematics, so he went to see his tutor
to ask for advice.
There were so many books on the subject
that Cindy didnt know where to begin.
There was such a lot of material to cover
that Ivan found it difficult to keep up
with his studies.

- indicates the result of an action

The lecture was boring and irrelevant,

2.8. Adverb
Clauses of
Result

or situation;
- are introduced by conjunctions
such as so, so that, sothat, or
such that and some other
words that have the same
semantic coverage, such as:
therefore, thus, in consequence,
consequently, for this/that reason

- other ways of indicating the

result of an action or situation are
as a result or with the result that.

and as a result some of the students

began to fall asleep.
The lecture was boring and irrelevant,
with the result that some of the students
began to fall asleep. As a result can also
be used at the beginning of a new
sentence.
The lecture was boring and irrelevant. As
a result, some of the students began to
fall asleep.
The government increased the duty on
wine. As a result, there was a fall in
demand.
The government increased the duty on
wine, resulting in a fall in demand.

- causal relations can be expressed

by -ing-clauses of result.

2.9. Participle
Clauses
(Phrases)

- sunt folosite dup construcii

substantivale ( propoziii relative
abreviate);
- n asociere cu anumite conjuncii
i prepoziii, ele au rol de
propoziii subordonate propriuzise, cu variate conotaii
semantice, n special temporale;
- pot nlocui o propoziie
subordonat de scop;
- se folosesc n texte scrise, pentru
a include ct mai multe informaii
n acceai fraz;
- dac se folosete o construcie
participial pentru a combina sau
a scurta subordonate, ambele
subordonate trebuie s aib
acelai subiect.
- follow noun phrases (like
abbreviated relative clauses);
- following conjunctions and
prepositions they function as
finite subordinate clauses (with
various meanings, often of time);
- replace a subordinate clause of
reason;
- are used in writing, in order to
include as much information as
possible in the same sentence;
- if we use a participle
construction to combine or
shorten clauses, both clauses
should have the same subject.
Participle Clauses with different

The man waiting (= who is waiting) in

front of the shop is Jack.
While/On walking home, I noticed smoke
coming out of a neighbouring house.
Upon opening the letter, a $100 banknote
fell out.
Irritated by the reply, I left.
The car is parked near the hotel entrance.
Its Susans car.
The car parked near the hotel entrance is
Susans car.
The girl is reading on a bench near the
lake. She was my student.
The girl reading on a bench near the lake
was my student.

I smelled them (namely, my next door

neighbours) cooking roast.
Mary was writing an e-mail, when her
boss entered the office.(correct)
Writing an e-mail, her boss entered the
office.(wrong)

Checked carefully, this essay could enter

the competition.

Subjects
- dac propoziia principal
conine unul dintre urmtoarele
verbe: see, notice, watch, smell,
feel, find, hear, listen to. n cazul
n care nu au acelai subiect,
sensul propoziiei se modific.
- if the main clause contains one
of the following verbs:
see, notice, watch, smell, feel,
find, hear, listen to.
- apart from the exceptions
mentioned above, participle
clause and main clause should
have the same subject, otherwise
the sentences might sound rather
strange.
participial clauses and adverbial
clauses
- exprim condiia, motivul,
cauza, rezultatul.
- express condition, reason, cause,
result;
- se folosete pentru a face
referire att la aciuni trecute ct
i prezente.
- it can be used both for past and
present reference.
- after, before, instead of, on,
when, while, without
+
Participle (clause)

2. 10. Subordonata
Relativ
The Relative Clause

If you check this composition carefully, it

can enter the competition. (Condition)
Having read the novel, I can/could write
my essay on the suggested topic.
(Reason)
Because I read the novel I can/could
write the essay on the suggested topic.
Leaving the office, I went to the
supermarket. After I left the office, I went
to the supermarket.
Leaving the office Ill go to the
supermarket. After I leave the office, Ill
go to the supermarket
Come over after finishing your work.
After having visited her relatives, Mary
returned home.
Before leaving for Rome, I had to meet
my coordinator.
Why arent you working instead of
hanging around all day long?
On opening the front door, their friends
surprised them with a cheerful Happy
Birthday.
Dont forget that when driving you must
not use you mobile phone.
I could talk to your father myself,
without wanting to offend you, of course.

Caracteristici
Features

Exemple
Examples

Din punct de vedere construcional,

propozitia relativ este introdus de un
element relativ: pronume, adverbe de
timp i loc, conjuncia that.
ndeplinete o funcie adjectival,
modificnd substantivul pe lng care
st (n faa sau dup acesta).
Regardng its form, the relative clause
is headed (begins with) a relative
pronoun.
Its function is that of an adjective - it
modifies a noun (which is why a
relative clause can also be defined as
an adjective or adjectival clause). They
can occur either before or after the
noun they modify.
In short,
Form (what it looks like): relative
clause

Students who can develop independent

learning skills often achieve good
academic results.
There will be a new rule that addresses
immigrants who enter the country after
2008.
A university is a place where people
pursue advanced knowledge in specific
academic disciplines.
Anyone can tell the difference between a
public place or one in which access is
granted only by a special permit or
membership card.
It was on the night when they arrived.
This is the shelf where I left the papers.

1. Restrictive/Defining/
Identifying Relative
Clauses

Function (what it does): adjective

clause
Position (where it sits): attributive
clause
- sunt propoziii subordonate introduse
de pronume relative, adverbe de timp i
de loc;
- dac nu ndeplinesc funcie de
subiect, aceste pronume pot fi omise;
- propoziiile relative confer fluen
discursiv, permind fuziunea mai
multor propoziii ntr-o singur fraz,
dar i aducnd informaii suplimentare;
- who, that, which introduc att
pronumele subiect (n nominativ), ct
i pronumele complement (n
acuzativ); pronoumele relative urmate
de un verb sunt pronume subiective.
Prezena lor este obligatorie. Dac nu
sunt urmate de un verb ci de un
substantive sau un pronume, ele sunt
pronume complement. Acestea pot fi
omise n propoziiile relative restrictive
(defining), numite propoziii de
contact.
- adjective clauses are dependent
clauses introduced by relative
pronouns: who, whose, whom, which,
why (= for which reason) that
- if it is not used as a subject, the
relative pronoun in an adjective clause
may sometimes be omitted.
- a text gains in fluency and avoids
word redundancy if we combine
sentences with a relative clause. The
insertion of additional information can
also be done in this way.
- who, which, that introduce both the
Subject and the Object Pronoun; the
relative pronouns followed by a verb
are subject pronouns. They are always
used. If they are not followed by a verb
(but by a noun or pronoun), they are
object pronouns. Object pronouns can
be omitted in defining relative clauses
(called Contact Clauses).
- ofer detalii despre subiect;
- nu se pun niciodat ntre virgule;
- cel mai adesea se ntlnesc n
definiii;
- propoziiile de contact - o propoziie
relativ fr pronume relativ;
- dac se folosete un pronume specific
n locul unuia nespecific, propoziia
relativ devine una nerestrictiv, i se
impune prezena virgulelor;
- pentru a ctiga n concizie, se reduce
propoziia restrictiv;

Tell them why (the reason why/for which)

we have to meet.
She asks for the file which contains the
addresses reference information of the
candidate.
Ted was on the bus (which) I had missed.

The questions (which ) we usually avoid

asking refer to personal matters.
A personal question is a question that we
always avoid asking.
The policeman (who/whom) we asked our
way didnt know English.

Transportation (that is) arranged for

- participiile pot contrage propoziiile

relative;
- cnd subiectul este unul cu referin
unic, restrictivele se pot transforma n
nerestrictive.
- give details about the subject;
- it is never put between commas;
- they are most often met in definitions;
- Contact Clauses - a relative clause
without the relative pronoun;
- if instead of a nonspecific noun is
used a specific one instead, the relative
clause becomes nonessential and thus
requires commas to separate it from
the rest of the sentence.
- to make the style more concise, we
reduce the defining relative.

2. Non-Restrictive/NonDefining/ NonIdentifying Relative

Clauses

- participles can contract relative

clauses:
- the infinitive is used in Relative
Clauses
- they can change into a non-restrictive
relative clause when the subject is with
unique reference.
- aduc informaii adiionale;
- sunt puse ntre virgule;
- that nu este admis n acest tip de
relative;
- who i whose se folosesc cu referire la
persone;
- which i whose se folosesc pentru
obiecte;
- folosirea pronumelor complement
este obligatorie.
- give additional information on
something, but do not define it;
- are put between commas;
- that is not used in a non-defining
relative clauses;
- who and whose are used for persons;
- which and whose are used for things.
- object pronouns must be used here.
- unlike defining clauses, these clauses
cannot be reduced.

conference members will be paid for by

the host country.
The local members (who/whom) the
president asked to supervise the
proceedings of the conference are paid
extra.
The lecturer who teaches Portuguese is
absent today = The lecturer teaching
Portuguese is absent today.
To be sure about the righ departure hour,
the receptionist phoned the railway
station, which was very helpful for us all.
The city where I graduated is a wellknown university centre in Romania.
Sibiu, where I graduated, is a well-known
university centre in Romania.

Traffic wardens, who/whom we usually

ask for direction, are indispensable in
crowded places.
My highschool friend Paul, who lives in
France, was promoted in April. (who
lives in France is not essential, which
means that I only have one highschool
friend, whose name is Paul,and she does
not need to be defined by the relative
clause)

XIII. 4. Conjuncii subordonatoare care introduc Propoziii Adverbiale

Subordinating Conjunctions Introducing Adverb(ial) Clauses
Temporal
Time
after, before, when, while, as, by
the time (that), as soon as, since,
until, whenever, the first time
(that), the next time (that), the
last time (that), every time (that)

Cauzal
Cause and Effect
because, since, as,
as long as, so long
as, due to the fact
that

Contrastiv
Opposition
although,
even
though,
though,
whereas, while, in
spite of, despite

Condiional
Conditional
if, only if, unless, whether (or
not), even if, providing (that),
in case (that), provided (that),
in the event (that)

XV. Construcii cu: as if/though; wish; Id rather/sooner/better; Id prefer; its (high/about) time;
Unreal Tenses and Subjunctives
XV. 1. As if / as though + past tenses
Timpul de referire Construcie
Situaie real
Situaie nereal
Reference time
Form
Real (implication)
Unreal (implication)
Referire la prezent S + past tense
She
behaves
as She behaves as if/though she were
Present reference
S + was (real)/were if/though she was the the boss (she is not)
(unreal)
boss. (she is) we use a Mike speaks/sounds as if/though
regular predicate.
he owned the land. (he does not)
Mike speaks/sounds as we use the Subjunctive were for
if/though he owned the all persons.
land. (he owns it)
Referire la trecut:
S + Past Perfect
She behaved/ behaves She behaved/ behaves as if/though
Past reference
- distincia real- as if/though she had she had been the boss. (she
nereal
nu
este been the boss. (she was) wasnt)
marcat gramatical;
n ambele situaii
avem Past Perfect.
- the distinction
between the Real
and the Unreal
situation is not
marked
grammatically; in
both situations we
use
the
Past
Perfect.
XV. 2. Wish
wish and hope + verb
Meaning want/intend
Whoever wishes to speak first, is
welcome to begin.
She doesnt wish to see anyone
right now.
- with will = be willing to :
I wish you would stop smoking in
here! (you are annoyed about a
habitual negative behaviour/action)
She says she hopes that everything
will come out perfectly.
The pilot always wishes the
passengers a safe and pleasant
flight, which means that he hopes
they will have a safe and pleasant
flight.

Regrets about present situation

Ted wishes he had a car right now
(he doesnt)
I no longer wish I could be/ was/
were different.
-formal with Ist and IIIrd persons
sg) :
I wish I were (subjunctive)
somewhere else!
He wished he had not been here!

Regrets about past situation

I wish (now) I hadnt tackled
(before/then) this subject in the
first place.
I wished (then) I hadnt tackled
(then) this subject in the first
place.
The
manager
wishes
(now)/wished (then) he had hired
more staff.

Formulaic function
I wish you all the best/many returns
of the day!

XV. 3. Id prefer (it); Id rather

- exprim preferine personale preferences about oneself:
would prefer to/ would rather do (Id prefer to do/Id rather do something)
Maybe youd prefer to wait here/youd rather wait here.
Id prefer to listen to you (rather than (to) someone else).
- forme negative negative forms
Id rather not listen to someone else.

Id prefer not to work late tonight.

- to express preferences: prefer to (do) or prefer + verb in -ing
They say they prefer to study/studying about this topic some other time.
- prefer something to something else
Many people prefer self-training to gym training.
They prefer to train by themselves rather than pay fortunes to personal trainers.
Preferences about someone else present reference: Past Tense is used
Id rather + Past Tense/ would
Id prefer it if + Past Tense/ would
Id rather you wouldnt/didnt interrupt me!
Id prefer it if you didnt/wouldnt interrupt me so often!
Preferences about someone else past reference: Past Perfect is used
Id prefer it if you hadnt bought that car (you did!)
XV. 4 Its (high/about) time
Its (high/about) time + Past Tense
- exprim un ndemn/ un repro/ un avertisment
an urge/ a reproach/ a warning present reference:
aciunea ar fi trebuit s se fi desfurat
an action should already have taken place
I dont believe you say its high time I was ready with all this work!
The board decided (that) it was high time they (had) started working on the new project.
- un repro (referire la o situaie trecut)
a reproach - past reference:
It is/it was (high/about) time + Past Perfect
Its/was high/about time Mark had taken on a job
XVI. Inversiunea i accentuarea retoric Inversion and Emphasis
I. Inversia n propoziiile afirmative Inversion in statements
XVI. 1. 1 Inversiunea subiect-verb Subject-Verb Inversion
Aceasta este o caracteristic a propoziiilor interogative, ns poate aprea i n propoziii afirmative mpreun cu
anumite forme (expresii) adverbiale.
Subject-verb inversion is typical of interrogative sentences, yet it may be used in affirmative sentences too in
combination with certain adverbials.
Only on Sundays can we meet.
Not until late did we remember where we had left our bags.
So serious was the error that it needed urgent remedy.
So late did we arrive that there was nobody left to give us direction.
In no way will I buy another compouter for you!
Never do I fear.
XVI. 1. 2. Inversiunea dup expresii adverbiale la forma negativ Inversion after negative adverbial expressions
Formele adverbiale negative apar la nceputul frazei pentru a se obine un efect emfatic. Unele expresii adverbiale
negative pot aprea i la nceputul unei propoziii, ndeplinind astfel un rol emfatic. Ele caracterizeaz comunicarea
scris, mai degrab formal. Alte forme similare acesteia sunt: Never, Rarely/Seldom, Hardly /Scarcely when, No
sooner than, precum i unele forme care l conin pe no. Only se folosete n mod similar.
Some negative adverbial expressions can be put at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis. These structures are
usually found in formal, written contexts: Not only + auxiliary + subject (+ main verb)
Not only do I possess a Computer Programming diploma, I also have one in Mathematics.
Other expressions that can be used in this way are Never, Rarely/Seldom, Hardly/Scarcely when, No
sooner than, and a number of expressions including no. Only can also be used in this way.
Only much later could I get the meaning of his words.
Hardly/Scarcely had the film started when the transmission stopped.
No sooner are the forms handed out than everybody starts filling them in (out).
Never will she (ever) return here.
Under no circumstances are you to arrive later than 1 p.m.
XVI. 1. 3 Inversiunea dup neither, nor, so i as Inversion after neither, nor, so and as
a. Inversia dup neither, nor i so indic faptul ca dou lucruri sunt similare. Inversia subiectului cu auxiliarul
predicaiei se comport astfel:

Inversion after neither, nor and so indicates that two things are the same. Inversion of the subject and auxiliary is
needed after these phrases when they are used in this way:
I cant arrive in time and neither can you.
She doesnt understand the indications. - Nor do I.
He was happy, and so were we.
They are very inquisitive, as tend to be most children nowadays.
b. Inversia dup so i such Inversion after so and such.
So + adjective + verb + S + that +
So attractive is the title of the article that I intend to read it myself
Such + Be + S + that +
Such was the play that everybody cheered for minutes on end!
XVI. 1. 4 n fraza condiional were i had mai ales n engleza cu caracter formal pentru a-l nlocui pe if.
In conditional sentences: inversion after had or were, mostly in formal, written English, to replace if
Were you to meet Harry, tell him Ill be expecting him on Friday morning.
Had the train left in time, we would have missed it.
XVI. 1.5 Inversiunea dup expresii ce indic locul (locaia)
Inversion after expressions of place
After expressions of place, inversion of the subject and the verb, not an auxiliary, is possible when the expression starts
the sentence:
Down came the rain!
Off we go now!
XVI. 1.6 Antepoziionarea Fronting
- inversia dintre subordonata completiv i principal, cu antepoziionarea subordonatei. When inverting the Main
Clause and Object Clause, the Object Clause is occupies the front position.
The stundents reaction I could never have predicted.
II. Forme emfatice n inversiune Emphasis (Emphatic Inversion)
- folosim formele emfatice atunci cnd facem o sugestie/propunere sau cnd exprimm o opinie sau un sentiment (de ex.
iritare, enervare sau dezaprobare fa de ceva). Unele forme emfatice au fost menionate deja n capitolele precedente.
when suggesting, expressing opinions or feelings such as irritation or annoyance or disagreement, we resort to
emphasis. Some emphatic forms have already been treated. These are:
- construciile cu diateza pasiv, atunci cnd se pune accent pe aciunea suferit de complement, mai degrab dect pe
aciunea efectuat de subiect.
passive constructions where the stress falls on what happens to something rather than who or what something does.
- inversia sintactic Inversion
- formele predicative continue (Present i Past) pentru a exprima ideea de iritare/enervare
the Present/Past Continuous + always/forwevr/continually to express annoyance.
Alte cazuri
Others possibilities
- utilizarea lui do/did emfatic, pentru a exprima o idee ce contravine unei convingeri iniiale
the use of (emphatic) do or did, often to express something contrary to what another person believes.
I did call John last night. (Why dont you believe me?)- cleft constructions
- sunt o form de structuri intercalate, care interpun ntre dou subordonate o construcie substantival, adverbial sau
prepoziional
are a form of embedded structures which interpose noun phrases/adverb/prepositional phrases between two clauses.
- exist dou forme de construcii intercalate: It-cleft i Wh-cleft.
there are two forms of cleft constructions
- au rol de indicatori semantici, fcnd diferenta ntre informaia nou i cea iniial
function as meaning indicators in a sentence in an emphatic way, by pointing out which element is new information and
which is given information
a. It-cleft
It is/was/will be + S/Adv.of Place/Time/Cause that
- intercalarea wh, n cazul n care interlocutorul are i el n vedere informaia primit
wh-clefts, when the listener is thinking about the given information.
- intercalarea it, n cazul n care interlocutorul nu are neaprat n vedere informaia recent primit. Intercalarea reprezint
noua informaie.
it-clefts mark given information that the listener is not necessarily thinking about. The clefted phrase stands for the new
information.

Rspunsul la ntrebare (informaia nou) este intercalat.

The answer to the question (i.e new information) is clefted.
How did you come to meet John?
It was when I was loking for a topic (the clefted structure) that I chanced to meet prof. Emerson.
(Ist part) It will be you who (IInd part) will present the report. (emphasis on you)
instead of
You will present the report
It is now that Im telling you!
instead of
Im telling you now.
The paper (which/that) she meant is about anthropology not medicine.
meaning
It is the paper about anthropology that she menat not (the one about) medicine.
b. Wh-cleft
n cazul intercalrii wh, noua informaie este postpoziionat verbului be.
wh-cleft constructions, the new information comes after the verb be.
- construcia substantival, prepoziional sau adverbial intercalat urmeaz verbului be, restul propoziiei fiind cuprins
ntre cele dou pri rmase ale frazei. Acestea sunt variante de relative nerestrictive.
the clefted noun phrase, prepositional phrase, or adverb follows the verb be, and the rest of the clause is placed between
the two parts of the construction. They are non-defining relative clause versions.
The three students who were appointed to work on this project are X, Y and Z.
meaning
It is/was students X, Y and Z who were appointed to work on this project
The place where they met was a little caf looking onto the river.
It was in a little caf looking onto the river that they (had) met.
Where they met was a little caf looking onto the river
Who your brother said he had given the money was (to) Michael (and not (to)
someone else)
- construcia n wh este o variant a formei intercalate it.
this is an alternative in wh-constructiuon to an it-cleft:
When Peter said he would arrrive was at 3, not at 4.
meaning
It was at 3 not at 4 when Peter said he would arrive.
XVII. Subjonctivul The Subjunctive
Construcia subjonctival i cea cu indicativul sunt identice, singurul indiciu fiind faptul c la subjonctiv nu se adaug
terminaia -s pentru persoana a III-a sg ; la timpul prezent verbul be ramne be pentru toate formele, n timp ce la trecut
are forma were.
In most cases, subjunctive and indicative forms of a verb are the same - often you would not notice whether a verb is
used in subjunctive or indicative mood. The only indicator for subjunctive is that no s is added in 3rd person singular
and that the verb be remains be for all forms in present tense and becomes were for all forms in past tense.
Utilizri Uses
Subjonctivul apare n anumite expresii, cum ar fi urrile, felicitrile
Subjunctive is used in some fixed phrases (formulaic subjunctive).
Happy birthday/ Many (happy) returns of the day!; Be that as it may; Cheers!; Bless you !
Anumite verbe cum ar fi demand, insist, recommend, suggest, precum i unele adjective ca essential, important, vital
sunt nsoite de that + subjunctive (subjonctivul instrucional) pentru a indica necesitatea/obligativitatea efecturii unei
aciuni (aspectul directiv).
Certain verbs (e.g. demand, insist, recommend, suggest) and adjectives (e.g. essential, important, vital) are followed by
that + subjunctive (mandative subjunctive) to indicate that something must be done (directive aspect).
Students demand that the hostel be opened before the start of the univeristy year.
It is important that everyone register.

Deoarece construciile cu subjonctivul sun foarte formal, se prefer construcia cu un auxiliar. n cazul n care aspectul
directiv al propoziiei este suficient de clar i fr auxiliarul respectiv, e sufcient forma de baz a verbului la modul
indicativ.
Sentences in subjunctive sound very formal, however, so often an auxiliary is preferred. If the directive aspect of the
sentence is clear enough without an auxiliary, it is also possible to simply use the main verb in indicative mood.
People demand that the troops are / should be withdrawn.
It is important that everyone registers/register.
- diferena ntre construcile cu subjonctivul i cele cu indicativul.
Note the difference of subjunctive and indicative in the following example.
She insisted that she participate too = She wanted to participate too. (directive aspect; subjunctive)
She insisted that Anna participated too. = She knew and wanted to persuade others of the fact that
Anna really was there. (observation; indicative)
- subonctivul instrucional se folosete ntotdeauna la infinitiv, chiar dac se refer la o aciune trecut. n cazul
propoziiilor negative, la subjonctiv nu se foloseste auxiliarul do.
- that mandative subjunctive is always used in infinitive, even if we talk about a situation in the past. Note that in
negative sentences, the auxiliary do is not used for subjunctive mood.
She insisted that he (must/should) not be present.
n cazul dorinelor i speranelor nerealizabile (subjonctivul voliional), se folosete construcia de trecut a
subjonctivului. Pentru toate verbele (exceptnd verbul be) forma de trecut a subjonctivului este aceeai cu cea de la
indicativ.
For wishes and hopes that cannot be fulfilled (volitional subjunctive), subjunctive is used in past tense. For all
verbs (except be) past tense in subjunctive mood is the same as in indicative mood. Past tense, subjunctive mood for be
is were.
I wish I were better prepared for the exam.
XVIII. Verbe frazeologice i prepoziionale Phrasal and Prepositional Verbs
Sunt construcii verbale formate dintr-o baz verbal (un verb) i o alt particul morfologic (o prepoziie sau
un adverb). Inelesul global al acestei structuri rezult fie din suma sensurilor prilor componente, fie este determinat de
baza verbal, iar prepoziia sau adverbul ndeplinind rol emphatic n structura respectiv. Un alt caz este acela n care
cuvntul nou, format din cele dou elemente, are un sens cu totul diferit de cel al elementelor componente.
These are verbal constructions which consist of a base verb and particle which is either a preposition or an adverb. The
meaning of such a verbal construction can be a combination of the meanings of two elements (come in, run away, go on,
come through, fall apart, etc).
Sometimes, the base meaning is conveyed the verb, while the preposition or adverb functions as an intensifier (put up
(with), work out).
In other cases, the new two-part verb has quite a different meaning from the two separate parts: give up (renounce), take
after (resemble), blow up (explode), carry out (finish), etc.
Tipul formei verbale
Type of verbal form
1. Phrasal verbs

Caracteristici
Characteristics
- a type of verb in English that opetares more
like a phrase than a word
- it derives from verbs of movement/action +
an adverbial particle of direction and location
- meaning most often different from the
initial meaning of the constituting lexical
elements
- can be transitive (the two constituting parts
can be separated by the direct object)
bring up, call off, carry out/off, get over
with, grow up, lock up, look up, make out,
make up, turn on/off/up, put trough, put off,
put (smb.) up tell off, throw away, track
down, try out, turn down, etc.

Exemple
Examples

We must call off the whole

business as all our plans have
fallen through/apart..
No, we just have to put it off for
a while, thats all.
Look all the meanings up in the
reference bibliography.
Dont throw these papers away
yet.
They were locked up in a room
for two weeks. The kidnappers
locked them up.

- or intransitive
break off, break down, bring abourt, bring
up, count on, come up, count on, drop in, end
up, get along (with), get at, get on, hang
around, look into, point out , set about, throw
up, wear off/out, etc.

2. Prepositional Verbs

Verb + preposition (it cannot be separated

by the verb)
- always have objects (get over the bridge)

- the meaning of this tandem (verb +

preposition) varies:
- it can be a combination of the two words
meanings.

The couple broke off last week.

Im afraid you cant count on
me in money matters; lately
Ive been as poor as a church
mouse. I have none.
Its hard to understand what
youre getting at. Be more
explicit, will you?
Im sick. I think Ill throw up.
Just hang around for a while till
I come back.
The students all set about
working on te project.
What is he thinking about?
You never look after yourself.
She nearly fell off the chair.
Will you get into the house
before you get wet?
The boy walked across the
classroom to the blackboard.
I didnt dare come in. Moreover,
I ran away before he saw me.
They cant break up, they love
each other too much. (=separate
completely)

- the meaning of the verb is intensified by the

preposition

- the new two-part verb has quite a different

meaning from the two separate parts

3.
PhrasalPrepositional Verbs
verb + adverb +
preposition

verb + adverb + preposition

look forward to = anticipate with pleasure

We should have already

checked in. Its late!
Mark doesnt take after his
parents at all.

Its always good to get on with

(have a friendly relationship)
your colleagues, not just to put
up with (tolerate) them.
We look forward to our next
meeting.
We ran out of fuel/it.

XIX. Redactarea textului academic Academic writing

1. Introduction
Utilizarea registrului academic va conferi limbii o tent formal, direct, exprimarea ctignd n claritate. Ca o
prerogativ necesar pentru operarea asupra unui text marcat de acest registru este capacitatea de a identifica (la citire) i
de a aplica (la redactare) anumite procedee stilistice, cum ar fi utilizarea diatezei pasive, n locul celei active i
substantivizarea (preferina folosirii substantivelor n locul verbelor).
n acest sens, Centre for Independent Language Learning of Hong Kong propune urmatoarele:
- folosirea unui registru mai degrab speculativ (susinut de adverbe ca possibly, probably) dect asertiv (n
locul adverbelor always, every sunt recomandate often sau many/much);
- utilizarea verbelor modale (may, might);

de expresii ca: appears, seems to;

recurgerea la un vocabular formal;
nlocuirea pronumelor personale (you, we) cu pronume nehotrte i demonstrative sau impersonale (one, there,
it);
- evitarea ntrebrilor retorice;
- evitarea contragerilor, a folosirii excesive sau incorecte a conectorilor (besides, furthermore, moreover);
- folosirea unei structuri gramaticale corecte, a coeziunii textuale (a se opta pentru fraza relativ);
- aplicarea corecta a referinelor (intreatextuale cuvintre refereiatoare i bibliografice);
Using the academic register means achieving a formal, direct language and clear expression. When approaching texts
that use this register, one should equally be able to recognise (when reading a text) and employ (when writing a text)
certain stylistic devices such as the use of the passive voice rather than the active and of nominalisation (nouns rather
than verbs.)
Example:
The groups of researchers preferred an isolated venue (active voice) where they could hold (verbalization)
the conference on inter- and outerspace contact exploration.
An isolated venue was preferred by the groups of researcher (passive voice) for the inter- and
outerspace contact exploration (nominalisation)
Also, the Centre for Independent Language Learning of Hong Kong Polytechnic University, suggests the following:
- the use of tentative rather than assertive language (possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun
phrases: This is possibly due to the use of ... or It will probably result in .
- using the modal verbs may and might: This may be the cause of ..
- using appears to and seems to: This appears to have caused the extinction of .
- avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much
- using formal vocabulary (employ rather than use)
- using more formal grammar, for example: - avoiding short, disconnected sentences
avoiding the use of personal pronouns such as you and we to address the reader using one, there, it as the
subject of the statement:
One may rarely find a better facility than .
There are some further issues to be discussed ... ;
It is highly convenient to...
- avoiding the use of rhetorical questions : Can you imagine another means of reaching the same result?
- avoiding the use of contractions such as wont, didnt, well
- avoiding the overuse and misuse of certain logical connectors, especially besides, furthermore and moreover.
besides is too informal, and both furthermore and moreover mean that the following information is more
important than the information before, which is usually bad organisation. Use in addition or also instead
- ensuring that grammar is accurate, that ideas link together smoothly and that a full range of grammatical
structures is employed, such as relative clauses
- referencing correctly, in both in-text references and bibliographical references.
(sursa: English for Academic Purposes, http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/eap)
Structura i organizarea textului academic Structure and organization in academic texts
Recomandri
a) organizarea ideilor principale: subiectul ales, exprimarea i coerena ideilor;
b) lucrarea propriu-zis
c), d), e) planul argumentrii (pentru a facilita persepctiva asupra ideilor coninute): intrroducere, corpul textului,
bazat pe dezvoltarea ideilor principale anunate de o propoziie cu valoare anticipatorie (topic sentence); coeren n
succesiunea ideilor;
- aplicarea metodei raionamentului logic la construirea paragrafelor (logica inductiv, deductiv)
Aspects to be taken into consideration:
a) organising our thoughts (what to write about and who is the reading target, how to express our ideas, the proper
sequencing of the ideas);
b) the thesis
c) sketching the argument facilitates visual exploration of the connections between ideas - writing the introduction;
production/construction of body paragraphs: writing the topic sentence which asserts and controls its main idea;
d) outlining the argument - finding the best structure for our argument;
e) developing the argument (evidence; arrangement; coherence) - it develops the paragraphs idea fully facilitating the
readers understanding of it.
- paragraphs are arranged differently for different purposes (e.g. chronologically for a history paper, spatially for an art
history presentation, or from the specific to the general in sociology texts, etc.)

- the method of reasoning when constructing a paragraph:

- using inductive logic, that is, working from clues towards your conclusion, thus the evidence will come early on in the
paragraph, and the topic sentence will appear at the end;
- using deductive logic the paragraph has the form of a syllogism;
Coerena Coherence
Relaia corect ntre subiectele gramaticale, utilizarea corect a elementelor de tranziie/legtur (conectorii);
introducerea i concluzia sintetizeaz i confer suportul contextual al ntregului text (al argumentului).
Introducerea
- suscit interesul anticipnd i indicnd spre argumentul propriu-zis;
- definete succinct problema;
- declar tema lucrrii (precizeaz poziia autorului vis--vis de tema aleas);
- ofer material pentru argumentare.
Concluzia
- nu presupune simpla rezumare a informaiilor anterioare. Vizeaz argumentul, accentund importana contribuiei
personale a autorului lucrrii.
The proper relationship between the grammatical subjects as well as the correct use of transition markers makes a
paragraph coherent. Introductions and conclusions synthesize and provide context for the entire argument.
The introduction
- stirs interest towards the subject by anticipating and pointing to the argument proper, which is to be developed in a
larger context;
- briefly defines the problem;
- declares the thesis (the writers position on the matter);
- provides background material important to the argument;
- defines the key terms used in the argument;
The conclusion
- is not meant to simply summarize the previous information. It points back to the argument by emphasizing the
importance of the authors own contribution to it. Returning to the background information stated in the introduction,
the conclusion demonstrates the authors original contribution to that information. Also, how the argument has enriched
and developed the meaning of the key terms.
2. Utilizarea surselor Referencing
Orice informaie, idee, surs utilizat vor fi incorporate cu grij n cuprinsul lucrrii. Iat cteva metode: citarea surselor,
sintetizarea (alturarea sumativ a informaiilor culese din diferite surse), parafrazarea (aceeai dimensiune cu cea a
textului original) sau rezumarea (dimensiunea mult redus fa de cea a textului original).
When writing, information, evidence and ideas, but must be incorporated into your work carefully. Quoting, synthesising
(summing up information from various sources), paraphrasing (same length as the original) or summarising (the new
text is shorter than its original) are ways of referring to and including the works of others in your assignments.
Sources must be cited.
2.1. Rezumarea Summarising
Reprezint un indiciu al gradului de nelegere (receptare corect) a textului propus. Utilizarea intens a acestui procedeu
reprezint una dintre metodele cele mai importante de lucru cu textul academic, dac nu chiar cea mai important dintre
acestea.
- an indicator of the degree of ones understanding of the proposed text. Used lavishly in research activities,
summarising is one of the most important academic skills, if not, indeed, the most important one.
Metode
in note-taking ,in writing abstracts, an aid in writing both introductions and conclusions, in dataApplications
collecting and collected information management, when referring to original texts, in making
frameworks (subject to further detailed analysis), for brief proposals or progress reports.
It is a text-shortening operation to a maximum number of words/ a 10th of the source text.
The gist of a (longer) text is preserved unaltered in its shortened version without copying entire
statements from the original text.
Etape Steps

Sugestii
Some extra tips

- getting the texts main subject or purpose, usually in one sentence

- formulating the main ideas
- including them in brief paragraphs, each based on only one issue or topic.
- writing a paragraph to combine all the previous ideas/points.
- restoring the general idea (gist) concisely and accurately in the new shorter text (the summary)
without copying out parts of the original.
- the layout should be easy to read, with spaces between each note
- always mention the source(s)

Exemple
Examples

Original text
Everyone hoped that the weeks of planning and preparation would prove to be
worthwhile. The summer fete was the most important fund raising activity in
the school calendar. Last years event had raised over $ 1500 which had been
spent on improving the outside play area. This year, the organising committee
had set an ambitious target of $1800 with the aim of purchasing much needed
sports equipment for the school.
Altogether fourty different stalls had been advertised. There were a number of
exciting new activities, including pony rides and a bouncy castle, both of
which were to be introduced for the first time. It was hoped that they would be
as popular as some of the most traditional stalls like the coconut shy and
tambola. A large number of parents and children had offered their help and the
committee was confident that this would be the most successful fund raiser to
date.
On the day of the fete the day was perfect. It was sunny, but not too hot, and
best of all, no rain had been forecast. The new attractions went down very
well. There seemed to be a permanent queue of children waiting at the bouncy
castle. The committee was absolutely delighted when the final takings were
counted and announced as a record of $ 1900, exceeding all expectations.
Following such an outstanding success, everyone agreed that it was worth all
hard work and effort.
(model
worksheets:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/words/reading/summarising/worksheet.shtml)
[237 words]

Summary
A number of new
attractions and
perfect weather
conditions
helped make this
years summer
fete the most
successful ever.
A record amount
of $1900 was
raised.
The
proceeds will be
used to buy new
sports equipment
for the school.
[38words]

2. 2. Parafrazarea Paraphrasing
Acest procedeu organizaional servete la redarea cu cuvinte proprii a afirmaiilor aparinnd altei persoane. Pentru
realizarea unei bune parafrazri este important s schimbm att cuvintele folosite de autor ct i ordinea n care acesta
i-a formulat ideile.
This procedure helps you to put someone elsess ideas into your own words. Change both the words and the structure
and from the source text.
- atunci cnd schimbm cuvintele (cu excepia vocabularului strict tiinific-speacializat sau a cuvintelor comune) se va
recurge la sinonime. Sursa se va cita n mod obligatoriu.
- atunci cnd schimbm structura textului original, se va ncepe de la un alt punt al pasajului/paragrafului, orientndu-v
ctre aspectul pe care dorii s-l scoatei dumneavoastr n eviden.
when changing words (except specialised vocabulary or common words), resort to synonymy. The source is always
cited. Notes may be taken while reading. Identifying the main ideas is helpful to a good understanding of the source and
for your own texts organization.
- when changing the structure, begin by starting at a different place in the passage and/or sentence(s), basing your
choice on the focus of your paper. This will lead naturally to some changes in wording
(The Writing Center The University of Wisconsin Madison http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QPA_paraphrase2.html)
Examples offered by source:
Academic writing: Reporting - paraphrase, summary & synthesis
(http://www.uefap.com/writing/report/repfram.htm)

It has long been known that Cairo is the most populous city on earth, but no-one knew exactly how populous it was until
last month.
Although Cairo has been the worlds most heavily populated city for many years, the precise population was not known
until four weeks ago)
Paul Ekman from the University of California has conducted a long series of experiments on how nonverbal behaviour
may reveal real inner states.
Paul Ekman who works at the University of California has performed a sequence of investigations on the way nonverbal
behaviour may disclose real internal conditions.
2. 3. Citarea Quoting
Cnd citm un text, se va ine cont, n mod expres, de referirea la sursa sa. Punei ntre ghilimele partea citat i leagai-o
de ideea dumneavoastr, cea care urmeaz a fi dezvoltat ulterior. Menionai neaprat autorul, lucrarea (i paginile) de
unde s-a extras citatul. Pentru comentarii, clarificri sau corecturi, folosii paranteze patrate [sic = astfel, prin urmare].
Adesea, att semnalarea, ct i afirmaia personal apar ntr-o singur fraz introductiv. Observai cum conectorii de
tranziie servesc i la introducerea corect a citatului n fraza introductiv.

When citing (quoting) you must make careful reference to the source. Introduce the excerpt in quotation marks and link
it to your own idea, the one that is to be developed further on. Also, mention the name of the author, the work (and page)
from where the quotation was taken. For comments, clarifications, or a corrections, square brackets - [sic = so/thus] are used.
Often both the signal and the assertion appear in a single introductory statement, as in the example below. Notice how a
transitional phrase also serves to connect the quotation smoothly to the introductory statement.
Example.
Music and Autobiography (Leiris lyrique), examines [signal] how Michel Leiris uses the expressive dimension of the
musical model and how he is inspired by the expressive power of song to develop a number of rhetorical devices
helpful in achieving the type of communication entire he seeks to integrate into his autobiographical texts (p. xii).
Throughout his analysis of Lge d'homme, La rgle du jeu, Biffures, and other texts, Prieto shows that language tends
to replace events as the object of autobiographical discourse and that Leiris seeks to emphasize the definitive role of
thought patterns in the determination of subjective identity (p. 143) [assertion]. Similar to Pingets murmur is
Leiriss notion of chant, which is to the intellect what song is to voice (116). [connection] Leiris uses language
musically in that he subordinates denotation to patterns of relationships that are unique to him (p. 153). The musical
model serves here as the best available metaphor to promote the goal of intimate communication (p. 152).
(Source : Pautrot, Jean-Louis, Listening in: Music, Mind, and the Modernist Narrative in Comparative Literature, Fall
2004)
3. Conectori Linking words and phrases
Dei unele dintre aceste cuvinte au mai fost incluse n cteva dintre capitolele anterioare sub numele de conectori
interpropoziionali, ele ndeplinesc i rol de conectori textuali, leagnd ideile sau argumentele din cadrul unui text.
Although some of these words have already been mentioned as sentence connectors, they can also be used to develop
coherence and achieve cohesion within a paragraph, that is linking one idea / argument to another.
Type of connector
Connecting word
Example
Sequence
first / firstly
I shall have to make a rigorous plan
second / secondly
regarding our enterprise.
third / thirdly etc.
Firstly/First(of all) we will sit
next, last, finally
down and find the best strategy .
in addition, moreover
Next, we will appoint a secretary
further / furthermore
Then, well find a manager
another
Another step would be to
also
Result
in conclusion
It wasnt so late to start it all over
to summarise
again. Therefore, we agreed to meet
so
as soon as possible and
as a result
As a result, we managed to get
hence
everything done in due time.
consequently
To summarise / In conclusion, the
as a consequence (of)
merger turned out to be a success.
therefore
thus
Emphasis

Addition

undoubtedly
indeed
obviously
generally
admittedly
in fact
particularly / in particular
especially
clearly
importantly
and
in addition /additionally/
an additional point
furthermore
also
too

Their suggestion was admittedly

unsubstantial but Mary will
undoubtedlycome up with a better
one. In fact, we have always relied
on her.

Marys report turned out to be

exactly what we had all expected.
In addition, she offered to write one
for the following session.

as well as
due to
Due to the boards constant refusal
because
to look into my proposals, I will not
since
try again
as
because of
Example
for
These are not what we call
for example
constructive contributions, such as,
for instance
for instance, your colleagues.
that is (ie)
I will have to take into account the
such as
needs of all our members,
including
including those of their families.
namely
Comparison
Similarity
Aviary flu is not at all similar to
similarly
any other viruses known so far.
likewise
It likewise affects children and
also
adults, men and women alike.
like
A protection campaign for the
just as
population has already began.
just like
At the same time, a vaccine is
similar to
expected to be put to use soon.
same as
compare
at the same time
both
also
too
as well as
Difference (contrast)
(as ) compared to / with
On the one hand, school children
differs from
will be inoculated with the latest
in contrast to/ in comparison (to)
vaccines on the market, and on the
on the one hand/ on the other other, pregnant women will strictly
(hand)
be monitored on weekly basis.
not only...but also
while
Whereas/ While children will be
but
inoculated with the latest vaccines
yet
on the market, pregnant women,
still
will strictly be monitored on
whereas
weekly basis.
rather
In spite of/despite/contrary the so
though
far efforts, no definite conclusion
although / even though
has been reached.
however nevertheless
nonetheless
contrary (to)/ in contrast
conversely despite / in spite of
4. Elemente de punctuaie Punctuation
Punctuaia are rolul de a organiza i diviza un text pentru a-i face mesajul mai accesibil. Pentru aceasta, trebuie avute n
vedere anumite reguli importante. Cteva sugestii, n acest sens, se refer la folosirea virgulei.
Virgula
a) desparte
- informaiile suplimentare de ideea principal a propoziiei
During the match, when my brother lost his bag, I met John. (see non-defining relative clauses)
- cuvintele de legtur de ideea principal a propoziiei
The train arrived late, but we got to school in time.
John is hardworking. His brother, however, is not. On the other hand, John is less assertive.
- condiia de un rezultat posibil (see Conditional sentences)
Reason

If you dont use the right medication, the wound will recover very slowly.
b) separ o niruire de elemente ntr-o propoziie
Fire-red dresses, metallic-green hats, gold shoes, and all thesparkling rest, were present in the designers
latest show.
c) dezambiguizeaz
For some food will never be a main concern.
For some, food will never be a major concern.
Above the night sky was full of stars.
Above, the night sky was full of stars.
d) separ doar propoziiile independente.
The board reunited, and everybody tried to clarify the previous issues.
We got up and left.
e) precizeaz cauza n construciile cu to.
To arrive (= in order to arrive) in time, I got up early.
Punctuation is used to organise or divide written text in order to make meaning clear. For this, certain valuable must be
followed and obeyed. Here we will only make some hints at the correct use of commas.The comma
a) separates
- extra information from the main idea of the sentence;
- linking words from the main idea of the sentence;
- conditions from a possible outcome;
b) lists things, concepts, events, ideas etc.;
c) disambiguates.
d) independent clauses are separated by a comma and the word and. However, no comma is used when there is no
independent clause.
e) to show cause, with to constructions.
5. Referina Reference
Referina este o modalitate de obinere a coeziunii cu ajutorul cuvintelor, precum i o modalitate de a face legtura ntre
ideile i informaiile coninute n propoziii diferite (conexiune interpropoziional) din cadrul unui paragraf sau al unui
text.
Cuvinte-refereni: pronume personale, demonstrative, adjective comparative (another, better, different, other, similar,
etc.) articolul hotart the, deicticele one i both.
De regul, este de dou feluri: retrospectiv i aniticipativ.
Referirea retrospectiv vizeaz cuvinte aa-numite antecedeni, care sunt, de regul substantive sau alte pronume.
Reference is the second type of cohesion through choice of words and another strategy for linking ideas and information
across sentences in an academic paragraph or text.
Reference words are personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, comparative adjectives, the definite article, the and
deictics like one or both.
Reference can be either retrospective or anticipatory.
Referina restriciv (la un cuvnt sau la un grup de cuvinte) Reference to a word
Elemente, cum ar fi pronumele personale sau demonstrative pot face referire la o informaie anterioar, care poate fi un
cuvnt sau un grup de cuvinte.
Personal pronouns (it, them) or demonstratives (this) can refer to content information in a word or word group in a
previous or following sentence.
Referina global Global reference
Pronumele demonstrative sau adjectivele comparative pot realiza i o referire mai ampl, i anume la o idee coninut
ntr-o secven de fraz (mai multe porpoziii sau chiar un paragraf). Acest tip de referire este frecvent ntlnit n textul
academic, dar nu numai.
Demonstrative pronouns (this, these) or comparative adjectives (similar, other) can refer to more than a word or group.
They can refer to an idea developed over one or more sentences or paragraphs. This creates more complex text cohesion
and is common in academic writing.

XX. Redactarea academic structura textului Academic Writing organising patterns

Organisational patterns have various functions: they provide a framework for connecting the main idea with details,
provide variety to writing, and help writers assist their readers in understanding the logical development of ideas, staying
on target and avoiding digressions.

In academic writing, several organisational patterns can be used at the level of the paragraph and of the essay.
XX.1. Defining
Definiia joac un rol important n redactarea academic. Pentru evitarea interpretrii greite, definirea cuvintelor cheie,
a frazelor, a termenilor utilizai, este esenial. Structura general a unei definiii simple poate fi:
Defining is one of the major functions in academic writing. Definitions of key words, phrases, as well as of terms used in
academic writing are necessary in order to avoid misinterpretation.
The general structure of a simple definition (used for concrete items) can be
Concept
An
anthropologist
general
class
word
A person

is a/ an/ the
may be defined as
is

form of/ species of +

general class word
a person

relative
pronoun:
which/ who/ that
who

special features

relative
pronoun:
which/ who/ that
who

special features

is called/is known as

concept

studies people

is called

an
anthropologist

studies people

Relative clauses are often used to give more information.

Pe de alt parte, n scrierile academice este adesea important, n special cnd e vorba despre concepte abstracte sau
complexe, s utilizm definiii extinse, care s includ exemple de situaii de utilizare, dar i principalele lor
caracteristici. Vor exista diferene evidente ntre definiiile de dicionar, de exemplu, i definiiile specializate.
On the other hand, in most academic pieces of writing, especially when dealing with abstract or complex concepts, we
need to resort to extended definitions of terms, by giving examples of their use and/ or by stating their main
characteristics. There will be obvious differences between a general dictionary definition and a specialized one, for
example
Sociology (n.) is the study and classification of human societies.
(Source: http://wordnet.princeton.edu)
Sociology is the study of human interaction and social organisation. (Consequently/ therefore) it is the science that
studies patterned, shared human behaviour.
Sociology is a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that preserve and change
them. It does this by examining the dynamics of constituent parts of societies such as institutions, communities,
populations, and gender, racial, or age groups. Sociology also studies social status or stratification, social movements,
and social change, as well as societal disorder in the form of crime, deviance, and revolution.
(Source:
sociology. (2008). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved October 25, 2008, from Encyclopdia Britannica Online:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551887/sociology)

General meanings
The term X has come to be used to refer to ...
The term X is generally understood to mean
The term X has been applied to situations where
In broad sociological terms, X can be defined as
The broad use of the term X is sometimes equated
with ...
Indicating difficulties in defining a term:
In the field of X, various definitions of Y are
found.

Sociology has come to be used to refer to the study and

classification of human societies.
Sociology is generally understood to mean the study of
human interaction and social organisation.
The broad use of the term sociology is sometimes equated
with the study and classification of human societies.
In the field of sociology, various definitions of media are
found.

Y is a commonly used notion in X and yet it is a

concept
difficult
to
define
precisely.
A generally accepted definition of Y is lacking.
James (2006) identified four that might be
subsumed under the term Y: a)
..
The term Y embodies a multitude of concepts.
Stating terms that are used in an essay/thesis:
In this essay the term Y will be used in its
broadest
sense
to
refer
to
......
Throughout this thesis, the term Y is used to refer
to
While a variety of definitions of the term X have
been suggested, this paper will use the definition
first suggested by James (1988) who saw it as
In this paper, the term that will be used to describe
this
phenomenon
is
X.
In this dissertation, the terms X and Y are used
interchangeably to mean
Referring to authors definitions:
Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the
term
......
X writes/ believes that ..... (1957, p.11).

According to a definition provided by X (2001:23),

Y
is
.......
The term "" is used by Smith (2001) to refer
to
......
X (2001) uses the term "" to refer to ......
For X (2001), means/refers to .......
is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as
"......................"
X defines as "."

Media is a commonly used notion in journalism and yet it

is a concept difficult to define precisely.
A generally accepted definition of sociology is lacking.

In this essay the term media will be used in its broadest

sense to refer to all means of dissemination of fact,
opinion, such as
Throughout this thesis, the term media is used to refer to
what the general public terms as "the media,"
While a variety of definitions of the term media have been
suggested, this paper will use the definition suggested by
McLuhan (1964) who saw it as extensions of man.
In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this
phenomenon is mass communication.
In this dissertation, the terms mass media and mass
communication are used interchangeably to mean a means
of public communication reaching a large audience.
Marshall McLuhan (1967) was (apparently) the first to
bring up the idea that the medium is the massage.
G. L. Kreps and B. C. Thornton believe media extend
"people's ability to communicate, to speak to others far
away, to hear messages, and to see images that would be
unavailable without media" (1992, p. 144).
According to a definition provided by G. L. Kreps and B.
C. Thornton (1992:144), media could be seen as an
extension of "people's ability to communicate, to speak to
others far away, to hear messages, and to see images that
would be unavailable without media".

Adapted from: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/definitions.htm. Retrieved 22.08.2008

Un exemplu de paragraf: definiia extins (cuvinte semnal subliniate) / Sample paragraph: extended definition
pattern (with signal words underlined)
The sociologist, however, thinks of institutions in a deeper and broader sense than any meaning connoted in the
examples cited. To him, an institution is an established pattern and framework of collective behaviour that exists to fulfil
some basic and abiding human need. A social institution, as defined by Harry E. Moore, is an enduring, complex,
integrated, organized behaviour pattern through which social control is exerted and by means of which the fundamental
social desires or needs are met. Institutions are the major components of a culture and may be further defined as a
complex of social patterns, roles, and relations which persons enact in certain standardized ways for the purpose of
satisfying basic social needs. In this sense of the term, the sociologist distinguishes between the family institution, the
religious institution, the educational institution, the government institution, and the economic institution
XX. 2. Descrierea / Describing1

http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm

XX. 2.1. Poziie, greutate, structur, culoare, compoziie, mrime, form, funcie / Position, weight, structure,
colour, composition, size, shape, function
Poziie / Position
The road
The
tunnel

is

The roof

adjacent to/ alongside/ below/ beyond/facing (diagonally)/

parallel to/underneath/ opposite/ in the middle of/ on the right
of/ on the left of/ near/ close to/ touching/ behind/ in front of/
under/ on top of/ above/ below/ level with/ diagonally above/
vertically below

house

between/ equidistant from

B and C.
Examples
The road runs alongside the house.
The tunnel is under the road that is adjacent to the house.
The roof is on top of the house that is facing the road in front of it and also above the tunnel that is vertically
below the road above it.
Structur / Structure
staples
is nailed/ screwed/ fixed/ fastened/ linked/ welded/ tied/ to furniture By
Wood
connected/ attached
nails
Metal

screws
iron ore

Brick

consists of
alloys, carbon
contains/ comprises/ includes
concrete, cement
is

held in place/ secured/ supported/ suspended

b
y

joined
to
mounted/ placed/ pivoted
on
Examples
Wood is generally fixed to furniture with joints; sometimes it may be nailed or screwed.
Metal cannot be nailed effectively; it is usually welded or screwed to other metals.
Bricks contain/ comprise clay and sometimes straw and mud only.
Culoare / Colour
Black
green.
Shade
blue.
dark/ light/ pale/ bright/ dull when compared red.
Is
yellow.
Night
to
Grass
Examples
At night the grass does not seem to be green as it is dark
In the shade, colours are not as bright as in sunlight; now they are dull.
Black is the darkest colour we know and yellow is one of the brightest.
Compoziie / Composition

A/An

blend
metal./ steel./ aluminium./ an alloy of A and B./ cloth./ silk./
alloy
is
made of
china./ wood./ plastic./ glass./ assortment.
mixture
Examples
Sometimes a metal is a blend of metals known as an alloy.
Plastic and glass are usually clear and come in an assortment of colours.
Most structures today are a mixture of metal, wood and glass or plastic.
Mrime i greutate / Size and weight

A pencil

A cube

is

is

6 cm

6 cm

long/ high/ wide

in

6 Kg

The

length/ height/ width/ diameter

weight

length/
width/ diameter

height/

of

a small
car

Weight

is

4 metres

600 Kg.
of

A table

Has

A bag of potatoes

length/ width/ height/ diameter

90 cm.

weight

60 Kg.

weighs

10 Kg

Form / Shape
A/An

is

square/
round/
rectangular/
triangular/
semi-circular/ conical/ spherical/ hexagonal/ octagonal/
oval/ circular/ irregular

A/An

is

is shaped like a

A/An

is

cubical/ cylindrical/ pyramidal/ spherical/ tubular/

spiral/ hemispherical/ conical

A/An

is

bulbous/ tapering/ concave/ convex

in shape.
diamond-shaped/
kidney-shaped/
U-shaped/
star-shaped/
bell-shaped/
dome-shaped/ mushroom-shaped/ X-shaped/ crescent-shaped/ egg-shaped/ pear-shaped/ Y-

square/
circle/
hexagon/ octagon

rectangle/

in shape

triangle/

semi-circle

in shape

shaped.
Examples
A football is round and never square or triangular in shape.
A rectangle is measured in mass, and never shaped as tubular or like a pyramid.
An arc can take many shapes diamond, kidney, star or even bell shaped, arcs form arches for us to pass through.

Funcie / Function
The

The

function/
aim/ objective

thermometer
tripod

purpose

is used for

of the

thermometer
tripod

is to

measure
hold a beaker.

temperature.

measuring temperatures.
holding beakers.

Proprieti / Properties
Copper
light/ tough/ soft/ elastic/ malleable/ flexible/ (in)soluble/ a good (bad) conductor of
Lead
is
electricity (heat)/ (not) corrosion resistant/ (non-)combustible/ transparent/ smooth/
heavy/ brittle/ hard/ plastic/ ductile/ rigid/ opaque/ rough
Glass
XX.2.2. Descrierea datelor / Describing Data
n scirerea academic, datele vor trebui uneori prezentate sub forma unor tabele sau grafice. Mai jos, gsii cteva
exemple de elemente de vocabular utilizate pentru a exprima tendine, valori numerice, dar i structura standard a
comentariului asupra datelor respective.
In academic writing, you may have to present data in various ways, such as charts, graphs, and tables. Below, there is
some of the basic vocabulary used to describe trends, express numerical values, as well as the standard format for the
structure of the data commentary. Finally, lexis necessary in presenting data/ research findings in a cautious way is
brought to attention.
XX.2.2.1 Describing Trends
Verbs

Adverbs

Adjectives

Up
go up, take off, shoot up,
soar, increase, rise, grow,
rocket, improve, climb,
escalate
Down
go/come down, fall, fall off,
collapse, crash, drop, slump,
plunge, slide, dip, decline,
decrease, plummet, slip,
shrink

Showing degrees of
change
dramatically,
considerably, sharply,
significantly,
substantially,
moderately, slightly
Showing
change
abruptly,
rapidly,
steadily,
slowly

speed

of

suddenly,
quickly,
gradually,

Showing degrees of
change
dramatic, considerable,
sharp,
significant,
substantial,
moderate,
slight
Showing speed of change
abrupt, sudden, rapid,
quick, steady, gradual,
slow

Noun
increase, a rise, a
growth,
improvement,
upturn,
surge,
upsurge,
upward
trend

fall,
decrease,
decline,
drop,
downturn, downturn
trend

No
change
At
the
top
At
the
bottom
Recover

remain stable, level off, stay at the same level, flatten off, remain constant, stagnate, stabilise, hold steady
reach a peak/ high, peak, top out
reach a low (point), bottom out
pick up, bounce back, rally, recover

Prepositions
to increase by 50% / to fall by 30%

a rise from $10 to $12 /an increase of 7.5 per

cent over last year

Examples of Describing Movement in Graphs

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The market is showing some signs of growth.

The market is extremely volatile.
The pound slipped back against the dollar.
The Swiss franc is staging a recovery.
The lira lost ground slightly.
There's been a dramatic downturn in the market.

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Theres been an upsurge of interest in silver.

The price of corn bootomed out at 115 p.
Sugar peaked at $350 a tonne.
Profits will level off at around $12,000.
Sales hit an all-time low.
There hasnt been much movement in the price of
oil.

XX. 2.2.2. Descrierea datelor numerice / Describing Numerical Data

The following table shows a number in different years (2000-2005):
2000
2005
2200
3300
Tabelul de mai sus ar putea fi descris, utiliznd numere, fracii sau procente:
You could describe the above table using numbers, fractions or percentages:
The number went up by 600, from 2200 to 3300. (Number)
The number went up by half, from 2200 to 3300. (Fraction)
The number went up by 50%, from 2200 to 3300. Percentage)
The number went up 150%, to 3300. (Percentage)
2002
500

2004
1000

2006
3000

2008
12000

Use "trebled," "-fold," and "times:"

The number doubled between 2002 and 2004.
The number trebled between 2004 and 2006.
The number quadrupled from 2006 to 2008
There was a twofold increase between 2002 and 2004.
The number went up sixfold between 2002 and 2006.
The figure in 2006 was three times the 2002 figure.
The figure in 2008 was four times the 2006 figure.
2002
1000

2004
800

2006
400

2008
100

Use Fractions:
Between 2002 and 2004, the figure fell by one-fifth.
Between 2004 and 2006, the number dropped by a half.
The figure in 2008 was one-tenth the 2002 total.
XX.2.2.3 Structura comentariului asupra datelor / Structure of Data Commentary 2
a. location elements and/or summary statements
b. highlighting statements
c. discussions of implications, problems, exceptions etc.
a. Elemente care precizeaz locaia Location elements and/or summary statements
Starting a Data Commentary
Location
a. Table 5 shows

Summary

b. Table 2 provides

the results of the second

experiment.

c. Figure 4.2 gives

OR

Summary

are shown in Table 5.

The results
of the second
experiment

are provided in Table 2.

are given in Figure 4.2.

Note 1: we can also use linking as-clauses. Pay attention to preposition use!
As shown in table 5, home disks are the most frequent source of infection.
As can be seen in figure 8, infant mortality is still high in urban areas.
As revealed by the graph, the defect rate has declined.
As shown by the data in table 1
As described on page 34
Note 2: Some of the most frequently used verbs are show, provide, give, present, summarise, illustrate, reveal, display,
demonstrate, indicate, suggest.
2

Apud Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Commentary. Ann Arbor, MI:
University of Michigan Press.

b. Expresii pentru accentuarea, sublinierea unor idei / Highlighting Statements

Aceste expresii reprezint seciunile centrale ale comentariilor asupra datelor. Sunt generalizri care pot fi extrase din
detaliile exprimate de datele prezentate, cum ar fi tendine sau regulariti ori descoperiri, informaii de o importan mai
mare sau mai mic pentru demonstraia respectiv.
Highlighting statements are the central sections of data commentaries. They are generalizations that can be drawn from
the details of the data display, such as trends or regularities in the data, more important versus less important findings,
or data on which you can make appropriate strength.
c. Descrierea datelor: grade de siguran / Describing data: Degrees of Certainty
n prezentarea datelor / descoperirile efectuate n urma cercetrii, argumentelor / punctelor de vedere, cercettorii trebuie
s fie precaui i uneori critici. A deveni n mod sigur nesigur este un proces lent, dar necesar.
In presenting data/ research findings or supporting arguments/ viewpoints, academic writers/ researchers need to be
cautious and sometimes critical. Learning to become confidently uncertain is a slow but necessary process.
Degree
certainty/
commitment
complete

of

Verbs

Adverbs
+
adverbial phrases

Is (not)

Certainly
Definitely
Clearly
Undoubtedly
Actually
probably
(is) likely/unlikely
presumably
possibly
perhaps

Will (not)
Must (not)
can/cannot
could(not)
should
(not)
may (not)
might (not)

Strong
partial
less strong

It
is
+
(determiner)
adjective
It is certain
It
is
clear
that

There is a +
possibility + that

determiner

It is almost
certain
It
is
very
(im)probable/
highly
(un)likely that
It is probable/
likely
It is possible

There is a strong possibility that

good
definite
slight
remote

Phrases
for
introducing
partially correct
statements

to a certain/ limited extent (degree)

to some extent (degree)
in a way (sense)
this is partly true (but) there is some truth in (this)
in some cases
up to a point

Dealing
with
imperfect data

This discrepancy may be due to the small sample size.

can be attributed to
can probably be accounted for by
is probably a consequence of
would seem to stem from
People seem to have less confidence in the economy.
appear to
It would seem/ appear that people have less confidence in the economy.
It is said that
X reports that
There is evidence to suggest that
According to this preliminary study,
people have less confidence
Based on informal observations (made by)
in the economy.
In the view of some experts
On the limited data available

Impersonal
(i.e.
commitment
self)

no
of

Generalisation

- the verb tend

People tend to have less confidence in the economy.
- qualifying the subject
A majority of
In most parts of the world
people have less confidence in the economy.
People in most walks of life
- adding exceptions
With the exception of
Apart from
the administrative staff, people have less confidence
Except for
in the economy.
- choosing a weaker verb
Caused (stronger) -> contributed to (weaker)
- various phrases
as a (general) rule, generally, in general, on the whole, by and large, in most cases

Exception/
exclusion

In the independent sentence

Except (prep.) + NP/ Pron. (objective case) = with the exclusion of; other than
No one except Laura knew about it.
Everyone had come except her.
Except (verb)
Present company excepted.
N.B. Except for= different from, apart from
But
I have finished all courses but one.
Save
I enjoyed the trip save the flight.
Apart from
Apart from her, I did not really enjoy the company.
With the exception of
With the exception of the children, all were told what to do.
Bar/Barring
The crop will be excellent bar/barring a disaster.
Otherwise than
Without
In the sentence
Except (conj.)=if it were not for the fact that; otherwise than
I would buy the suit, except that it costs too much.
They did not open their mouths except to complain

XX.3. Clasificri i enumerri / Classifying and Listing3

A clasifica nseamn a grupa i a numi obiecte potrivit unor criterii stabilite anterior privind lucrurile pe care le au n
comun. Clasificrile ajut att autorii textelor, ct i cititorii s neleag trsturile comune ale obiectelor, dar i
diferenele dintre ele. Clasificrile prezint informaii ntr-un mod sistematic i n ordinea importanei lor.
Classifying is an operation of grouping and naming things according to previously established criteria of what they
have in common. Classification helps writers and readers alike to understand shared qualities and features as well as
the differences between things. Along with definitions and listing (i.e. a series of items), classifications are used to
present information systematically and/or in the order of importance.
Iat cteva modele de clasificri:
There are several ways of building up classifications and lists:
3

Adapted from the Academic Phrase Bank, University of Manchester, URL:

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/classifying.htm. Retrieved 10 JUne 2010.

General Classifications
X may be (generally)
divided into
X falls under

three
main
two

classes/ sub-groups/ categories/ types/ sorts

varieties/ headings

There are
The
X
consists of/
comprises/
can be divided into
X may be classified/ grouped

of

according to
on the basis of
depending on
in terms of

Specific Classifications
In the Romanian legal system, X is graded
Jordan (1997)
Harmer
describes

Divided
Xs
classified
grouped
(2007) four basic types of

Y (criterion/ criteria)

according
to
whether
on
the
basis
in terms of
into two broad types: Xis and Xiis

into X and X

.....
of

......

learning context: monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual.

Sample paragraphs: classifying pattern (with signal words underlined)

1. In almost every society, marriage is recognized as the beginning of a new social group. There are three types of
marriage: monogamy, polyandry, and polygyny. Monogamy is the marriage of one man to one woman. Polyandry
permits the marriage of one woman to several men. Polygyny allows a man the option to take and maintain several
wives.
2. The vast majority of children in Britain (87%) attend state schools, which provide compulsory education from the age
of 5 to 16 years. These schools can be classified according to the age range of the pupils and the type of education
provided. There are two types of school: primary and secondary, although in some areas there are also middle schools.
Primary schools cater for children aged 5-11, and secondary schools for ages 11-16 (and in some areas up to 18).
Primary schools can be sub-divided into infant schools (for ages 5-7) and junior schools (for ages 7-11).()
When pupils reach the age of 16 there may be three choices open to them. Firstly, they may leave school. Secondly, they
may stay on at school for two more years if it has a Sixth Form. Thirdly, they may transfer to a Sixth Form College or a
Tertiary College. (Jordan, R.R. (1990) Academic Writing Course, London: Collins)
XX.4. Nararea / Narrating4
Nararea poate fi utilizat n eseurile narative (sau n secvene aparinnd unor texte mai lungi) i, cu ajutorul acestui
procedeu, este prezentat istoria unor aspecte ale temei n discuie, n vreme ce n raporturile de cercetare nararea este
utilizat n seciunile n care se fac referiri la literatura de specialitate, se descriu metodele sau rezultatele cercetrii.
Sistemul verbal complex al limbii Engleze, face nararea dificil, cernd o atenie deosebit i consultarea unor resurse de
gramatic.
Writing about the past is frequently used in academic writing in several ways. It can be used in narrative essays (or
section of larger pieces of writing) dealing with the history of some aspects of the subject matter while in research
reports it is utilised in sections referring to specialist literature, describing methods, reporting results, etc. The complex
English tense system makes it rather difficult and requires particular care and, if needs be, consultation of good English
grammar resources.
Expresii asociate cu utilizarea timpului simple past tense
4

Adapted from the Academic Phrase Bank, University of Manchester, URL:

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/past.htm

Time phrases associated with the use of the simple past tense
For decades,
In the first two decades of the 20th century,
arts developed in an unprecedented way.
At the beginning of the 20th centrury,
During the communist period,
Between 1950 and 1970,
censorship affected a wide variety of areas of activity in
From 1950 and 1970,
Eastern Europe.
In the 1950s and 1960s,
Cuvinte i expresii asociate cu ideea de succesiune, de concordan
Words and prhases expressing sequence
Before
Examples
Before this,
Before they immigrated to Australia, they had quit their jobs as social workers.
For the previous X years, / Prior to
this, / Previously, / X years For the previous 10 years, / Prior to this,/ Previously, they had been employed
previously, / Before
as social workers by a government agency.
before which
prior to which
They immigrated to Australia, prior to which they had quit their jobs as social
workers.
After
When
they had quit their job as social workers, they immigrated to Australia.
As
soon
as
After
For the following X years, they lived and worked in Australia.
Years later, / After / Following
this, / When / Subsequently, / They quit their jobs as social workers for a government agency. Soon/ Shortly/
Soon/Shortly/Immediately afterwards, Immediately afterwards, they immigrated to Australia.
following which
after which
On
quitting
After
quitting
Having
quit

their
their
their

While
During this period,
Throughout this period,
during which
throughout which

jobs,
jobs,
jobs,

they immigrated to Australia.

they worked as social workers for a government agency.

Before they emigrated, they had spent a period in the Capital, during which
they worked as social workers for a government agency.

While
When

they were working for a government agency, they were involved in many
projects for the underprivileged.

During this period,

they were involved in many projects for the underprivileged.

Referine la literatura de specialitate

Reference to specialist literature in the past: simple past tense used (active and passive voice)
The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos
written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept.
Thirty years later, Nash reported three cases of unidentified flu, which
The term sociology was independently re-invented, and introduced as a neologism, by the French thinker Auguste
Comte (17981857) in 1838. (A Dictionary of Sociology, 2006, p.33).
mile Durkheim was a major proponent of theoretically grounded empirical research,seeking correlations between
"social facts" to reveal structural laws. (Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory: Classical statements (6th
ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Pearson Education. p. 94.)

By the turn of the 1960s, sociological research was increasingly employed as a tool by governments and businesses
worldwide.
In 1920, a department was set up in Poland by Florian Znanicki (1882-1958). The Institute for Social Research at the
University of Frankfurt (later to become the 'Frankfurt School' of critical theory) was founded in 1923 (In Encyclopdia
Britannica. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from Encyclopdia Britannica Online).
Expresii temporale asociate cu utilizarea timpului present perfect
Time phrases associated with the use of the present perfect tense
Over the past few decades, the world has seen stunning transformation in communication means.
Since the 1990s, the Internet has developed in a wide variety of domains.
Until recently, there has been little interest in the cognitive aspects of the Internet.
Recently, these questions have been addressed by researchers in many fields.
In recent years researchers have investigated a variety of approaches to X but ....
Up to now, the research has tended to focus on X rather than on Y.
To date, little evidence has been found associating X with Y.
So far, three factors have been identified as being potentially important: X, Y, and Z.
Present perfect tense associated with the mentioning of previous research work in the area of study
A considerable amount of literature has been published on X.
There have been several investigations into the causes of illiteracy (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987).
Sample paragraphs: narrative pattern (with signal words underlined)
1. The origins of universities can be traced back to the Middle Ages, especially in the 12-14th centuries. In the early 12 th
century, long before universities were organised in the modern sense, students gathered together for higher studies at
certain centres of learning. The earliest centres in Europe were at Bologna, in Italy, for law, founded in 1088; Salerno in
Italy for medicine; and Paris, France, for philosophy and theology, founded in 1150. Other early ones in Europe were at
Prague, Czechoslovakia, founded in 1348; Vienna, Austria, founded in 1636, and Yale established in 1701. (R.R. Jordan,
Academic writing course. London: Nelson/Longman, 2nd ed, 1990)
2. Although a few studies have investigated the accuracy of answers to an age question (e.g. Weaver and Swanson 1974,
Perry and Crossley 1950, Myers 1954), with few exceptions (e.g. Kerin and Peterson 1978) the question of how to best
ask age so as to obtain the most accurate data has not been empirically addressed. In a classic book on question
construction, Payne (1950: 1256) implied that asking the age question in two different ways How old are you? or
What is the date of your birth? would result in different and possibly inconsistent answers. Unfortunately, he
provided no data to support this contention. Similarly, Parten (1950:169) merely suggested ways in which the age
question could be posed, such as open-end (date of birth, direct age) or closed-end (categorical format). (Haarman,
Leech, Murray, Reading Skills for the Social Sciences, OUP, 1988)
XX. 5. Comparaia i contrastul / Comparing and Contrasting5
Identificarea i nelegerea asemnrilor i diferenelor dintre dou lucruri implic, de obicei, un proces de analiz prin
care comparm pri specifice ale obiectelor, dar i pe ele n ntrgime. Compararea poate fi o etap preliminar a
evalurii, aa c, prin compararea unor caracteristici al obiectului X cu cele ale obiectului Y, putem decide care sunt mai
importante sau mai utilie.
Identifying and understanding similarities and differences between two things usually involve a process of analysis, in
which we compare the specific parts as well as whole. Comparison may also be a preliminary stage of evaluation so by
comparing specific aspects of X and Y, we can decide which is more useful or valuable.
Comparaia: asemnri / Comparison: Similarities
Within sentence
X
is
exactly/
the same as
X and Y
are
precisely/ just/
5

Adapted from the Academic Phrase Bank, University of Manchester, URL:

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/comparing.htm

with respect/
regard/

virtually/
practically/
almost/ nearly
about
quite
very

reference to
in terms of

similar
comparable
Compared
In comparison
Both

With

X,

X and Y

are

There

Are

a number of/
several/ two

Numerous
have
studies
compared
Across sentences
X is expensive Similarly,/
to produce.
Likewise,/
Moreover,/
In
addition,
/By the same
token,
Y,

to that/
those

Y is

similarities

Between

X and Y

In

X and Y

similarly,/
likewise,

Americans and French are quite similar with respect to cultural stereotypes regarding each other.
Numerous studies have compared the intercultural stereotypes in the Americans and the French and found they are
relatively similar.
Both Americans and French are adamant about each other being arrogant and conceited or domineering, in the sense that
they give lessons to others and do not take criticism.
Americans see the French as arrogant and conceited, always giving lessons to others. Similarly, the French see the
Americans as domineering, in other words not taking criticism from others.
Contrast: Diferene / Contrast: Differences
Within sentence
X
Is
unlike/ dissimilar/ Y
different from
contrasts
Y
with
X and Y
differ
in many respects.
are different/ in every/each respect.
dissimilar
X
produces while/ whereas/ but/ although
500
in spite of
While/
X produced 500,
whereas/
although/ in it is true that X produced 500,
spite of the it cannot be denied that X produced
fact that/
500,
Even though
The main difference/One of the main differences
between X and Y

with respect to cost/size etc

with regard to/ in terms of
price
in that X is larger than Y

produced 700.
producing 700
produced 700.

is

is that X...................., whereas Y.............

X
XX

is
are

a great deal
considerably
(very) much
somewhat
a little
slightly
hardly

Across sentences
X is difficult to On the other hand,
produce.
However,/ In contrast,/
Conversely,
On the contrary,/
Even so,/
Needless to say,
Introducing other peoples opposing arguments
Opponents of Y argue/ believe/ claim
that
Others
oppose this viewpoint
Many people
strongly disagree

bigger

than Y.

Americans and French differ in many respects, such as their attitude to past, language, and social identity.
Americans are different from French with respect to their attitude to the past.
Whereas Americans base their social identity on the individual, the French prefer being members of a group.
The French are more likely than Americans to value their past.
The French are more likely to value their past than Americans.
The main differences between Americans and French people come from education. According to psychoanalyst Pascal
Baudry, schools help American kids become independent and autonomous while French kids learn the principle of
authority.
According to psychoanalyst Pascal Baudry, schools help American kids become independent and autonomous.
Conversely/ In contrast, French kids learn the principle of authority.
Sample paragraph: Comparison and contrast pattern (with signal words underlined):
There are more similarities between the French and the Japanese than with the French and Americans. In both France
and Japan the relation with the authority principle, the individual and the group, and others are very similar. Likewise,
the two countries have a long feudal history and are tradition-bound. On the other hand, the French and the American
share a long-standing tradition of cultural stereotyping and clichs.
XX.6. Cauz i efect / Cause and Effect6
nelegerea i soluionarea problemelor reprezint un proces central muncii academice. Totui, soluiile nu pot aprea
dect dac problema este analizat complet, ceea ce implic nelegerea cauzelor i efectelor. Cauza poate arta care este
drumul parcurs de un eveniment sau o idee, pentru a ajunge s fie ceea ce este n prezent. Consecinele evenimentului
sau ale ideii reprezint efectele. Uneori cauzele i efectele unei idei sau eveniment sunt prezentate n paragrafe diferite,
dar pot aprea adesea n acelai paragraf.
Understanding and suggesting solutions to problems is at the heart of much academic work. However, solutions cannot
be suggested unless the problem is fully analysed, and this involves a thorough understanding of the causes and the
effects. The cause may show what lead to the event or idea that is, what caused to become what it is now. The
consequences of the event or idea are the effects of it. Cause or effect paragraphs are sometimes written separately; in
this case, one paragraph will state the causes, and the other will give the effects. Often, though, both the cause and the
effect are combined into a single paragraph. Some of the language that you may find useful for explaining causes and
effects is listed below:
VERBS
Lack of adequate resources
may
cause/
can
lead
to poverty and injustice
can result in
can give rise to
Much of the instability
stems from
The economic effects of
6

Adapted from the Academic Phrase Bank, University of Manchester, URL:

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/causes.htm

the war
Interpersonal and community
violence

caused
by/
resulting
produced by/ stemming from

from
poverty, ...

NOUNS
The most likely causes of X are poor diet and lack of health care.
A consequence of chronic deprivation is a feeling of insecurity.
Social advocacy is an important factor in helping people undo negative coping.
Many other variables have an influence on poverty levels.
Another reason why Xs are considered to be important is that ...
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
A great number of people owing
to/
because
of wrong
become poor
as a result of/ due to
policies.

economic

ADVERBIAL PHRASES
Wrong economic policies are
often applied,

thus/ thereby

a great number of people

become poor.
perpetuating the poverty
cycle.

SENTENCE CONNECTORS
Many
people
encounter Therefore,
chronic deprivation.
Consequently,
Because
of
As a result (of this),

they develop a feeling

of insecurity.
this,

Sample paragraph: cause and effect pattern (with signal words underlined)
Until World War I, the United States had always been a debtor nation. The value of the goods and services we imported
often exceeded the value of the goods we sold to foreigners, and foreigners were investing far more in the United States
than Americans were investing in other countries. Thus we had to pay interest and dividends to investors abroad. During
World War I, the situation was reversed. The war-torn nations of Europe needed U.S. goods, so our exports more than
doubled, while the value of the goods we imported declined. By 1919 we had become a creditor nation foreign nations
owed more to the United States than the United States owed to them. This net credit position continued until 1985, at
which time the United States once again became a net debtor nation. The value of our imports greatly exceeded the
value of our exports, and foreigners were investing heavily in U.S. securities, largely because of the relatively high
interest rates here. [Note: A chronological listing is also evident in this paragraph, but the cause and effect relationship of
the events is the major emphasis.]
(Gordon, S.D., and George G.Dawson. Introductory Economics. 7th ed. Lexington: D.C.Heath. 1991. 433

XX.7. Exemplul / Exemplifying and Illustrating7

Exemplele sunt utilizate pentru a susine argumentaia autorului. De asemenea, contribuie la o nelegere mai bun a
conceptelor mai dificile sau abstracte. Uneori studenilor li se cere s dea exemple pentru a demonstra c au neles
corect un concept sau o problem complex.
Examples and illustrations are given to support the authors claim, argument. They can also be used to help the reader/
listener understand unfamiliar or difficult concepts, which are then easier to remember. In their turn, students may be
required to give examples to show they have understood a complex problem or a concept.
Examples as the main information in a sentence
This is shown/ exemplified/ illustrated by
For example/ instance,

Examples
This is shown/ exemplified/ illustrated by the authors
choice of words.
'There are a number of rules you must abide by. For
instance, you may not use the swimming pool
unsupervised.'

Adapted from Academic Phrasebank, Manchester University, URL:

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/examples.htm

A key experiment shows/ exemplifies/ illustrates this.

By way of illustration, X (2004) shows
A classic/ well-known example of this is
An example of this is the study carried out by X
(2005) in which
X illustrates this point/ shows this point clearly.
This is shown by the following examples,
The following are examples of this:
The following is a case in point:
This can be illustrated briefly by
Another example of what is meant by X is
is a case in point.
institutions such as the family
Examples as additional information in a sentence
..., such as
, for example
, including...

Several researchers wanted to prove this thesis. For

example,
Compulsory activity for over 50s job seekers.
Experiment shows good start.
By way of concrete illustration Herbart instances the
common observation that the properties of things exist
only under external conditions. (Wikipedia)

XX.8. Clarificarea / Explicaia /Clarifying/Explaining/Putting it in other words

Prin acest procedeu, autorul explic semnificaia unor concepte dificile prin repetarea informaiei, utiliznd cuvinte
diferite. E important s nelegem c este vorba de aceeai informaie, exprimat ntr-un mod diferit.
The lecturer will try to explain the meaning of difficult concepts. To do this he or she may repeat the information using
different words. It is important to recognise that this is the same information expressed differently and not new
information.

In other words, /Or rather,/ That is to say,/ Basically/

To put it another way,/ If we put that another way,/ By
which I mean/ Or you could say/ The point I'm
making is /That is to say,/ That is, /Namely,/ i.e./ That
means
What I

am
suggesting
am trying to say
meant to say
should have said

Foreign policy is the total involvement of the American

people with peoples and governments abroad.
That means that, if we are to achieve a new standard of
leadership, we must think in the total context of our
situation.

Is

Let me put it another way.

Foreign policy is the total involvement of the American people with peoples and governments abroad.
That means that, if we are to achieve a new standard of leadership, we must think in the total context of our situation.
In the civilized world, a man is permitted to have only one wife. In many tribal communities, however, different kinds of
polygamy, or multiple marriages, are commonly practiced
XXI. Types of Essays
XXI.1. Eseul argumentativ/ Eseuldiscursiv
The Argumentative/ Discursive Essay
Funcia eseului argumentativ este s arate c aseriunile autorului (opinii, teorii, ipoteze) privind anumite probleme sunt
corecte i mai aproape de adevr dect cele ale celorlali, legate de tema n discuie.

E important de reinut c autorii nu trebuie s-i demonstreze punctul de vedere complet. Ei trebuie doar s-i conving
cititorii c poziia lor e mai corect i mai complet dect celelalte.
Exist dou tipuri majore de eseuri argumentative i se grupeaz pe 6 paragrafe.
The function of an argumentative essay is to show that a writers assertion (opinion, theory, and hypothesis) about some
issues is correct or more truthful than others' relating to the same/similar topic.
Notice should be made that writers do not have to completely prove their point. Actually, they should only convince
reasonable readers that their argument or position has merit; i.e., that it is somehow more accurate and complete than
competing arguments.
There are two main types of argumentative essays, which are often organised in a 6-paragraph format presented in the
table below:
For and against
Authors present both sides of an issue,
discussing points in favour or against, or the
advantages and disadvantages of a particular
question.

Opinion
Authors present their personal opinion, clearly stated
and supported by reasons and/or examples.

Introduction

Introduction

Paragraph 1
State topic (without stating your opinion)

Paragraph 1
State the topic and your opinion

Main body

Main body

Paragraphs 2 3
Arguments for and justifications, examples or
reasons

Paragraphs 2 4
Viewpoints and reasons/examples

Paragraphs 4 5
Arguments against and justifications, examples
or reasons

Paragraph 5
Opposing viewpoint and reason/example

Conclusion

Conclusion

Final paragraph
Balanced consideration or opinion

Final Paragraph
Summarise/restate your opinion

XXI.2. Structura eseului de comparaie i contrast / Comparing and contrasting essay-structures

1. First compare, then contrast (or
vice versa).

Focuses on the comparison and contrast instead of on the two ideas being
compared and contrasted.

2. First do one idea, and then do

the other.

Compare and contrast ideas by treating one idea thoroughly before taking
up the second one.

3. Only compare or only contrast.

Writers who only compare two ideas sometimes briefly mention the
contrast in the introduction and then move on so that they do not lead
readers to think they cannot make relevant distinctions. Writers who only
contrast ideas sometimes briefly summarise similarities in the conclusion
so they do not leave the impression that they are thinking in opposites.
XXI.3. Structura eseului de tip cauz efect / Cause and effect essay structure

Pattern
Introduction of general topic

Sample Outline
Background to traditional Romanian diet, and recent changes

Specific areas to be covered in this

essay
Essay section i (Causes)
Cause 1
a) subsection
b) subsection
Cause 2
a) subsection
b) subsection
Essay section ii (Effects)
Effect 1
a) subsection
b) subsection
Effect 2
a) subsection
b) subsection
Effect 3
a) subsection
b) subsection
Conclusion
Summary of main points (and look to
future)

This essay will cover first causes, then effects

Causes of increased fast-food consumption
Changes in commercial practice
a) Power of advertising
b) Loss of local shops
Changes in lifestyle
a) Longer working hours
b) Two working parents
Effects of increased fast-food consumption
Vitamin deficiencies
a) subsection
b) subsection
Obesity
a) subsection
b) subsection
Loss of 'food culture'
a) subsection
b) subsection
Conclusion
Increase in fast-food consumption generally = negative (possible
changes to improve diet in the future)

XXI.4. Structura eseului de clasificare / Classification essay structure

Structure
Introduction
Background information
Thesis

Give a preview

Body
1.

2.

First Category
a) Topic Sentence
b) General
explanation
c) Specific
examples
d) Concluding
sentence

Second Category
a) Topic Sentence
b) General
explanation
c) Specific

Name the overall group

to be classified.
State
principle
of
classification
and
purpose, if needed
List your
briefly

categories

Name first category

Describe characteristics
Describe a member of
this category
Remind the reader that
you have used the
example to illustrate the
category.

Example
In the early twentieth century, close to twenty-six
million people attended nickelodeons weekly. This
number is due to the fact that silent movies could be
understood by all.
During the silent picture era, movie studios produced
three main categories of films. The western, slapstick
comedy, and romance genres were used repeatedly
during the early motion picture production.

Western films were very popular due to a number of

factors. First, directors of western films, such as John
Ford and W.D. Griffith, went to great lengths to include
footage of the surrounding land and its beauty when
editing their films. The public was not as well traveled
in the early years of this century, and it enjoyed
watching films of places they had not been.
A central theme of the western film was good versus
evil. Frequently, the climax included a villain who had
terrorized a town in a fight or shootout involving the
sheriff or the "good guys."
Men enjoyed westerns, as the stars in the movies were
men they could identify with or emulate.

examples
d) Concluding
sentence
Etc.
Conclusion
Summary of categories
Restatement of thesis

Briefly
list
the
categories, taking care to
reword them.
May require restating the
principle
of
classification,
your
purpose
and
final
opinion in relation to this
purpose.

Unfortunately, silent films, whether western, slapstick

comedy, and romance, are no longer made. Though
voiceless films were understood everywhere and were
intelligible in all languages, the film industry started
production of talkies. However, their themes were
universal and common to all populations and today's
audience still just as easily understands the westerns,
romances, and comedies of the past.

XXI.5. Structura eseului descriptiv / Descriptive essay structure

n scrierea academic, studenilor li se cere adesea s descrie obiecte, locuri, evenimente sau procese. Structura acestor
eseuri este, n general, linear i cronologic, urmnd criterii logice care se potrivesc temei n discuie.
In academic writing, students are usually required to describe objects and places, sequences of events (see the narrative
essay) and processes. Their structure is generally linear and chronological and follows logical criteria that match the
requirements of the subject matter.
Structure
Introduction
Major aspects of the
subject

Body
Description of aspect
A
Description of aspect
B
Description of aspect
C
Etc.

Conclusion

Example
Nova Scotia General Overview
Nova Scotia is one of the three Maritime and one of the four Atlantic provinces of Canada. On
July 1, 1867, Nova Scotia became one of the founding members of the Canadian
Confederation. The province's name, which is Latin for New Scotland, was first applied to the
region in the 1620s by settlers from Scotland. In this essay, I am going to focus on three major
aspects, that is its physical geography, its history, and its economic development.
Physical Geography
Nova Scotia is bordered on the north by the Bay of Fundy, the province of New Brunswick,
Northumberland Strait, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and on the east, south, and west by the
Atlantic Ocean. Nova Scotia consists primarily of a mainland section, linked to New
Brunswick by the Isthmus of Chignecto, and Cape Breton Island, separated from the mainland
by
the
Strait
of
Canso.
Nova Scotia can be divided into four major geographical regions-the Atlantic Uplands, the
Nova Scotia Highlands, the Annapolis Lowland, and the Maritime Plain. The Atlantic Uplands,
which occupy most of the southern part of the province, are made up of ancient resistant rocks
largely overlain by rocky glacial deposits. The Nova Scotia Highlands are composed of three
separate areas of uplands. The western section includes North Mountain, a long ridge of trap
rock along the Bay of Fundy; the central section takes in the Cobequid Mountains, which rise
to 367 m (1204 ft) atop Nuttby Mountain; and the eastern section contains the Cape Breton
Highlands, with the province's highest point. The Annapolis Lowland, in the west, is a small
area with considerable fertile soil. Nova Scotia's fourth region, the Maritime Plain, occupies a
small region fronting on Northumberland Strait. The plain is characterized by a low, undulating
landscape and substantial areas of fertile soil.

* *

Appendix:
Lista Verbelor Neregulate cel mai frecvent utilizate
List of most frequently used Irregular Verbs
Infinitive (base form)
be
become
begin
bend
blow
break
bring
begin
build
burn
buy
catch
choose
come
cost
cut
do
draw
dream
drink
drive
eat
fall
feel
find
fly
forget
get
give
go
grow
have
hear
hit
hold
hurt
keep
know
lay
lead
learn
leave
lean
lend
let
lie
light
lose
make
mean
meet

Past Simple
was/were
became
began
bent
blew
broke
brought
began
built
burnt/burned
bought
caught
chose
came
cost
cut
did
drew
dreamt/dreamed
drank
drove
ate
fell
felt
found
flew
forgot
got
gave
went
grew
had
heard
hit
held
hurt
kept
knew
laid
led
learnt
left
leant
lent
let
lay
lit
lost
made
meant
met

Past Participle
been
become
begun
bent
blown
broken
brought
begun
built
burnt/burned
bought
caught
chosen
come
cost
cut
done
drawn
dreamt/dreamed
drunk
driven
eaten
fallen
felt
found
flown
forgotten
got/gotten
given
gone
grown
had
heard
hit
held
hurt
kept
known
laid
led
learnt
left
leant
lent
let
lain
lit
lost
made
meant
met

101

pay
put
read
ring
run
say
see
sell
send
show
sing
sink
sit
sleep
spend
stand
steal
swim
take
teach
tear
tell
think
throw
understand
wake
wear
weep
win
withdraw
write

paid
put
read
rang
ran
said
saw
sold
sent
showed
sang
sank
sat
slept
spent
stood
stole
swam
took
taught
tore
told
thought
threw
understood
woke
wore
wept
won
withdrew
wrote

paid
put
read
rung
run
said
seen
sold
sent
shown
sung
sunk/sunken
sat
slept
spent
stood
stolen
swum
taken
taught
torn
told
thought
thrown
understood
woken
worn
wept
won
withdrawn
written

102