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Module M08
Measurement of temperature
Paul Regtien, Eva Kurekov, Martin Halaj
8.1 Introduction
Temperature is a thermodynamic state quantity defined by the efficiency of the reversible Carnot cycle. When considering a reversible Carnot cycle, working between the same baths with certain temperatures, its efficiency depends only on those temperatures and does not depend on the thermometric
material used. This enables it possible to define a thermometric scale based only on thermodynamic
laws and therefore independent of the thermometric material being used. Based on this definition, the
gas thermometer is realised, utilising a gas (e.g. hydrogen or helium) whose properties are close to the
properties of an ideal gas.
Lord Kelvin defined a thermodynamic scale based on the triple point of water, i.e. based on the
equilibrum between three states of water (ice, water and saturated vapor). The triple point of water has
the following value on a thermodynamic scale:
T = 273.16 K
The basic unit of the thermodynamic temperature is the kelvin (K) defined as the 273.16 part of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
Due to the historical definition of temperature scales, the degree Celsius (symbol (C) is used as a
temperature unit also, The Celsius temperature (symbol t) is defined as the difference between the
thermodynamic temperature T and the temperature T0 = 273.15 K:
t(C) = T(K) 273.15
(8.1)
According to this definition, the degree Celsius is equal to the kelvin (1K = 1C). Temperatures can be
expressed either in kelvin or in degree Celsius. Indeed, t = T.
The Fahrenheit temperature scale is primarily used in the USA. The ice melting point is set at 32 F
and the water boiling point reaches 212 F. The scale is divided into 180 F between those two points.
Conversion from Fahrenheit to Celsius temperature and vice versa is performed by the following equations
(F) = (9/5) t + 32
(8.2)
t(C) = (5/9)( - 32)
(8.3)
where
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is temperature expressed in Fahrenheit,

t
is temperature expressed in Celsius.
Although gas thermometry is the most accurate method for temperature measurements, it requires expensive laboratory equipment and is very time consuming. Therefore, the General Conference for
weights and measures (CGPM) introduced an International practical temperature scale in 1927. That
temperature scale has been gradually updated and corrected. Its latest version (1990) is called ITS-90
(The International Temperature Scale of 1990).
The ITS-90 defines the so called International Kelvin temperature, symbol T90 and an International Celsius temperature, symbol t90. The relation between T90 and t90 is the same as between T and t,
i.e.
t90(C) = T90(K) 273.15
(8.4)
The thermodynamic temperature T,as well as the temperature T90, have the same value kelvin. Similarly, Celsius temperature t and temperature t90 have the same unit degree Celsius, The ITS-90 is designed in such a way that for any temperature within its whole range, the numerical value of T90, is a
close approximation of the numerical value of T. That approximation is performed according to the
best estimations known at the time of the ITS-90 establishment. Compared to the direct measurement
of the thermodynamic temperature T, measuring the temperature T90 is easier.
The ITS-90 covers the temperature range from 0.65 K to the highest temperature that can be practically measured by Plancks radiation law for monochromatic radiation. The whole scale is divided into
several ranges and sub-ranges. Some of these ranges are overlapping. Several definitions of the temperature T90 exist in overlapping areas, having an equal status. Deviations in the numerical values obtained by different definitions at the same temperature can be determined by very precise measurements. In most situations these deviations can be neglected.
Four major ranges are considered in the ITS-90:
1) in the range 0.65 K to 5.0 K T90 is defined by the pressure of 3He and 4He vapours,
2) in the range 3.0 K to 24.5561 K (triple point of neon) T90 is defined by the helium gas thermometer,
calibrated in three defined fixed points,
3) in the range 13.8033 K (triple point of hydrogen equilibrium) to 961.78 C (freezing point of silver) T90 is defined by the platinum resistance thermometer, calibrated in specified fixed points,
4) above 961.78 C (freezing point of silver) T90 is defined by specific fixed points and Plancks radiation law.
Specified fixed points of the International Temperature Scale ITS-90 are shown in table 8.1.
According to the ITS-90, triple points have defined fixed points. A triple point is a temperature at
which three states (solid, liquid and gas phase) of a particular material or mixture are in equilibrium.
The triple point of water is used most often for defining the temperature unit.
A glass cell is used for the realization of the triple point of water. The water properties are precisely
specified, and the water is hermetically sealed in a cell. The space above the water level is a vacuum.
Borum silicate glass or siliceous glass is most often used for the container.
Preparation for the triple point of water consists of two phases and is performed minimally 48
hours before the actual measurement. The first phase consists of creating an ice sheath that covers the
thermometric bushing used for thermometer immersion. The ice sheath can be prepared in different
ways, for example by adding dry ice, liquid nitrogen, by special instrumentation, etc. The water triple
point cell should be placed into an environment with temperature closely above 0 C for 24 hours as a
minimum. A suitable environment is a mixture of water and ice.
The second phase consists of releasing the ice sheath from the cell. It starts by inserting a siliceous
tube or rod at room temperature into the thermometric bushing. The next step is slowly heating by bare
hands, slowly rotating the cell. When properly released, the ice sheath should freely rotate within the
cell.
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After having thus prepared the water triple point cell it is again inserted into a thermostat. Before
starting the actual temperature measurement, one must cool the thermometer close to the temperature
of the triple point of water. Only after cooling can the thermometer can be inserted into the prepared
cell. Temperature measurement can start about 20 minutes after thermometer insertion.
Realisation of the triple point of argon is even more complicated. A vacuum must be created in the
vessel during the first phase, later the argon is cooled by liquid nitrogen. To create a homogenous distribution of all three phases (the solid, liquid and gaseous); solid argon must be heated by a spiral
heater.
Table 8.1 Defined fixed points according to the International Temperature Scale ITS-90
Number Temperature
Material
Status
Wr(T90)
T90 (K)
t90 (C)
3 to 5
-270.15 to
-268.15
He
saturated steam
13.8033
-259.3467
e-He2
triple point
17
-256.15
e-He2 or He
saturated steam or gas
20.3
-252.85
e-He2 or He
saturated steam or gas
24.5561
-248.5939
Ne
triple point
0.008 449 74
54.3584
-218.7916
O2
triple point
0.091 718 04
83.8058
-189.3442
Ar
triple point
0.215 859 75
234.3156
-38.8344
Hg
triple point
0.844 142 11
273.16
0.01
H2O
triple point
1.000 000 00
10
302.9146
29.7646
Ga
melting point
1.118 138 89
11
429.7485
156.5985
In
freezing point
1.609 801 85
12
505.078
231.928
Sn
freezing point
1.892 797 68
13
692.677
419.527
Zn
freezing point
2.568 917 30
14
933.473
660.323
Al
freezing point
3.376 008 60
15
1234.93
961.78
Ag
freezing point
4.286 420 53
16
1337.33
1064.18
Au
freezing point
17
1357.77
1084.62
Cu
freezing point
0.001 190 07
8.2 Principles of temperature measurement

Two categories of temperature measurement are distinguished: contact thermometry and radiation
thermometry. In the first category the object, of which the temperature is being measured, should make
proper contact with the temperature sensor. This has the immediate consequence of (thermally) loading the measurement object. Furthermore, it takes time to heat up the sensor, according to a first order
response. The time constant is determined by the heat capacity of the sensor and the heat resistance be-
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tween the sensor and the object. The second category is based on the measurement of (thermal) radiation of the body whose temperature has to be measured. The radiation is directed to the temperature
sensitive device whose temperature rises accordingly. The thermal load in this method is considered to
be negligible.
In general, thermometers utilise several basic principles:
1) the thermal expansion of solid, liquid or gaseous thermometric materials. The temperature is derived either from the volume change of the thermometric material at constant pressure (dilatation
thermometers) or determined from the pressure change of the thermometric material at constant
volume (pressure thermometers),
2) change of the electrical properties are related to the temperature change. The following phenomena are applied:
a) the dependency of the electrical resistance of conductors or semiconductors on temperature.
Such sensors are called resistance thermometers or thermistors,
b) the generation of a thermoelectric voltage in a circuit created by junctions of two different metal
conductors and the junctions being subjected to two different temperatures (so called Seebeck
effect). Such sensors are called thermocouples,
3) sensing of the total radiation energy. Solid and liquid materials emit thermal radiation at each temperature above absolute zero,
4) utilisation of the spectral radiance of the measured object. When the temperature of the measured
object increases, its spectral radiance increases.
8.3 Dilatation thermometers

Dilatation thermometers utilise the principle of volumetric (or linear) expansion of gaseous, liquid or
solid thermometric materials at constant pressure. When the temperature of the thermometric material
changes, its volume changes accordingly. This change is characterised by the coefficient of volumetric
(respectively linear) expansion.
The following equation describes the temperature dependence of the sensors active length over a
limited temperature range:
l = l0(1 + ls t)
(8.5)
where
ls is the average coefficient of the linear expansion,
l is the final length,

l0 is the original length,
t is the temperature change.
Over a limited temperature range the volumetric change can be expressed as

V = V0(1 + vs t)
(8.6)
where
vs is the average coefficient of the volumetric expansion,

V is the final volume,
V0 is the original volume,
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t is the temperature change.

Liquid thermometers and rod thermometers belong to the group of dilatation thermometers.
8.3.1 Liquid thermometers

Liquid thermometers are based on the volumetric expansion of the liquid. They are available in different designs,
styles and measurement ranges. Let us mention some
types of liquid thermometers: stick thermometers, enclosed scale thermometers, stem thermometers with attenuated scale, maximum-minimum and contact liquid
thermometers (Figures 8.1 and 8.2).
At the lower end of each liquid thermometer a glass
vessel filled with a thermometric liquid is located. The
vessel proceeds to a thin capillary with a marked thermometric scale. The scale can be alternatively placed on
a separate glass or porcelain plate behind the capillary.
When the temperature increases, the volume of the thermometric liquid must increase as well, being forced to
rise in the capillary. The position of the liquid level indicates the measured temperature value.
Most frequently the thermometric liquid is mercury.
Its physical properties are very suitable for temperature
measurement it has a high volumetric expansion, good
thermal conductivity, good chemical stability, etc. Certain organic materials such as alcohol, toulon, pentan,
xylan, benzolan, etc. can also be used for temperature
measurement.
The measuring range of liquid thermometers is determined by the pressure within the thermometer as well as
by the melting and boiling temperatures of the thermometric liquid contained in them. The melting point of
mercury is 38.97 C and its boiling point is 357 C defined at normal atmospheric pressure (101 324 Pa). To
obtain a higher measuring range, the pressure above the
thermometric material is increased, by increasing its boiling temperature. For instance, the measuring range of a
Fig. 8.1 Glass stick thermometer
mercury thermometer at 6 MPa reaches up to 750 C.
a) for partial immersion, b) for total imThermometers are available with a wide variety of
mersion
scale divisions. The finest scale division is about 0.05 C,
1 bulb, 2 capillary, 3 glass tube, 4
immersion line, 5 scale, 6 expansion
the most coarse one is up to 20 C. The measurement acchamber
curacy of liquid thermometers is affected namely by the
capillary phenomena, temperature stability of the thermometer glass component and the way the device is used.
The glass stick thermometer is a typical example of a liquid thermometer. Stick thermometers are
available in two designs for partial immersion (see Fig. 8.1a) and for total immersion (see Fig. 8.1b).
Both designs are similar, the difference lies in the arrangement of the temperature scale. The thick wall
glass tube 3 with capillary opening 2 in the center represents the basic part of the thermometer - stem.
The capillary expands to the bulb 1 at the lower end, the expansion chamber 6 is created at the upper
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end. An excessive volume of thermometric liquid can fill that space when the measuring range is exceeded. Thermometric liquid is normally only present in bulb 1 and capillary 2 during a measurement.
Scale 5 is usually marked at the outer surface of the tube. An immersion line 4 is shown on the scale of
thermometers that are intended for partial immersion.
Enclosed scale thermometers (see Fig. 8.2a) have a thermometric scale on a separate glass or porcelain plate. This plate is usually firmly attached to the capillary and they are sealed together in glass.
A stem thermometer (see Fig. 8.2b) contains a stem instead of a vessel at the lower end. The full
length of the stem should be immersed in the substance to be measured, ensuring that the scale is always outside the vessel. Stem thermometers are manufactured in different shapes that include straight,
rectangular, bent (under an angle of 120), and they may be either short or long.
When a larger measuring range and a finer scale division is required, the thermometer length could exceed the
recommended value of 500 mm. Therefore, the use of a
thermometer with attenuated scale is preferred for precise
readout in a certain range (see Fig. 8.2c). The thermometer capillary is widened in certain places so that this space
contains a larger amount of thermometric liquid corresponding to the attenuated range. The scale can be attenuated at several places within the range except at the
calibration positions (e.g. water triple point, water boiling
point, etc.). A set of Alinhs thermometers is recommended, in which the respective measuring range is divided into three to seven separate thermometers, each of
them having a widened capillary set in different positions.
The function of the maximum and minimum (Sixs)
thermometer is to register the maximum and minimum
temperature during a certain period (see Fig. 8.3a). The
thermometric liquid (alcohol in most cases) is located in a
main bulb. The bulb end is a U-shaped stem. Part of the
stem capillary is filled with alcohol, the U-bend is usually
filled with mercury. When the temperature increases, the
alcohol expands and moves the mercury column. A small
metal float (index) with a friction hook floats on the mercury level (see Fig. 8.3b).
After reaching the maximum temperature, the mercury
column starts to drop. Due to the friction hook the metal
float adheres to the capillary wall and does not drop with
the mercury level. The lowering mercury column at the
other side pushes the second float up to the level of
minimum temperature. A new temperature rise moves the
mercury column again and the metal float adheres at the
position of the minimum temperature. Before conducting
Fig. 8.2 Mercury thermometers
a new measurement both floats should be reset by a small
a) enclosed scale thermometer, b) stem
magnet, otherwise the floats will only be pushed to a new
thermometer, c) thermometer with attenuposition when they exceed the previous maximum or
ated scale
minimum temperature.
Contact thermometers are used for temperature controlled electric switching; they use the electrical
conductivity of mercury to realise an electrical switch. Two basic design types are available with
fixed contacts (see Fig. 8.4a) and with movable contacts (see Fig. 8.4b). Contact thermometers were
often used for on-off temperature regulation or as a thermal fuse. Recently they have most often been
replaced by bimetal thermometers.
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A contact thermometer with movable contacts consists of a thermometric part and a contact part
(see Fig. 8.4b). The solid contact 1 is located at the upper part of the stem. The mercury column 2 is
supplied by energy through that contact. A platinum wire 3, fixed in a square nut 8, represents the
movable contact. The platinum wire and the signal wire are electrically connected through connection
4, friction contact 5, spindle 6 and square nut 8. When spinning the adjustment spindle, the square nut
is forced to move in a vertical direction and accordingly adjusts the position of the end of the platinum
wire. The selected switching temperature is adjusted as is indicated by the square nut at scale 7. When
the thermometer is heated, the mercury column rises to a position corresponding to the adjusted
switching temperature and touches the end of the platinum wire, closing the electrical circuit. As the
thermometer is hermetically sealed, the operator cannot rotate the adjustment spindle. Therefore a
magnetic clutch 9 is used.
Fig. 8.3 Maximum and minimum thermometer

a) scheme, b) metal float (index) with friction hook
Fig. 8.4 Contact thermometers

a) with fixed contacts, b) with fixed and movable
contacts
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Contact thermometers with movable contacts have circuits with a transistor relay switch. According
to the design and relay used, the reproducibility of the switching temperature is only 0.0018 C at 50
C measuring range and 0.1 C scale division. The operating life of this type of thermometer is about 6
million switches. A mercury fill, enables temperature switching within a range of 38 to 600 C.
8.3.2 Rod thermometers

Rod thermometers utilise the thermal expansion of the material according to formula (8.3). The thermal expansion coefficient is not constant but varies with temperature. Therefore, its average value ls
is used over a given temperature interval. The thermometer thus obtains a linear static characteristic
over a restricted operational range. Metal rod thermometers and bimetal thermometers are described in
more detail in the following sections.
Metal rod thermometer
Metal rod thermometers are based on the different thermal expansion of two materials (see Fig. 8.5).
The thermometer rod is made of a material with a large thermal expansion, e.g. brass, steel, zinc, aluminum or nickel. The rod is located in a casing with the smallest possible thermal expansion, e.g. invar, siliceous glass, porcelain or glass. The rod and casing are firmly connected at one end, whereas
the other end of the rod moves freely in the casing and moves the thermometer index. When the temperature changes about t, the rod expands about y1, whereas the casing expands only about y2 at
the same time (see Fig. 8.5a). Therefore, the total difference between the rods free end and casing is
equal to:
y = y1 - y2 = l(l1 - l2)t
(8.7)
where
y is the resulting displacement of both the rod end and the casing end,
l is the basic (nominal) length of the thermometer,
t is the measured temperature difference,
l1 is the thermal expansion coefficient of the rod,
l2 is the thermal expansion coefficient of the casing.
Fig. 8.5b shows a design scheme of the metal rod thermometer with a system to transfer the expansion
of the measuring rod to the index of the thermometer. Typical measuring range reaches -30 to 1000
C. A disadvantage of metal rod thermometers is a lower accuracy (permissible error up to 2% of the
measuring range) and a longer time constant.
Bimetal thermometer
Bimetal thermometers are based on the deformation of two firmly connected metal strips with different
thermal expansion coefficients (see Fig. 8.6a). Strips with the same length are fixed together over the
whole length by welding or pressing. Both connected strips have the same shape at the initial temperature. When heated, they bend towards the side of the metal with the lower thermal expansion. Various
material combinations are used in practice, e.g. invar (36% Ni, 64% Fe) brass (62% Cu, 38% Zn),
invar nickel, invar steel, etc. Increased bending is obtained by the appropriate shaping of the bimetal strip, for instance U-shape strips (see Fig. 8.6b), a flat spiral (see Fig. 8.6c) or a cylindrical spiral
(see Fig. 8.6d) give increased bending.
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Fig. 8.5 Metal rod thermometer

a) expansion of both rod and casing due to temperature, b) one of the possible design schemes
Fig. 8.6 Bimetal strip

a) flat strip, b) U-shaped, c) flat spiral, d) cylindrical spiral
Bimetal thermometers are often used for on-off temperature regulation. One possible connection is
given in Fig. 8.7. A simple bimetal strip 1, fixed at one end, is used as sensitive element. When reaching the desired temperature, the strip bends and touches contact 2, thereby closing the secondary circuit of transformer 5. As a consequence electromagnet coil 3 is activated and opens the heavy-current
contacts 4. When the temperature decreases again, the bimetal strip straightens and the contact 2
opens.
Fig. 8.8 shows a possible design of a bimetal thermometer. The temperature sensitive element is a
bimetal cylindrical spiral 1. The strip is firmly welded to shaft 2 with index 5. The shaft is firmly connected to plug 3, inserted into a stem 4. When the temperature increases, the bimetal strip tries to unfold and thereby rotates shaft 2 and pointer 5. The measured temperature is indicated on dial 6. This
type of thermometer can be used in the range from 40 C to 500 C, with a permissible error down to
1% of the measuring range. This thermometer is resistant against overloading up to 50% of the measuring range. Its disadvantage is that it has a large time constant, up to 40 seconds. The thermometer
can be used in many applications, e.g. in food industry, in gardening, in textile and rubber industry,
etc.
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Fig. 8.7 On-off temperature regulation

1 bimetal strip, 2 contact, 3 electromagnet coil, 4 heavy-current contacts, 5 transformer
Fig. 8.8 Bimetal thermometer with cylindrical spiral strip

1 bimetal strip, 2 shaft, 3 plug, 4 stem, 5 pointer, 6 dial
8.3.3 Pressure thermometers

Pressure thermometers measure the temperature change of a thermometric liquid. This thermometric
liquid is enclosed in a vessel with a constant volume. When the pressure of the thermometric liquid
changes, the thermometer element deforms. This deformation is transferred to a thermometric scale.
Since the pressure in the thermometer is relatively high, the vessel with thermometric liquid is usually
a metal, for instance steel or bronze. The most popular pressure thermometer is the pressure liquid
thermometer.
The thermometric filling must always remain in the liquid phase during operation of the thermometer. Therefore, one can only measure temperatures below the boiling point and above the melting point
of the thermometric liquid. Mercury or organic liquids (xylol, methyl alcohol, petrolum) are often
used.
The thermometric liquid is located in a metal vessel 1 that is fully immersed in the substance of
which the temperature is measured (see Fig. 8.9a). The thermometric liquid passes capillary 2 connecting the metal vessel with the deformation manometer (Bourdon tube) 3. This manometer is connected
to an indicating mechanism. The thermometric liquid fully fills the vessel, capillary and manometer.
When the temperature increases, the metal vessel and thereby the thermometric liquid is heated. This
increases pressure, causing deformation of the Bourdon tube. The deformation is transferred by some
transmission mechanism to the index.
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Fig. 8.9 Pressure liquid thermometer

a) without correction, b) with partial correction, c) with total correction
1 metal vessel, 2 connecting capillary, 3 Bourdon tube, 4 bimetal strip, 5 common index, 6 blind capillary, 7 Bourdon tube
The measurement uncertainty of pressure liquid thermometers is relatively high, in particular those
with long capillaries. It is affected by temperature changes of the surrounding medium in which the
thermometer is placed as well as by the hydrostatic pressure of the thermometric liquid. Therefore,
when the capillary length exceeds 6 meters, partial or total correction of the surrounding temperature
must be undertaken.
With short capillaries partial temperature correction of the indication device (see Fig. 8.9b) is performed, using a suitably shaped bimetal strip 4. It is designed in such a way that, when the temperature
changes, it acts against the deformation of the Bourdon tube. This device compensates for possible indication errors caused by environmental temperature changes.
With long capillaries, having a length up to 50 m, it is necessary that a total temperature correction (see Fig. 8.9c) is performed. This correction eliminates effects of both the environmental temperature on the capillary and the sensitive element (Bourdon tube) as well as the influence of the hydrostatic pressure of thermometric liquid. The whole sensor consists of two systems a measurement system and a correction system. The correcting system is the same as the measuring one but it does not
contain the vessel with thermometric liquid, only a blind capillary 6 and its own Bourdon tube 7. The
liquid filling is the same as in the measuring system. When the temperature in the proximity of the
capillary and the sensitive element changes, both tubes introduce the same deviation at the common
index 5, but with opposite sense, so that their effects cancel.
A major advantage of the pressure liquid thermometer is the possibility of remote temperature
measurement. The measuring range is relatively high, from -39 C up to 600 C. Although the boiling
temperature of mercury is 357 C, the measuring range can be extended to 600 C by increasing the
pressure in the measuring system. Other advantages are the linear static characteristic, a robust design
and a large conversion force, enabling the application of the pressure liquid thermometer in severe
working conditions.
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8.4 Temperature sensors with electric output

8.4.1 Introduction
In this part we present various temperature sensors - resistive sensors, thermocouples, band-gap sensors and special sensors with electronic output. In a separate section we discuss the principles of radiation thermometry. All of these temperature sensors are based on a change in the electrical parameters
due to a temperature change.
8.4.2 Resistive temperature sensors

The resistivity of a conductive material depends on the concentration of free charge carriers and their
mobility. The mobility is a parameter that accounts for the ability of charge carriers to move more or
less freely throughout the atomic lattice; their movement is constantly hampered by collisions. Both
concentration and mobility vary with temperature, at a rate that depends strongly on the material employed.
In intrinsic (or pure) semiconductors, the electrons are bound quite strongly to their atoms; only a
very few have enough energy (at room temperature) to move freely. At increasing temperature more
electrons will gain sufficient energy to be freed from their atom, so the concentration of free charge
carriers increases with increasing temperature. As the temperature has much less effect on the mobility
of the charge carriers, the resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with increasing temperature: its resistance has a negative temperature coefficient.
In metals, all available charge carriers can move freely throughout the lattice, even at room temperature. Increasing the temperature will not affect the concentration. However, at elevated temperatures the lattice vibrations become stronger, increasing the chance of the electrons to collide and hamper free movement throughout the material. Hence, the resistivity of a metal increases at higher temperature: their resistivity has a positive temperature coefficient.
The temperature coefficient of the resistivity is used to construct temperature sensors. Both metals
and semiconductors are used, They are called (metal) resistance thermometers and thermistors, respectively.
8.4.2.1 Resistance thermometer

The construction of a resistance thermometer of high quality requires a material (metal) with a resistivity temperature coefficient that is stable and reproducible over a wide temperature range. By far the
best material is platinum, due to a number of favourable properties. Platinum has a high melting point
(1769 C), is chemically very stable, resistant against oxidation and available with high purity. Platinum resistance thermometers are used as an international temperature standard for temperatures between triple point of the hydrogen equilibrium (13.8033 K) and freezing point of silver (+961.78 C),
but they can be used up to 1000 C.
A platinum thermometer has a high linearity. Its temperature characteristic is given by:
R(T) = R(0) {1 + aT + bT2 + cT3 + dT4 + }
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(8.8)
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with R(0) the resistance at 0 C. The values of the coefficients R(0), a, b, are specified according to
various standards and temperature ranges. As an example, the resistance of a Pt100 is characterized,
according to the DIN-IEC 751 standard, as:
R(0) = 100.00
a = 3.9080210-3 K-1
b = 5.802010-7 K-2
c = 4.273510-10 K-3
for a temperature range 200 C < T < 0 C; for temperatures from 0 C to 850 C the parameters a
and b are the same, and the value of c = 0. Also the tolerances are specified in the standard definition.
For instance, the resistance value of a class A Pt100 temperature sensor at 0 C is 0.06%, which corresponds to a temperature tolerance of 0.15 K. At the upper end of the range (850 C) the tolerance is
0.14% or 1.85 K. Class B sensors have wider specified tolerances, for instance 0.3 K at 0 C. Table 8.2
shows more tolerance values for both accuracy classes.
Table 8.2 Permissible deviations of resistance and temperature for metal resistance thermometers
Accuracy class A
Accuracy class B
Deviation
Deviation
Temperature
-200
0,24
0,55
0,56
1,3
-100
0,14
0,35
0,32
0,8
0,06
0,15
0,12
0,3
100
0,13
0 ,35
0,30
0,8
200
0,20
0,55
0,48
1,3
300
0,27
0,75
0,64
1,8
400
0,33
0,95
0,79
2,3
500
0,38
1,15
0,93
2,8
600
0,43
1,35
1,06
3,3
650
0,46
1,45
1,13
3,6
700
1,17
3,8
800
1,28
4,3
850
1,34
4,6
There also exists resistance temperature sensors having other values than, 100 at 0 C, for instance the Pt1000 with a resistance value of 1000 at 0 C. However, the Pt100 sensor is most popular for industrial applications.
The sensitivity of a Pt100 is approximately 0.4%/K or 0.39 /K. The parameters b and c account
for the non-linear relationship between temperature and resistance. Within a limited temperature range
the non-linearity might be neglected, when medium accuracy is required. The non-linearity error follows from the parameters a and b as given above. For instance, compared to the straight line through
the origin (T = 0) the deviation is
NL(0, T) = b R(0) T2
(8.9)
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which is 0.58 or 1.5 C. When compared to the straight line between two end points (T=0 and T =
Te), the maximum non-linearity is just halfway along the range (T = Te) and amounts:
1
NL(0, Te ) = b R (0) Te2
4
(8.10)
For instance, over the temperature range 0 to 100 C, the non-linearity error is 0.145 or +0.37 C,
occurring at T = 50 C. For accurate temperature measurements, where these errors are too high to neglect them, the standardized expression should be used to calculate the temperature from the measured
resistance value.
Metal resistance thermometers are constructed either with a wire wound resistor or
a film resistor (Figure 8.10). To reduce the
self-inductance of a wire wound resistor, the
wire is bifilarly wound over an isolating
body (Figure 8.10a) - the two coils are in
series but oppositely wound. The design according to Figure 8.10b is used regularly.
Several segments of resistive spirals are
placed in a protecting cover, enabling the
use of a relatively long resistive wire in a
small space. The special layout of a metal
film resistor allows laser trimming of the
value at 0 C (Figure 8.10c). Some sensors
are protected against mechanical damage by
a cover from a robust material with high
thermal conductivity (see the measuring
probe in Fig. 8.10d).
The tolerances and non-linearity errors
discussed so far relate to the sensor only.
Additional errors may arise due to:
- self-heating,
- errors within the interface circuit,
- connecting cable resistance.
Fig. 8.10 Resistance thermometers

a) thin wire bifilarily wounded on the core (1 - thin resistance wire, 2 - glass rod, 3 protecting cover, 4
terminal),
b) spiral in ceramic bushing,
c) thin foil (1 resistance foil, 2 base, 3 protecting
cover, 4 terminals),
d) measuring probe (1 sensing element, 2 protecting cover, 3 connecting wires, 4 terminal)
Self-heating should be minimized by reducing the current through the sensor and ensuring a low thermal resistance to the environment. A measurement current I introduces
heat dissipation of I2R(T) in the sensor. For
example, at 0 C and 1 mA current the dissipation is 0.1 mW. In order to limit the error
due to self-heating to 0.1 C, the sensor should be mounted in such a way that the thermal resistance is less than 103 K/W.
A simple interface circuit for a resistance thermometer is shown in Figure 8.11.
The output voltage of this circuit (assuming ideal properties of the operational amplifier) is:
U0 = E
R3 R4 R (T )

R3 + R4 R3
R1
(8.11)
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Fig. 8.11 Interface circuit using an operational amplifier
With the resistors R3 and R4 the output can be adjusted to zero at an arbitrary temperature (for instance
0C). The resistor R1 sets the sensitivity of the circuit. The accuracy of this interface is set by the tolerances of the voltage source E and the resistances R1, R3 and R4, which all should be chosen in accordance with the required performance of the measurement system.
Resistive sensors are often connected in a bridge configuration, in order to reduce non-linearity and
unwanted, common mode interferences. The effect of cable resistance might be substantial, in particular when the sensor is located at a distance from the measuring circuit. Its influence can be compensated for in various ways. Figure 8.12 shows three basic configurations: a two-wire, a three-wire and a
four-wire configuration. The criterion is zero output at a particular reference temperature (for instance
0 C). In the two-wire case (see Fig. 8.12a) this is achieved by adjusting the bridge with a variable resistor Rn. In the three-wire situation (see Fig. 8.12b) an extra lead resistance is added to the resistor in
the other arm of the bridge (R1). Full compensation is achieved when the wire resistances Rv1 and Rv2
are exactly equal. The four-wire solution (see Fig. 8.12c) is the most expensive, but there are no special conditions required for the elimination of the wire resistances: the bridge is current driven and the
output voltage is measured using a measuring device with high input resistance, so no current flows
through these terminals.
8.4.2.2 Thermistor
A thermistor (contraction of the words thermally sensitive resistor) is a resistive temperature sensor
built up from ceramics. Commonly used materials are sintered oxides from the iron group (chromium,
manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron); the most popular material is Mn3O4. These oxides are doped with
elements of different valence to obtain a lower resistivity giving them semiconductor properties
(mainly of the p-type). Several other oxides are added to improve the reproducibility. To obtain a stable sensitivity; thermistors are aged by employing a special heat treatment process. A typical value of
the drift in resistance after aging treatment is +0.1% per year.
Thermistors cover a temperature range from 100 C to +350 C, but particular types go down to 2
K (ruthenium oxide). Their sensitivity is much larger than that of metal resistance thermometers. Furthermore, the size of thermistors can be very small, so that they are applicable for temperature measurements in or on small objects. Compared to metal resistance thermometers, a thermistor is less stable
in time and shows a much larger non-linearity.
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Fig. 8.12 Connecting of the thermometer to the measuring circuit

a) two-wires wiring, b) three-wires wiring, c) four-wires wiring
The resistance of most semiconductors has a negative temperature coefficient. This also applies to
thermistors. That is why a thermistor is also called an NTC-thermistor or just an NTC. Thermistors
with a positive temperature coefficient PTC also exist. The resistivity of the NTC-material is determined by the concentration of free charge carriers in the material, and this concentration is described by:
n = c e E 2 kT
(8.12)
where
c is a constant,
E is the band-gap energy of the dopant,
k is the Boltzmanns constant,
T is the temperature in K.
Since the resistivity is the reciprocal of the conductivity, and the latter is proportional to the concentration, the resistivity (and hence resistance) of a thermistor varies with temperature according to:
R (T ) = c1ec2
kT
(8.13)
For practical reasons, the expression for the temperature dependence of an NTC is given in a different
way:
R (T ) = R (T0 ) e
1 1
B
T T0
(8.14)
where
R(T0) is the resistance at a reference temperature T0 (usually 25 C),
B is a constant that depends on the type of NTC.
From this equation it follows for the temperature coefficient (or sensitivity) of an NTC:
S=
1 dR
B
= 2 [K-1]
R R
T
(8.15)
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Further, it should be realized that due to the non-linearity of the temperature characteristic, the sensitivity varies with temperature (as also appears from the expression given above). The parameter B is in
the order of 2000 to 5000 K. For instance, at B = 3600 K and room temperature (T = 300 K) the sensitivity amounts 4% per K. At 350 K the sensitivity has reduced to 3% per K. When improved linearity is required; the temperature characteristic can be linearized by a parallel resistor, a series resistor or
alternatively a combination of these. The resistance values can be chosen in accordance with the temperature range and the non-linearity that is required for the specific application. Note that the sensitivity of the linearized NTC network is always lower than that of the NTC itself.
For high accuracy applications, it should be noted that the NTC parameter B is also slightly temperature dependent:
B (T ) = B ( 0 ) {1 + aT + bT 2 }
(8.16)
The coefficients a and b in this expression are composition dependent; for their appropriate numerical
values, the manufacturer should be consulted. An even more precise approximation of thermistor characteristics is the socalled Steinhart-Hart equation:
1
= A+ B ln R + C (ln R )3
T
(8.17)
where
T is the measured temperature (in K),
R is the thermistor resistivity (in ),
A, B, C are constants.
The constants A, B, C can be determined from three equations, resulting from three measurements at
different temperatures: R1 = R(T1), R2 = R(T2) and R3 = R(T3). Further, the following conditions must be
met:
a) -40 C T1,
b) T2, T3 150 C and
c) (T2 - T1) 50 C; (T3 - T2) 50 C,
d) the temperatures T1, T2, T3 should be evenly spaced.
Under these conditions, the accuracy of the data calculated by the Steinhart-Hart equation will be better than 0.01 C.
The resistance value of a thermistor at the reference temperature depends on the material, the doping type and concentration, the device dimension and geometry. Values of R25 (the resistance at 25 C)
range from a few ohm to some 100 k. The accuracy of thermistors is in the order of 1 C for standard types and 0.2 C for high precision types.
Like metal resistive sensors, NTCs also suffer from self-heating. The current through the sensor
should be kept low in order to avoid large errors due to self-heating. Generally, a current less than 0.1
mA is acceptable in most cases (this is called zero power mode). The effect of self-heating also depends on the encapsulation material and on the dimensions and shape of the sensor. In particular the
condition of the environment (gas or liquid, still or flowing) determines the self-heating. A measure
for this effect is the thermal dissipation constant, a figure that is provided by the manufacturer for
various sensor types and various environmental conditions. It ranges from about 0.5 mW/K to some 10
mW/K.
The basic shape of a thermistor is a chip: a slice of ceramic material with metallised surfaces for
the electrical contacts. The device is encapsulated in a coating of thermally conductive epoxy to ensure
mechanical protection and a low thermal resistance to the measurement object. There are various
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shapes available: disc, glass bead, probe, surface-mount (SMD). The smallest devices have a size
down to 1 mm (Figure 8.13).
Fig. 8.13 Thermistors

a) stick thermistor (1 - sensitive stick, 2 holder, 3 protecting foil, 4 protecting cover, 5 insulating substance),
b) flat thermistor,
c) bead-type thermistor (1 core, 2 connecting wires, 3 protecting cover)
To measure the resistance value of an NTC, it can be connected in a single-element bridge (one
NTC and three fixed resistances), or in a half or full bridge configuration (with two or four NTCs).
This type of interfacing is used when small temperature changes or temperature differences have to be
measured. Another useful interface circuit is the one as shown in Figure 8.11, where R(T) is the NTC.
Here, the offset (temperature at zero output) and circuit sensitivity can be adjusted with the resistance
values R1 to R4. When necessary, for R(T) an NTC with linearising resistors can be used, to obtain a
more linear temperature-to-output voltage characteristic. The reduction in sensitivity resulting from
linearisation can be compensated by a higher gain of the interface circuit.
Thermistors are small-sized and low cost temperature sensors, and are useful in applications where
accuracy is not a critical design parameter. They can be found in all kinds of systems, for the purpose
of temperature monitoring and control, for temperature compensation in electrical circuits (amplifiers,
oscillators) and many others. Figure 8.14 shows some typical application examples.
Fig. 8.14 Examples of thermistors applications

a) sequential temperature measurement at several places (Te thermistor, P switch, O resistor, S indicator),
b) compensation of the coils self-heating (Te thermistor, O resistor, C coil),
c) temperature control (Te thermistor, O resistor, VO variable resistor, Z amplifier, R relay)
In addition to NTC thermistors there are PTC thermistors too. The base material is barium or strontium titanate, made semiconductive, by adding particular impurities. The temperature effect differs essentially from that of a thermistor. PTC's have a positive temperature coefficient over a rather re-
208
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stricted temperature range. Altogether they cover a temperature range from 60 180 C. Within the
range of a positive temperature coefficient, the characteristic is approximated by
R (T ) = R (T0 ) e BT
T1 < T < T2
(8.18)
The sensitivity in that range is B (K-1) and can be as high as 60% per K. Figure 8.15 shows a typical
temperature characteristic of a PTC, together with the characteristics of other resistance thermometers,
for comparison. PTCs are rarely used for temperature measurements, because of lack of reproducibility and the restricted temperature range of the individual device. They are mainly applied as a safety
component to prevent overheating at short-circuits or overload.
Fig. 8.15 Characteristics of various resistance thermometers
NTC and PTC can be combined in a network (compound temperature sensor) to create a particular
resistance-temperature characteristic. For instance it is possible to create a temperature characteristic
with a flat plateau over a specified temperature range and a sharp resistance change when the temperature comes beyond that range.
8.4.3 Thermoelectric sensors

The (free) charge carriers in different materials have different energy levels. When two different materials are electrically connected to each other (a couple), the charge carriers at the junction will rearrange due to diffusion, resulting in a voltage difference across this junction. The value of this junction
potential depends on the type of materials used and the temperature. Of course, neutrality is maintained for the whole construction. This phenomenon of a spontaneously generated voltage is called the
Seebeck effect, and the voltage is the Seebeck voltage.
When connecting a number of junctions in series (Figure 8.16), the voltage Us across the series is
the sum of the Seebeck voltages Ui,j across each of the junctions:
( )
U s = U i , j Ti , j
(8.19)
i, j
where Ti,j is the absolute temperature of the junction i,j. Note that Ui,j = Uj,i.
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Fig. 8.16 A series of thermo-voltages
The Seebeck voltage is a particular property of the materials that form the junction. The Seebeck
voltage of a single material is defined as the thermoelectric voltage when connected to a reference material, usually lead. So, the Seebeck voltage of a junction of two materials a and b can also be written
as Uab = Uar + Urb = Uar - Ubr; where r denotes the reference material.
Since the Seebeck voltage is temperature dependent, this property can be used as the basis for a
temperature sensor: a thermocouple. The basic layout of a thermocouple is depicted in Fig. 8.17a. The
thermoelectric voltage across this series of junctions is Us = Uab(T1) + Uba(T2). Obviously, if the temperatures T1 and T2 are equal, the voltages Uab, Uba are equal also, but have opposite sign, so Us = 0.
Fig. 8.17 Thermocouple layouts

a) basic layout, b) hot and cold junction
If, on the contrary, the two junctions have different temperatures, the thermal voltages do not cancel, hence there is a net voltage across the end points of the couple Us = Uab(T1) + Uba(T2) = Uab(T1) Uab(T2). Clearly, thermocouples measure only a temperature difference, not an absolute temperature.
To measure the temperature at one junction, the temperature of the other junction must be known. That
junction is the reference junction or cold junction. It is kept at a constant, well known temperature (for
instance 0 C). The other junction (the hot junction) is connected to the object whose temperature has
to be measured.
Figure 8.17b shows this layout, where T1 is the temperature of the hot junction. To measure the
Seebeck voltage of this junction, the end points of the junction have to be connected to a voltage
measuring device, by electric wires of material c (for instance copper). Now two new junctions are
created, and also two new thermoelectric voltages. The total voltage equals
Us = Uca(T3) + Uab(T1) + Ubc(T4) =

= Uca(T3) + Uab(T1) + Uba(T4) + Uac(T4) =
= Uab(T1) Uab(T4) + Uca(T3) Uca(T4)
When both junctions a-c and b-c have the same temperature (that is: T3 = T4) the last two terms cancel,
and the remaining voltage only depends on the materials a and b of the thermocouple. This voltage is a
measure for the temperature difference T1 T4, with T4 the temperature at the connection point with
material c.
When connecting thermocouples, three basic rules apply:
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1) rule of the inserted conductor a third metal that is inserted between two different metals does not
influence the resulting thermoelectric voltage, when their junctions have equal temperature,
2) rule of the circuit homogeneity if a third conductor is inserted between two conductors having the
same material as the third conductor, this conductor does not affect the resulting thermoelectric
voltage even if the two junctions have different temperatures. This applies under the specific condition that the inserted conductor is made of the same material and has the same internal structure as
the two adjacent conductors,
3) superposition rule when the temperature of the reference junction changes, the whole transfer
characteristic (thermoelectric voltage versus temperature relationship) shifts over the same value.
Unequal temperatures at the nodes of the connecting wires introduce a measurement error. This may
occur when the distance between the measurement junction and the measurement instrument is large,
and as a consequence long connecting wires are needed. The best way to avoid such errors is the extension of the thermocouple wires up to the reading instrument. In general, the wires are too thin and
fragile to ascertain proper operation in an industrial application. Making them thicker will increase the
costs. An alternative is the insertion of what is called a compensation wire. These are wires with different composition, diameter (and lower cost and quality), but having the same thermoelectrical characteristics as the couple itself. They only serve as an electrical connection between the open ends of
the couple and the reference junctions (Figure 8.18).
Fig. 8.18 Compensating wires for remote temperature measurement
Obviously, the connecting cable does not introduce errors if:

- the junctions a-a and b-b have the same temperature, and
- the junctions a-b and a-b have the same Seebeck voltage.
This means that compensation wires should match the type of thermocouple used in the application.
Accurate temperature measurements with thermocouples require careful design of the measurement
system, in particular with respect to the temperatures of the various junctions in the chain of wires, and
with respect to the cold junction. The latter should be kept at a fixed and known temperature, a procedure called cold junction compensation. Various methods for this compensation are shown in Figure
8.19. This figure reviews all the steps to be taken for correct temperature measurement with thermocouples, and the development from systems without compensation to the most sophisticated softwarebased compensation.
The starting point is a T-type thermocouple (Cu-Co). Figures 8.19a and 8.19b show the equivalent
circuits. Suppose the connecting wires of the voltmeter are made of Cu. We like to measure only the
voltage U1 generated in junction J1 by the temperature tJ1. However, the connection of the voltmeter
creates two new junctions J2 and J3. Since J3 is a Cu-Cu junction it does not generate any other thermoelectric voltage. A spurious thermoelectric voltage U2 is generated in the Cu-Co junction J2. So the
voltmeter measures a resulting thermoelectric voltage U = U1 U2 that is proportional to the temperature difference between J1 and J2. This shows that we cannot determine the temperature at J1 without
knowing the temperature at J2 (see Fig. 8.19c).
When we put the J2 junction in a bath with melting ice, its temperature is just 0 C. So J2 acts as the
reference (or cold) junction. The voltmeter indicates a voltage that corresponds to the temperature (in
C) at J1 junction only (see Figure 8.19d). Note that the thermoelectric voltage U2 generated at J2 junction at temperature 0 C is not equal to zero. It is a function of the absolute temperature.
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Module M08
Fig. 8.19 Thermocouple - from a single junction to software compensation

(picture adapted from Newport Omega Co., www.omega.com)
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Module M08
A thermocouple connection according to Figure 8.19d is a special case because the connecting
wires are made of the same material as one of the thermocouple wires. In general, the practical situation is more complicated. Figure 8.19e shows a J-type thermocouple (Fe Co) connected to the voltmeter by iron conductors. This increases the number of metallic junctions (J3 and J4) and thereby also
the number of additional spurious thermoelectric voltages. Further inaccuracy is introduced when both
connecting junctions on the front panel have different temperatures. Therefore, the connecting wires of
the voltmeter are extended and they are terminated in a so-called isothermal block (see Figure 8.19f).
The isothermal block is an electrical insulator but is chosen to be an excellent heat conductor, so
both junctions J3 and J4 have the same temperature. The absolute temperature of the isothermal block
is not important as both junction temperatures are equal and have opposite signs. So, the voltage readout is proportional to the temperature difference between J1 and the reference point. If we replace the
ice bath by another isothermal block, we get the connection according to Figure 8.19g. The isothermal
block will be kept at the reference temperature Tref. As both junctions J3 and J4 have still the same temperature, the read-out voltage does not change.
The next step is the interconnection of junctions J4 and Jref. First, both isothermal blocks are connected, which will not change the output voltage. When extending the iron wire between the junctions
J4 and Jref, the rule of the inserted conductor applies (see Fig. 8.19h). This means that both junctions J3
and J4 are located in the same isothermal block and have the same reference temperature Tref (see Figure 8.19i). A further logical step is to remove the necessity to insert the isothermal block into an ice
bath, which simplifies installation and maintenance of the system. However, the need still arises to
measure the isothermal block temperature (see Figure 8.19j), for instance with a thermistor, thermally
connected to the block. The thermistor resistance is converted to the temperature Tref and afterwards to
the respective reference voltage Uref. From the obtained voltage U1 the actual temperature T1 can be
reconstructed. This procedure is called software compensation.
For situations where the temperature has to be measured simultaneously at various locations, the
compensation hardware for the thermocouples can be shared; this approach is shown in Figure 8.20.
Fig. 8.20 Connection of more thermocouples to a single compensating box

(picture adapted from Newport Omega Co., www.omega.com)
Since a thermocouple consists basically of a junction of two metals (wires), the dimensions of such
a temperature sensor can be very small. The junction itself can be soldered or welded (see Figure
8.21).
A general expression for the temperature dependence of the Seebeck voltage is
1
2
U ab = 1 (T1 T2 ) + 2 (T1 T2 ) + ...
2
(8.20)
So, a thermocouple is a non-linear temperature sensor. Its sensitivity is found by taking the derivative
of the Seebeck voltage to the variable T1:
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dU ab
= 1 + 2 (T1 T2 ) + ... = ab
dt
(8.21)
Fig. 8.21 Design of a thermocouple measuring junction

a) illustrative dimension, b) brazed junction, c) welded junction
Fig. 8.22 Overview of the temperature ranges for some common thermocouples
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Module M08
This parameter is called the Seebeck coefficient, and is a measure for the sensitivity of the thermocouple. Its value depends on the materials a and b, as well as on the temperature. The Seebeck coefficient
can always be written as the difference between two other coefficients:
ab = ar br
(8.22)
with ar and br the Seebeck coefficients of the couples of materials a and r (a reference material) and
b and r, respectively. Usually, as mentioned before, the reference material is lead.
Thermocouple materials should have a Seebeck coefficient that is high (to achieve high sensitivity),
with a low temperature coefficient (to obtain high linearity) and be stable in time (for a good longterm stability of the sensor). Thermocouples cover a temperature range from almost 0 K to over 2900 K
(however not in a single device). The various types are denoted by the characters K, E, J, N, B, R, S and T;
a notation that refers to the temperature range of the particular device. Figure 8.22 shows a graphical
overview of the individual temperature ranges for some common thermocouples.
More detailed properties of these thermocouples are given in table 8.3.
The lower end of the temperature range is 3K (with a copper/gold-cobalt couple). The higher end is
2700 C (with a tungsten-5% rhenium/tungsten-26% rhenium couple). The sensitivity of most couples
from Table 8.3 increases with temperature (see Figure 8.23). For instance, the sensitivity of the E-type
couple at 500C is about 80 V/K. The sensitivity drops sharply at temperatures below 0 C, for most
types.
Fig. 8.23 Static characteristics of the main thermocouples
Thermocouple characteristics are standardized over their working range. Usually, the voltagetemperature characteristic is approximated by a polynomial because the devices are rather non-linear
over their full range:
U = a0t 0 + a1t 1 + a2t2 +, ... + ait i +, ... + ant n

where
U is the generated thermoelectric voltage (mV),

t is the temperature of the measuring junction ( C),
a0, ... an are polynomial coefficients (Table 8.4).
215
(8.23)
Module M08
Table 8.3 Thermocouples overview (table adapted from Newport Omega, Co., www.omega.com)
Alloy combination
Temperature
range (C)2
Ther- Extenmocou- sion
ple
grade3
Code
Lead +
Lead -
Fe
(iron)
Cu-Ni
(constantan)
0 to
750
0 to
200
Ni-Cr
(nickelchromium)
Ni-Al
(nickelaluminium)
-200 to
1250
Cu
(copper)
Cu-Ni
(constantan)
Ni-Cr
(nickelchromium)
N1
B
G1
1
2
3
4
5
a)
b)
Ute (mV)4
Permissible error5
Environment, comments of thermocouple

use
Standard
Special
0 to
42.283
2.2 C or
0.75%
0 to
200
-5.973 to
50.633
-200 to
350
-60 to
100
-5.602 to
17.816
Cu-Ni
(constantan)
-200 to
900
0 to
200
-8.824 to
68.783
Ni-Cr-Si
(nicrosil)
Ni-Si-Mg
(nisil)
-270 to
1300
0 to
200
-4.345 to
47.502
Pt-13%Rh
(platinumrhodium)
Pt-10%Rh
(platinumrhodium)
Pt-30%h
(platinumrhodium)
W
(tungsten)
Pt
(platinum)
0 to
1450
0 to
150
0 to
16.741
2.2 C or
0.75%
b)
2.2 C or
2.0%
a)
1.0 C or
0.75%
b)
1.0 C or
1.5%
a)
1.7 C or
0.5%
b)
1.7 C or
1.0%
a)
2.2C or
0.75%
b)
2.2C or
2.0%
1.5 C or
0.25%
1.1 C or Reducing, vacuum, inert. Limited use in oxidizing at high temperatures. Not recom0.4%
mended for low temperatures.
1.1 C or Clean oxidizing and inert. Limited use in
vacuum or reducing.
0.4%
Pt
(platinum)
0 to
1450
0 to
150
0 to
14.973
Pt-6%Rh
(platinumrhodium)
W-26%Re
(tungstenrhenium)
0 to
1700
0 to
100
0 to
12.426
0 to
2320
0 to
260
0 to
38.564
C1
W-5%Re
(tungstenrhenium)
W-265Re
(tungstenrhenium)
0 to
2320
0 to
870
0 to
37.066
D1
W-3%Re
(tungstenrhenium)
W-25%Re
(tungstenrhenium)
0 to
2320
0 to
260
0 to
39.506
a)
0.5 C or Mild oxidizing, reducing, vacuum or inert.

Good for moisture environment. Low tem0.4%
perature and cryogenics.
Oxidizing or inert. Limited use in vacuum or
1.0C or reducing. Highest voltage change per degree.
0.4%
1.1 C or Alternative to the K type.
0.4%
0.6 C or Oxidizing or inert. Not for inserting into

metal tubes. Beware of contamination. High
0.1%
temperature.
1.5C or 0.6 C or Oxidizing or inert. Not for inserting into
metal tubes. Beware of contamination. High
0.25%
0.1%
temperature.
0.5% over not estab- Oxidizing or inert. Not for inserting into
lished metal tubes. Beware of contamination. High
800 C
temperature. Common use in glass industry.
4.5 C to not estab- Vacuum, inert, hydrogen. Beware of embritlished tlement. Not for oxidizing atmosphere.
425 C
1.0% to
2320 C
425 C
1.0% to
2320 C
425 C
1.0% to
2320 C
Not an official symbol or standard.

Nominal temperature range. Thermocouples can be used also outside this range but the permissible
error is not guaranteed in this case.
Extension grade.
Range of the output voltage, generated within the nominal temperature range.
Stated in C or % of the measured value, whichever is greater.
Over 0 C.
Below 0 C.
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Table 8.4 Coefficients a0... an of the polynomial that represents the relation between the thermoelectric
voltage and temperature (source NIST, http://srdata.nist.gov/its90/download/download.html) part 1/4
Type
0.000 to 630.615
Temperature range (C)
a0
0.000000000000100
a1
-0.24650818346010-3
a2
0.59040421171010-5
a3
-0.13257931636010-8
a4
0.15668291901010-11
a5
-0.16944529240010-14
a6
0.62990347094010-18
a7
a8
a9
a10
a11
a12
a13
a14
E
630.615 to1820.000
-0.389381686210101
0.28571747470010-1
-0.84885104785010-4
0.15785280164010-6
-0.16835344864010-9
0.11109794013010-12
-0.44515431033010-16
0.98975640821010-20
-0.93791330289010-24
-270 to 0
0 to 1000
0.000000000000100
0.000000000000100
0.58665508708010-1
0.58665508710010-1
0.45410977124010-4
0.45032275582010-4
-0.77998048686010-6 0.28908407212010-7
-0.25800160843010-7 -0.33056896652010-9
-0.59452583057010-9 0.65024403270010-12
-0.93214058667010-11 -0.19197495504010-15
-0.10287605534010-12 -0.12536600497010-17
-0.80370123621010-15 0.21489217569010-20
-0.43979497391010-17 -0.14388041782010-23
-0.16414776355010-19 0.35960899481010-27
-0.39673619516010-22
-0.55827328721010-25
-0.34657842013010-28
voltage and temperature (source NIST) part 2/4
Type
-210.000 to760.000
a0
0.000000000000100
a1
0.50381187815010-1
a2
0.30475836930010-4
a3
-0.85681065720010-7
a4
0.13228195295010-9
a5
-0.17052958337010-12
a6
0.20948090697010-15
a7
-0.12538395336010-18
a8
0.15631725697010-22
a9
a10
a11
a12
a13
a14
K
760.000 to 1200.000
0.29645625681010+3
-0.14976127786010+1
0.31787103924010-2
-0.31847686701010-5
0.15720819004010-8
-0.30691369056010-12
-270.000 to 0.000
0.000 to 1372.000
0.000000000000100
-0.17600413686010-1
0.39450128025010-1
0.38921204975010-1
0.23622373598010-4
0.18558770032010-4
-0.32858906784010-6 -0.99457592874010-7
-0.49904828777010-8 0.31840945719010-9
-0.67509059173010-10 -0.56072844889010-12
-0.57410327428010-12 0.56075059059010-15
-0.31088872894010-14 -0.32020720003010-18
-0.10451609365010-16 0.97151147152010-22
-0.19889266878010-19 -0.12104721275010-25
-0.16322697486010-22
Type
a0
a1
a2
a3
a4
a5
a6
a7
a8
a9
a10
a11
a12
a13
a14
N
-270.000 to 0.000
0.000000000000100
0.26159105962010-1
0.10957484228010-4
-0.93841111554010-7
-0.46412039759010-10
-0.26303357716010-11
-0.22653438003010-13
-0.76089300791010-16
-0.93419667835010-19
R
0.000 to 1300.000
0.000000000000100
0.25929394601010-1
0.15710141880010-4
0.43825627237010-7
-0.25261169794010-9
0.64311819339010-12
-0.10063471519010-14
0.99745338992010-18
-0.60863245607010-21
0.20849229339010-24
-0.30682196151010-28
-50.000 to 1064.180
1064.180 to 1664.500 1664.500 to 1768.100
0.000000000000100
0.295157925316101
0.152232118209103
0.52896172976510-2 -0.25206125133210-2 -0.268819888545100
0.13916658978210-4
0.15956450186510-4
0.17128028047110-3
-0.23885569301710-7 -0.76408594757610-8 -0.34589570645310-7
0.35691600106310-10 0.20530529102410-11 -0.93463397104610-14
-0.46234766629810-13 -0.29335966817310-15
0.50077744103410-16
-0.37310588619110-19
0.15771648236710-22
-0.28103862525110-26
217
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Type
Temperature range (C) -50.000 to 1064.180

a0
0.000000000000100
a1
0.54031330863110-2
a2
0.12593428974010-4
a3
-0.23247796868910-7
a4
0.32202882303610-10
a5
-0.33146519638910-13
a6
0.25574425178610-16
a7
-0.12506887139310-19
a8
0.27144317614510-23
a9
a10
a11
a12
a13
a14
1064.180 to 1664.500
0.132900444085101
0.33450931134410-2
0.65480519281810-5
-0.16485625920910-8
0.12998960517410-13
1664.500 to 1768.100
0.146628232636103
-0.258430516752100
0.16369357464110-3
-0.33043904698710-7
-0.94322369061210-14
-270.000 to 0.000
0.000000000000100
0.38748106364010-1
0.44194434347010-4
0.11844323105010-6
0.20032973554010-7
0.90138019559010-9
0.22651156593010-10
0.36071154205010-12
0.38493939883010-14
0.28213521925010-16
0.14251594779010-18
0.48768662286010-21
0.10795539270010-23
0.13945027062010-26
0.79795153927010-30
0.000 C to 400.000
0.000000000000100
0.38748106364010-1
0.33292227880010-4
0.20618243404010-6
-0.21882256846010-8
0.10996880928010-10
-0.30815758772010-13
0.45479135290010-16
-0.27512901673010-19
To calculate the temperature from the measured output voltage, the inverse function applies, i.e. temperature as a function of the generated thermoelectric voltage:
t = b0U 0 + b1U 1 + b2U 2 +,.. + biU i +,.. + bnU n
(8.24)
where
b0, ..., bn are polynomial coefficients (see Table 8.5).

Table 8.5 Coefficients b0... bn of the polynomial that represents the relation between temperature and
the thermoelectric voltage (source NIST, http://srdata.nist.gov/its90/download/download.html) part
1/4
Type
Temperat. range (C)
b0
b1
b2
b3
b4
b5
b6
b7
b8
b9
b10
Error (C)
250 to 700
9.8423321101
6.9971500102
-8.4765304102
1.0052644103
-8.3345952102
4.5508542102
-1.5523037102
2.9886750101
-2.4742860100
700 to 1820
2.1315071102
2.8510504102
-5.2742887101
9.9160804100
-1.2965303100
1.119587010-1
-6.062519910-3
1.866169610-4
-2.487858510-6
-200 to 0
0.0000000100
1.6977288101
-4.351497010-1
-1.585969710-1
-9.250287110-2
-2.608431410-2
-4.136019910-3
-3.403403010-4
-1.156489010-5
0.0000000100
0 to 1000
0.0000000100
1.7057035101
-2.330175910-1
6.543558510-3
-7.356274910-5
-1.789600110-6
8.403616510-8
-1.373587910-9
1.062982310-11
-3.244708710-14
-0,02 do 0,03
-0,01 do 0,02
-0,01 do 0,03
-0,02 do 0,02
the thermoelectric voltage (source NIST) part 2/4
Type
Temperat. range (C)
b0
b1
b2
b3
b4
b5
b6
b7
b8
b9
b10
Error (C)
-210 to 0
0.0000000100
1.9528268101
-1.2286185100
-1.0752178100
-5.908693310-1
-1.725671310-1
-2.813151310-2
-2.396337010-3
-8.382332110-5
0 to 760
0.000000100
1.978425101
-2.00120410-1
1.03696910-2
-2.54968710-4
3.58515310-6
-5.34428510-8
5.09989010-10
0.000000100
760 to 1200
-3.11358187103
3.00543684102
-9.94773230100
1.7027663010-1
-1.4303346810-3
4.7388608410-6
0.00000000100
0.00000000100
0.00000000100
-200 to 0
0.0000000100
2.5173462101
-1.1662878100
-1.0833638100
-8.977354010-01
-3.734237710-1
-8.663264310-2
-1.045059810-2
-5.192057710-4
0.0000000100
0 to 500
0.000000100
2.508355101
7.86010610-2
-2.50313110-1
8.31527010-2
-1.22803410-2
9.80403610-4
-4.41303010-5
1.05773410-6
-1.05275510-8
500 to 1372
-1.318058102
4.830222101
-1.646031100
5.46473110-2
-9.65071510-4
8.80219310-6
-3.11081010-8
0.000000100
0.000000100
0.000000100
-0,05 do 0,03
-0,04 do 0,04
-0,04 do 0,03
-0.02 do 0.04
-0.05 do 0.04
-0.05 do 0.06
218
Module M08
Type
Temperat. range (C)
b0
b1
b2
b3
b4
b5
b6
b7
b8
b9
b10
Error (C)
-200 to 0
0.0000000100
3.8436847101
1.1010485100
5.2229312100
7.2060525100
5.8488586100
2.7754916100
7.707516610-1
1.158266510-1
7.313886810-3
0 to 600
0.00000100
3.86896101
-1.08267100
4.7020510-2
-2.1216910-6
-1.1727210-4
5.3928010-6
-7.9815610-8
0.00000100
0.00000100
600 to 1300
1.972485101
3.300943101
-3.91515910-1
9.85539110-3
-1.27437110-4
7.76702210-7
0.000000100
0.000000100
0.000000100
0.000000100
-0.02 to 0.03
-0.02 to 0.03
-0.04 to 0.02
-50 to 250.
0.0000000100
1.8891380102
-9.3835290101
1.3068619102
-2.2703580102
3.5145659102
-3.8953900102
2.8239471102
-1.2607281102
3.1353611101
-3.3187769100
-0.02 to 0.02
250 to 1200
1.334584505101
1.472644573102
-1.844024844101
4.031129726100
-6.24942836010-1
6.46841204610-2
-4.45875042610-3
1.99471014910-4
-5.31340179010-6
6.48197621710-8
0.000000000100
-0.005 to 0.005
1064 to 1664.5
-8.199599416101
1.553962042102
-8.342197663100
4.27943354910-1
-1.19157791010-2
1.49229009110-4
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
-0.0005 to 0.001
1664.5 to 1768.1
3.406177836104
-7.023729171103
5.582903813102
-1.952394635101
2.56074023110-1
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
-0.001 to 0.002
Type
Temperat. range (C)
b0
b1
b2
b3
b4
b5
b6
b7
b8
b9
b10
Error (C)
-50 to 250
0.00000000100
1.84949460102
-8.00504062101
1.02237430102
-1.52248592102
1.88821343102
-1.59085941102
8.23027880101
-2.34181944101
2.79786260100
250 to 1200
1.291507177101
1.466298863102
-1.534713402101
3.145945973100
-4.16325783910-1
3.18796377110-2
-1.29163750010-3
2.18347508710-5
-1.44737951110-7
8.21127212510-9
1064 to 1664.5
-8.087801117101
1.621573104102
-8.536869453100
4.71968697610-1
-1.44169366610-2
2.08161889010-4
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
1664.5 to 1768.1
5.333875126104
-1.235892298104
1.092657613103
-4.265693686101
6.24720542010-1
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
0.000000000100
-200 to 0
0.0000000100
2.5949192101
-2.131696710-1
7.901869210-1
4.2527777 10-1
1.330447310-1
2.024144610-2
1.266817110-3
0 to 400
0.000000100
2.592800101
-7.60296110-1
4.63779110-2
-2.16539410-3
6.04814410-5
-7.29342210-7
0.000000100
-0.02 to 0.02
-0.01 to 0.01
-0.0002 to 0.0002
-0.002 to 0.002
-0.02 to 0.04
-0.03 to 0.03
Unfortunately, the standards used are not the same for all countries. The wires of thermocouples
and the corresponding compensation wires (extension grades) have standardized colours too (see for
instance Table 8.6), but also these differ completely from country to country. For some popular types
there are now European colour codes (see e.g. www.omega.com).
The Seebeck voltage does not depend on the geometry of the junction. A good electrical contact
will do. Small sized, bear junctions (exposed junctions) react quickly to temperature changes but are
only applicable in a non-corrosive environment. Also sheet-shaped types are available, and are suitable to be glued on a flat surface. An insulating layer around the junction protects the device against
mechanical and chemical damage but lowers the response time, as is clearly shown in Figure 8.24.
The market offers a wide variety of thermocouples, with various shapes, dimensions and protecting
covers. Thermocouples manufactured as separate sensing elements are displayed in Fig. 8.25, thermocouples delivered as measuring probes are shown in Fig. 8.26. A measuring probe intended for mounting into a wall opening is shown in Fig. 8.27.
219
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Table 8.6 Color designation of thermocouples and compensation wiring (source Newport Omega,
www.omega.com)
220
Module M08
Fig. 8.24 Different types of the measuring junction design

a) exposed junction, b) grounded junction, c) insulated junction, d) comparison of the response time
Fig. 8.25 Thermocouples manufactured as separate sensing elements

a) basic type with non-protected connecting wires, b) two separate tubes protecting the connecting wires, c) one
tube with two separate holes protecting the connecting wires, d) protecting tubes shielded by metal net, e) thermocouple with opened measuring junction, f) thermocouple with opened measuring junction and metal cover, g)
sensing junction protected by metal cover with openings, h) design for surface temperature measurement
Metal thermocouples have a relatively low sensitivity. To obtain a sensor with a higher sensitivity,
a number of couples are electrically connected in series; all cold junctions are thermally connected to
each other, as well as all hot junctions (Figure 8.28). The sensitivity of such a thermopile is n times
that of a single junction where n is the number of couples.
Not only junctions of different metals generate thermovoltages, it also happens at a junction of different semiconductors and a junction of a metal and a semiconductor. In particular, p-type silicon and
n-type silicon are used for temperature measurements, because of the compatibility of these materials
with integrated circuit technology. The Seebeck coefficient of silicon strongly depends on the doping
level of the p or n materials, on the temperature and on the structure (monocrystalline silicon, polysilicon, amorphous silicon). Most integrated silicon thermocouples consist of junctions from singlecrystal p- or n-doped silicon and aluminium, because these materials are present in standard IC technology. Typical values of the absolute Seebeck coefficient of such junctions at 300 K are around 1
mV/K, so much higher than metal-metal junctions.
221
Module M08
Fig. 8.26 Measuring probes provided by thermocouples

a) design for easy measurement of surface temperature, b) handy probe for the measurement of surface temperature, c) penetrating measuring probe, d) probe for flowing non-oxidation liquid
As with the metal thermocouples, the sensitivity of semiconductor thermoelectric sensors can be
increased by a thermopile configuration. The planar technology allows the construction of several tens
of junctions on a single silicon chip. Such silicon thermopiles are used for instance in infrared detectors, pyrometers and other thermal sensing instruments. The integration with read-out electronics is an
advantage; the restricted temperature range (450 K) limits the applicability.
8.4.4 Temperature sensors based on bipolar transistors

The relation between the current through a pn-junction and the voltage across it is given by:
U=
kT
I
ln
q
Is
(8.25)
where Is is the saturation current. This equation holds for a pn-diode, and also for a bipolar transistor,
for which I = IC (the collector current) and U = UBE (the base-emitter voltage) applies. The saturation
current varies with temperature according to:
m
I s T e
Ug0
(8.26)
kT
with Ug0 the extrapolated bandgap voltage at 0 K. To use these properties for temperature measurement, the current through the device is kept at a fixed value. Applying this to a bipolar transistor with
zero base-collector voltage yields:
U BE (T ) = U BE 0 + T + R (T )
(8.27)
222
Module M08
where
UBE0 is the extrapolated base-emitter voltage
at 0 K,
is the thermal sensitivity,
R(T) is a small temperature dependent nonlinearity term (of the second order).
In integrated temperature sensors, a combination of two transistors is used, having a fixed

emitter area ratio a and carrying different currents with a fixed ratio r, to cancel the nonlinearities and other common effects. Then, the
difference between the two base-emitter voltages satisfies the relation
U BE = (T ) =
kT
ln a r
q
(8.28)
This voltage is proportional to the absolute

temperature, and a temperature sensor based on
this property is called a PTAT sensor. The market offers several types of integrated circuits
containing a PTAT circuit. Table 8.7 shows
some typical specifications of such a device.
Obviously, the temperature range is limited by
the technology used. Advantages are the easy
interfacing and the low price.
Fig. 8.27 Measuring probe intended for building

into a measuring opening in a wall
(1 sensitive element (thermocouple, resistance
thermometer, ...), 2 protecting tubes, 3 metal
protecting bushing, 4 interpiece, 5 lengthening
bushes, 6 connecting pieces, 7 probe head containing terminals, 8 metal bushing, 9 screwing
cover)
Fig. 8.28 Layout of a thermopile
223
Module M08
Tab. 8.7 Typical specification of such devices

Property
Value/Range
Unit
Operating range
-25, ... +105
Non-linearity (full range)
0,2
Output sensitivity
A/K
8.4.5 Radiation thermometers

8.4.5.1 Physical background
A radiation thermometer responds to the thermal radiation of the body whose temperature has to be
measured. The measurement is essentially contact-free. The total heat flux W of a radiating body is
proportional to the fourth power of its temperature Tr:
W = r Tr4
(8.29)
where
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.66910-8 Wm-2K-4),
r is the coefficient of emission or the emissivity of the radiating surface.
Since the detector itself also radiates heat, the net heat flux as detected by the instrument is
W = r Tr4 dTd4
(8.30)
where
Td is the detector temperature,
d is the emissivity of the detector material. The emissivity of a metal surface ranges from 0.03
(highly polished) to 0.8 (rough surface), and amounts 0.96 for graphitized surfaces. A proper
thermal detector should have an emissivity close to 1.
The heat flux radiated by a body covers a wave-length range that depends on the temperature. The
wavelength where the radiation is a maximum, decreases with increasing temperature (Wiens law of
radiation, see Figure 8.29). For instance, at room temperature this maximum occurs at 9.6 m (IR). A
body at 1000K has its maximum emission at about 3.5 m, but part of the emission is within the visible range of the spectrum (Figure 8.30). Since radiation thermometers operate contact free, they allow
the measurment of very high temperatures, up to 3500 C. Another important advantage is the possibility to measure temperatures of materials having a low thermal conductivity, for instance stone.
A correct temperature measurement using the radiation method requires knowledge of the emissivity. The emissivity is the ratio of the emitted radiation of the actual radiating surface to that of a black
body. Its value depends on the material, the surface condition and the wavelength. Usually, a pyrometer is calibrated using a surface with emissivity equal to 1. If the emissivity differs from 1, the measurement result should be corrected. Since the heat is proportional to T4 (see the equation given above),
the relative measurement error due to an unknown emissivity is 1/4. For example, if the emissivity of
224
Module M08
the radiating surface is 0.6, the correction factor is 0.13. At known emissivity, the inaccuracy of a radiation thermometer is about 0.5 C (at ambient).
Fig. 8.29 Spectral radiation of a black body as a function of wavelength and temperature
(picture adapted from the site http://www.omega.com/techref/iredtempmeasur.html)
Fig. 8.30 The electromagnetic spectrum
Figure 8.31 shows the correction in terms of temperature, for various values of emissivity.
225
Module M08
Fig. 8.31 Temperatures tk with which the measured temperature ts should be corrected, for various values of the
emissivity
(picture adapted from the site http://www.omega.com/techref/iredtempmeasur.html)
8.4.5.2 Pyrometers
Two types of pyrometers are distinguished - the radiation pyrometer and the optical pyrometer.
In a radiation pyrometer the radiation is focussed on a temperature sensitive sensor that will heat
up by the radiation (Figure 8.32). The temperature sensor in a radiation thermometer can be any of the
devices discussed before. If the sensor is a resistive temperature sensor, such as a platinum sensor or a
thermistor, the instrument is called a bolometer. When the heat is measured using a thermoelectric
sensor (a thermocouple, a thermopile or a pyroelectric sensor), it is called a pyrometer.
Fig. 8.32 Radiation pyrometer

1 lens, 2 protecting screen, 3 gold-plated (silver-plated) mirror, 4 sensing element, 5 gearing, 6 adjusting button, 7 input screen
An optical pyrometer contains a filament, which can be electronically heated to a known temperature. In the optical pyrometer presented in Fig. 8.33, the filament is viewed with the hot body in the
background. The temperature of the filament is adjusted until it appears to vanish (when it has the
226
Module M08
same color as the background). So, at this point the filament temperature is the same as the temperature to be measured.
Fig. 8.33 Spectral pyrometer with a changeable intensity of the lamp

a) design, b) bulb filament lighter than measured object, c) measured object lighter than bulb filament
1 input lens, 2 ocular lens, 3 filter, 4 pyrometric bulb
A similar approach is shown in Figure 8.34, where the bulb has a fixed temperature (intensity). In
this case the intensity of the incoming radiation is made equal to that of the bulb using a rotatable
wedge with grading thickness. The wedges position at equal intensity is a measure for the temperature
of the radiating body.
Fig. 8.34 Spectral pyrometer with fixed bulb intensity

a) design scheme, b) gray wedge with graded thickness
1 input lens, 2 ocular lens, 3 filter, 4 pyrometric bulb, 5 grey wedge, 6 index
An alternative construction is shown in Figure 8.35, with two manually adjustable wedges: the
Colour comparison pyrometer. Again, it compares the radiation from the measurement object to that
of a pyrometric bulb. This comparison is now made at two wavelengths. The pyrometer works within
the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, so the wavelengths are 1 = 0.65 m (corresponding
to red) and 2 = 0.55 m (corresponding to green). Both wavelenghts are complementary: together
they yield white light.
When observing the principle design presented in Fig. 8.35, radiation from the measurement object
enters the pyrometer through lens 1 and passes the two-color rotable wedge 2. Here two colours are
separated into red and green rays. The observer rotates the two-colour wedge (i.e. changing the ratio
between red and green rays) until the incoming radiation seems to be white. The radiation from the
measurement object passes the neutral wedge 3 and enters the semi-transparent optical prism 4 with a
silver-coated centre. The pyrometric bulb 5 is heated by a constant current. Its radiation passes filter 6
and the eye observes it as white light. The radiation produced by the pyrometric bulb is then reflected
227
Module M08
by the reflective part of prism 4. Passing through the output lens 7 it is seen by the observers eye. The
observer sees two comparative spots at the same time: light from the bulb and light that has passed
through the wedges. The grey wedge is rotated in such a way as to equalize both radiation intensities
(white light for the observer). The colour temperature is shown on scale 8 of the two-colour rotatable
wedge. The luminous temperature is read from scale 9 of the neutral grey wedge.
Fig. 8.35 Color comparison pyrometer

1 lens, 2 two-colour rotatable wedge, 3 neutral rotable wedge, 4 optical prism, 5 pyrometric bulb, 6
filter, 7 output lens, 8 scale, 9 - scale
In the previously discussed pyrometers, the adjustment is performed manually. Figure 8.36 shows
an instrument in which the incoming radiation is automatically adjusted using a moving diaphragm 2.
The intensity of the radiation is controlled by the position of this diaphragm, and made equal to that of
the light bulb 4. To obtain a high sensitivity and better interference immunity, the radiation is modulated using a chopper wheel 3. It converts the low-frequency spectrum of the radiation (down to 0 at
constant radiation) to a much higher carrier frequency at which the value is set by the rotation speed of
the chopper wheel and the number of transparent areas passing within a single revolution.
Fig. 8.36 Spectral pyrometer with an automatic comparison of the luminous intensity
1 lens, 2 diaphragm, 3 chopper wheel, 4 bulb, 5 sensing element, 6 motor, 7 motor, 8 ocular, 9
demodulator, 10 amplifier, 11 transducer, 12 scale
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Figure 8.37 shows an alternative construction with two wavelengths: the colour ratio pyrometer. It
measures the ratio of two luminous intensities at two different wavelengths 1, 2. Radiation from the
measurement object enters the instrument through lens 1. It passes the semitransparent prism 2 where
it is separated into two parallel beams. Silver-coated mirrors 5 are used for rectification of the two
beams. Both beams pass through a chopper wheel 3 that is driven by a separate motor. The chopper
wheel interrupts the two beams alternately. Both beams arrive at filters 4: one allows red light to pass,
the other allows green light to pass. Mirrors 5 align both beams to a sensing element 7, usually a photodiode. Due to the chopped radiation that enters the two sides of the sensor, an alternate signal is obtained which is amplified 12. The output signal enables rotation of the motor 8, driving the grey wedge
6. The rotation is in proportion to the signal, hence it decreases or increases the radiation intensity in
the lower beam and thereby changing the intensity ratio between the two beams entering the sensing
element. If the ratio is 1 (same intensity of the beams), the control signal is equal to zero. Index 9 is
secured at the same shaft as the grey wedge so that is shows the actual colour temperature. Ocular 10
is used for fixation on the measuring object. The advantage of this instrument is the absence of an internal thermal reference source.
Fig. 8.37 Ratio pyrometer

1 lens, 2 semitransparent prism, 3 chopper wheel, 4 filters, 5 mirrors, 6 rotatable grey wedge, 7
sensing element of the pyrometer, 8 motor, 9 index, 10 ocular, 11 comparator, 12 amplifier
(Remark for clarity the light beam is also shown where the chopper wheel should block the light)
A typical hand-held pyrometer is depicted in Figure 8.38. The built-in laser facilitates focusing the
instrument to the right spot on the object surface whose temperature should be measured.
Fig. 8.38 Handy laser infrared pyrometer
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8.4.5.3 Infrared thermocouples
The sensor in a radiation pyrometer generates a voltage proportional to the temperature rise due to radiation. The sensor can be either a thermocouple (or thermopile) or a pyroelectric sensor, but should
be sensitive to infrared radiation. For this purpose, special infrared sensitive thermocouples are available. The production of such thermocouples represents a significant step in the technology of the noncontact temperature measurement. Infrared thermocouples are relatively cheap and they are suitable
for the measurement of surface temperature for a large number of materials. They are suitable for
measuring the blackbody surface temperature without correction. For bodies with an emissivity <
0.8, a correction must be performed.
Infrared thermocouples utilise conventional thermocouples of the J, K, T or E type. All infrared
thermocouples contain a sensing system detecting the thermal energy radiated from the measured object. The temperature rise is measured directly with the thermocouple. Typical output voltages are in
the mV range. When converting the measured voltage to temperature, the non-linearity of the thermocouple should be taken into account.
Common infrared thermocouples can be used in the range -73 C to 2800 C, although not with a
single device. The range of an individual reaches 30 to 80 C. Thermocouples intended for the measurement of higher temperatures have a significantly wider measuring range, up to 1400 C. The measurement error depends on the thermocouple design and amounts from 1% to 5% of the measuring
range. The time constant is relatively low, from 10 to 300 ms.
Infrared thermocouples are available in a wide variety of designs. There are two basic groups: with
an adjustable and with a fixed distance from the surface being measured. Infrared thermocouples belonging to the first group and have a small focus (normally 1:2). The distance between the thermocouple head and measured object amounts from 0 to 10 mm. They are usually intended for measurement
of lower temperatures, up to 300 C. Thermocouples of the second group have a focus up to 100:1 and
they are intended for measurement of higher temperatures. The distance between the thermocouple
head and the measured object varies from 0 to 2000 mm.
Figure 8.39a shows a basic design of an infrared thermocouple. When an infrared thermocouple is
used in a polluted environment, dirt between the thermocouple head and the measured object can considerably affect the measurement accuracy. Therefore compressed air is used for cleaning the optical
path (see Figure 8.39b). The air pressure can be set to clean either the whole optical path or just the
thermocouple head. When measuring higher temperatures, thermocouple cooling is very important.
Water-cooling (see Figure 8.39c) or air is used. Both types can be further combined with air cleaning
of the optical path (see Figure 8.39d).
Fig. 8.39 Infrared thermocouples

a) basic design, b) with air cleaning for the optical path, c) with water-cooling, d) with water-cooling and air
cleaning for the optical path
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When measuring in a narrow space, one can add a mirror, set under an angle of 45 to the sensor
axis (see Figure 8.40). The mirror is polished to minimize radiation losses due to reflection. The whole
adapter is made of stainless steel.
Fig. 8.40 Mirror utilised for measurement in a narrow area
A further improvement of the applicability of infrared thermocouples has been introduced recently.
Optical fibres are used to connect the optics and the sensing element. This enables measurements in
inaccessible places, where the optics can be up to 10 m away from the sensor. The optics ensure temperature measurements of spot sizes down to 0.1 mm, together with an error of only 1% of the measuring range from 800 C to 1600 C.
Note that, assuming homogeneous radiation over the viewed surface, the distance to the object does
not influence the measurement value, since the viewed surface increases quadratically with the distance whereas the intensity of the radiation decreases accordingly.
Infrared thermocouples can be used in a variety of applications. They are commonly used for temperature measurement of moving (rotating) surfaces. There is interest in measuring the tyre temperatures of racing cars using infrared thermocouples. They can also be used for detecting hot spots on
an integrated circuit chip, for temperature measurements on biological objects, etc. Infrared thermocouples with separated optics, connected via an optical fibre, are also used e.g. for laser control in
metal machining, pressure casting, plasma cutting, flame hardening, continuous casting, etc.
8.4.5.4 Pyroelectric sensors
A pyroelectric sensor is based on the pyroelectric effect. Pyroelectricity is the change of polarization
with temperature. Like piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity occurs in materials with an anisotropic crystal
structure. Normally these materials are not piezo- and pyroelectric : the material contains microdipoles
with disordered orientation; hence the net pyroelectricity is zero. However, the material can be given
this property by a special treatment: poling. At an elevated temperature (above the Curie temperature) an electric field is applied, which align the dipoles. After slowly cooling down the dipoles they
keep their aligned orientation, resulting in a macroscopic piezo- and pyroelectricity. Examples of pyroelectric materials are lead-zirconate-titanate, with a pyroelectricity of about 10-3 Cm-2K-1 and LiTaO3 (lithium tantalate) having a pyroelectric sensitivity of 1.810-4 Cm-2K-1. The temperature should
always remain significantly below that temperature; otherwise the material loses its piezo- and pyroelectric properties.
Pyroelectricity is described by the expression
P = p T
(8.31)
where
P is the change in polarization,
p is the pyroelectric constant,
T is the temperature change.
As with a piezoelectric sensor, the primary measurand is charged, but in a practical device the voltage
across the crystal is measured, using the relation
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Q = A P = A T
(8.32)
where
A is the area of the exposed sensor surface.
The charge Q and voltage U across the element are related by CU = Q, with C the capacitance of the
flat plate capacitor. Since the charge generated by a change in temperature will quickly leak away (the
crystal material has a finite resistance) only dynamic measurements are possible. Therefore, a radiation
temperature sensor with a pyrodetector always contains a modulator. The incident radiation is chopped
by a rotating vane (chopper wheel); creating an alternating temperature (from ambient to exposed
temperature). The resulting AC voltage has an amplitude proportional to the incident radiation, and
hence to the temperature of the radiating body. The AC voltage is demodulated using synchronous detection, to achieve high sensitivity and noise immunity.
Figure 8.41 shows an example of a pyroelectric sensor. The pyroelectric element 1 is connected to
the inner electrode 2 and a conductive body 3 of the sensor, which serves as the outer electrode. The
electrodes are separated by insulation 4.
Fig. 8.41 Simple pyroelectric sensor

1 pyroelectric element, 2 inner electrode, 3 sensor body, 4 - insulation
8.4.6 Special thermometers with electrical output

Special thermometers with electrical output are available for a number of possible applications, covering thermometric standards as well as working measuring instruments. They are intended in particular
for heavy-duty working conditions where conventional thermometers are affected excessively by environmental conditions (e.g. radiation in nuclear applications). Let us mention some types of special
thermometers with electrical output ionic thermometer, quartz thermometer, noise thermometer, ultrasonic thermometer, and thermometers based on quadrupole nuclear resonance.
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Ionic thermometer
Ionic thermometers are based on the leap-wise change in electric conductivity of electrolytes when
they change phase. When the temperature changes, the solid phase changes to liquid and vice versa,
leading to crystal decomposition and crystal formation respectively. Increasing the temperature causes
crystals to decompose, thereby releasing ions and hence reducing ionic conductivity. The conductivity
change manifests itself especially in crystal materials with ionic coupling and depends largely on their
purity. For example, a temperature change of about 1.5 C at 567 C changes the conductivity of
CdBr2 over about 6 orders (see Fig. 8.42a). Another type of electrolyte is HgI2 which conductivity
changes within the interval from 256 to 259 C; for ZnI2 the temperature change lies in the interval
444 C to 446 C, etc.
From the design point of view, the basic part of the ionic thermometer consists of a vessel (diameter approx. 3 to 5 mm, 20 mm long) filled with an electrolyte (see Fig. 8.42b). Two platinum electrodes 2 and a heating element 3 are immersed in the electrolyte 1. A regulator keeps the temperature
inside the vessel at that of the phase change. The size of the heating current is proportional to the
measured temperature. The voltage output signal is directly proportional to the heating power of the
sensor heating part. The permissible error is about 0.5% of the measurement range.
Fig. 8.42 Ionic thermometer

a) static characteristics, b) thermometer with liquid electrolyte
1 electrolyte, 2 platinum electrode, 3 heating element
Quartz thermometer
The resonance frequency of a quartz crystal depends on temperature; this phenomenon can be used for
temperature measurements. With a particular cut crystal one can obtain a very stable resonance frequency that is (almost) independent of temperature. This is used for timer circuits. Cut in another way,
the resonance frequency changes linearly with temperature. The frequency change is about 1000 Hz/K
over a temperature range from -80 C to 250 C, resulting in a temperature resolution of up to 10 K.
To determine the unknown temperature, the crystal is connected to the resonance circuit of a solidstate oscillator. The crystals resonance frequency and thereby also the oscillator frequency changes
temperature. Often, the oscillation frequency is mixed with that of a temperature independent reference oscillator. A counter evaluates the resulting frequency difference.
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Noise thermometer
A noise thermometer uses the temperature dependent generation of (thermal) noise arising from the
random motion of electrons in a resistor. This random motion manifests as voltage fluctuations across
the resistor.
Several approaches can be used to measure the noise voltage and to derive the associated unknown
temperature T:
a) two resistors can be used, one with a constant resistance R0 and a second one with varying resistance R. The resistor R0 is kept at a constant temperature T0, and resistor R is exposed to the unknown temperature T. The same amplifier measures, in repetitive sequence, the noise voltages of
both resistors. Resistance R is adjusted until both voltages are equal. In equilibrium T equals
R0T0/R.
b) another method is based on two equal resistors at two different temperatures. One resistor is kept at
the reference temperature T0, the temperature of the second resistor is detected. The noise voltage
of the resistor, having the higher temperature, is reduced by a precise attenuator, until the voltages
across both resistors are equal. The unknown temperature T follows from the known attenuation
and the known reference temperature T0,
c) when measuring low temperatures, a single resistor can be used, whose noise temperature is measured by two amplifiers at the same time. The unknown temperature T is derived from the noise
voltage at temperature T and the reference temperature T0,
d) when measuring low temperatures, the noise voltage is very low and conventional amplifiers cannot be used. To overcome that problem, voltage-to-frequency conversion is used and thus frequency changes are measured instead of the voltages. A shunt resistor is connected in parallel to
the measuring resistor to reduce the current through the measuring resistor, avoiding self-heating.
A high frequency parametric converter measures the small frequency changes. A proper analysis of
the output signal enables temperature measurements in the millikelvin range with a relative error
not exceeding 0.1% of the measuring range.
Noise sensing elements can be used in combination with conventional metal resistance thermometers
or thermocouples. An example of a noise thermometer combined with a W-Re thermocouple is shown
in Fig. 8.43. Such a thermometer is used in the range up to 2200 C. The sensitive element is a coil 1
made of rhenium. The diameter of the coil wire is about 0.08 mm. This coil is connected to the thermocouple wires 2, with width of about 0.25 mm. A protecting sintered element 3, made of
HfO2powder, eliminates microphonic noise generated by moveable sensor parts. Casing 4 covers the
whole sensor.
Fig. 8.43 Noise thermometer in combination with thermocouple

1 coil, 2 thermocouple wires, 3 protecting element, 4 casing
The principle of the noise thermometer can be utilised in measurement standards as well as is industrial applications. Noise thermometers are used in particular in severe applications where much interference occurs, e.g. atomic power plants, petrochemical industry, petroleum, coal and gas power
plants. In a measuring range from 300 C to 1200 C noise thermometers provide the possibility of
long-term measurement with a permissible error of 0.5 % (in several cases only 0.1%) of the whole
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range. Resistor material, the length of measurement cables, interfering signals, and shielding etc. are
important aspects that should be thoroughly considered when applied in an industrial environment.
Ultrasonic thermometer
Ultrasonic thermometers can be used for the measurement of high temperatures where conventional
thermometers are not suitable. Such situations occur e.g. when measuring the temperature of radioactive fuel. The method is based on the temperature dependent propagation velocity of ultrasonic waves
in a solid body.
Two technologies for the determination of the ultrasonic wave velocity can be distinguished. The
first one detects the ultrasonic resonance using for example a resonator made out of a silicon crystal.
The measurement range is limited to about 250 C. When measuring higher temperatures, metal materials are used, e.g. molybdenum, iridium and sapphire. Another technology is based on a time interval
measurement, applied to a single impulse travelling through a thin wire of rhenium or wolfram. An
acoustic impulse is generated, propagates and reflects at the end of the wire or from another obstacle
in the structure like cuts in the wire surface. A receiver senses the reflected impulse. Resolutions down
to 0.2 C can be reached in 50 mm long sensors, at temperatures up to 2000 C. Spurious effects limit
the resolution to several C in practical applications. For a short term one can measure temperatures up
to 2800 C. Ultrasonic thermometers are robust and resist intensive radiation.
Thermometer based on quadrupole nuclear resonance (NQR)
This thermometer utilises the temperature dependence of the nuclear quadrupole resonance frequencies. Nuclides 35Cl in carrying materials such as KClO3 show electric quadrupole momentum that interacts with electron induced electric field gradients in the grid of the carrying material. Even without
an external magnetic field these interactions are strong enough to be detected, using a radio frequency
measurement bridge.
The NQR frequency f0 of nuclide 35Cl is about 29 MHz. The frequency f0 does not depend on temperature in a homogenous grid. When assuming a real KClO3grid, transversal vibrations of the ClO3
ions, cause fluctuation in the orientation of the electric field gradient. This leads to a rise in the qz
component and thereby the temperature dependence of the resonance frequency. The temperature sensitivity is about 0.1 kHz/K for KClO3 at 15 K. The sensitivity increases with increasing temperature
and amounts to about 2.5 kHz/K at 80 K and about 7 kHz/K at 400 K.
Thermometer utilising nuclear quadrupole resonance can meet many requirements placed on measurement standards as well as on operational thermometers. They provide a high resolution, a large
measuring range (from 0 K to 450 K), and good reproducibility (approximately 1 mK in the range 90
K to 400 K). They provide good long-term stability, and the measured value does not depend on the
size and shape of the sensitive element.
8.5 Indicator thermometers

Several ceramic corpuscles, thermometric colours, pencils, lacquers, pellets, crayons and labels are
used for informative indication of temperature.
Ceramic corpuscles are small; approximately 60 mm high tripod pyramids that are made by pressing several fine milled ceramic materials (see Fig. 8.44a). They are used in metallurgical furnaces for
determining the approximate operating temperature. Placed on a pad, several corpuscles with different
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melting points are inserted into a furnace (see Fig. 8.44b). When the temperature in the furnace approaches the temperature at which the corpuscles soften, they start to bow. The corpuscle with the
lowest melting point starts to bow first. Corpuscles touch the pad at a temperature stated by the manufacturer.
Fig. 8.44 Ceramic corpuscles

a) corpuscle at increasing temperature, b) corpuscles set in a metallurgical furnace
Ceramic corpuscles are provide in sets (e.g. 42 pieces), scaled by 20 C to 50 C for a temperature
range from 600 C to 1540 C. Laboratory and normal ceramic corpuscles (60 pieces) are intended for
temperatures from 100 C to 1980 C. The melting temperature is indicated at each corpuscle.
Thermometric corpuscles indicate the temperature according to the same principle as ceramic corpuscles. Their melting point however is defined with much more precision. The temperature is indicated in a range from 100 C to 1600 C with a permissible error of 4 to 7 C. They are cylindrically
or square shaped; and are constructed from metal alloys.
Thermometric colours and lacquers are delivered either in powdered or liquid form. They can be
utilised once or repeatedly. When used as non-reversible temperature indicators, they do not change
colour back to the original one when cooled down.
Thermometric colours, pencils and lacquers are used to indicate the approximate surface temperature of various objects. The measured surface is painted before heating. Indicated temperature ranges
from 50 C to 1600 C with a permissible error of 1% of the measuring range.
Thermometric colours are made either powdered (mixed in alcohol before painting) or liquid or are
delivered as a spray. They are used for temperature indication of smooth surfaces, rubber, plastic materials, glass or metal. Thermometric colours are colourless at room temperature. When reaching a certain temperature, they change colour. Temperature indication ranges from 40 C to 1370 C.
Thermometric pencils can be single-reversible, double-reversible or fully reversible. Singlereversible pencils have only one reversion temperature, double-reversion ones show two colour
changes at two different reversion temperatures. Reversible pencils return to their original colour when
cooled down. They indicate the temperature of metal objects.
Thermometric pellets (see Fig. 8.45a) and crayons (see Fig. 8.45b) are used in welding, thermal
machining, metal treating, casting, etc. The pellets are placed on the object before heating or marks are
made by thermometric crayon. When reaching a particular temperature, the pellet or the sign turns liquid. They are used in a range from 100 C to 1650 C with a permissible error of 1% over the whole
range. Pellet dimensions can be about 113.5 mm or 3.53.5 mm respectively.
Thermometric labels are intended to indicate a surface temperature of heat exchangers and radiators, bearings and transmission boxes, generators and motors, transformers, etc. Labels can be nonreveresible or reversible.
Non-reversible thermometric labels are solely used for course temperature indication. They contain
one or more (3, 4, 5, 6) indicative boxes of rectangular (see Fig. 8.45c) or circular (see Fig. 8.45d)
shape. The temperature indication is divided in steps of 3C to 5C. The center box is usually white,
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and the temperature indication is shown by a strong colour change (e.g. from white to black). The corresponding reversion temperature is shown in the box. An major advantage of thermometric labels is
their low price. Miniature labels have the diameter of 5 mm with an indicative box of 1.2 mm in diameter. The pad size is about 2245 mm. Labels are delivered in sets to cover a large range.
Fig. 8.45 Special indicative thermometers

a) thermometric pellet, b) thermometric crayon, c) non-reversible rectangular thermometric label, d) nonreversible circular thermometric label, e) liquid crystals label
Reversible thermometric labels cover a temperature range from 40 C to 1370 C with a permissible error of 1% over the whole range. They look similar to non-reversible thermometric labels. Usually they are used in laboratory practice and by the army, as indicative thermometers. They are not
suitable for indicating the temperature of hot water or vapour, flowing liquids, etc.
Liquid crystal labels (see Fig. 8.45e) have the reversible reaction and therefore can be used for
long-duration indication. They are based on selective diffusion of visible light. Liquid crystals are
made of two- to five-component mixtures of materials with a certain degree of regular disposition of
individual molecules. They are delivered in a range from 20 C to 250 C with a resolution reaching
up to 0.1 C. They have a small time constant; they are cheap. and are suited to monitor surface temperatures and temperature distribution as well. Applications cover monitoring of electric parts, transformers, engines, detecting hidden failures of materials, etc. The actual temperature is indicated by a
green colour, the colour at the next lower temperature is blue and at the next higher temperature
brown.
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Module M08

Paul Regtien, Eva Kurekov, Martin Halaj

t(C) = (5/9)( - 32)

is temperature expressed in Fahrenheit,

is temperature expressed in Celsius.

saturated steam or gas

saturated steam or gas

8.2 Principles of temperature measurement

8.3 Dilatation thermometers

ls is the average coefficient of the linear expansion,

l is the final length,

Over a limited temperature range the volumetric change can be expressed as

vs is the average coefficient of the volumetric expansion,

t is the temperature change.

8.3.1 Liquid thermometers

Fig. 8.3 Maximum and minimum thermometer

Fig. 8.4 Contact thermometers

8.3.2 Rod thermometers

Fig. 8.5 Metal rod thermometer

Fig. 8.6 Bimetal strip

Fig. 8.7 On-off temperature regulation

Fig. 8.8 Bimetal thermometer with cylindrical spiral strip

8.3.3 Pressure thermometers

Fig. 8.9 Pressure liquid thermometer

8.4 Temperature sensors with electric output

8.4.2 Resistive temperature sensors

8.4.2.1 Resistance thermometer

Fig. 8.10 Resistance thermometers

Fig. 8.11 Interface circuit using an operational amplifier

Fig. 8.12 Connecting of the thermometer to the measuring circuit

Fig. 8.13 Thermistors

Fig. 8.14 Examples of thermistors applications

Fig. 8.15 Characteristics of various resistance thermometers

8.4.3 Thermoelectric sensors

Fig. 8.16 A series of thermo-voltages

Fig. 8.17 Thermocouple layouts

Us = Uca(T3) + Uab(T1) + Ubc(T4) =

Fig. 8.18 Compensating wires for remote temperature measurement

Obviously, the connecting cable does not introduce errors if:

Fig. 8.19 Thermocouple - from a single junction to software compensation

Fig. 8.20 Connection of more thermocouples to a single compensating box

Fig. 8.21 Design of a thermocouple measuring junction

Fig. 8.23 Static characteristics of the main thermocouples

U = a0t 0 + a1t 1 + a2t2 +, ... + ait i +, ... + ant n

U is the generated thermoelectric voltage (mV),

Environment, comments of thermocouple

0.5 C or Mild oxidizing, reducing, vacuum or inert.

0.6 C or Oxidizing or inert. Not for inserting into

Not an official symbol or standard.

Temperature range (C) -50.000 to 1064.180

t = b0U 0 + b1U 1 + b2U 2 +,.. + biU i +,.. + bnU n

b0, ..., bn are polynomial coefficients (see Table 8.5).

Fig. 8.24 Different types of the measuring junction design

Fig. 8.25 Thermocouples manufactured as separate sensing elements

Fig. 8.26 Measuring probes provided by thermocouples

8.4.4 Temperature sensors based on bipolar transistors

In integrated temperature sensors, a combination of two transistors is used, having a fixed

This voltage is proportional to the absolute

Fig. 8.27 Measuring probe intended for building

Fig. 8.28 Layout of a thermopile

Tab. 8.7 Typical specification of such devices

-25, ... +105