Model Solutions to Examination

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Date:
Subject:

Reservoir Engineering - Well Test Analysis

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES
No. Mk.

1. Complete the sections above but do not seal until the examination is finished.
2. Insert in box on right the numbers of the questions attempted.
3. Start each question on a new page.
4. Rough working should be confined to left hand pages.
5. This book must be handed in entire with the top corner sealed.
6. Additional books must bear the name of the candidate, be sealed and be affixed to
the first book by means of a tag provided

PLEASE READ EXAMINATION REGULATIONS ON BACK COVER

Model Solutions to Examination

ANSWER 1
The general solution is:

PD = t Dxf
Convert dimensionless variables to actual real variables:

PD =

( Pi Pff )2 kh
q

( Pi Pff )

2 kh
q

t Dxf =

kt
C t x f 2

kt
C t x f 2

Now rearrange for Pff:

( Pi Pff ) =

( Pi Pff ) =

q
2 kh
q
2 kh

kt
C t x f 2
kt
C t x f 2

This can be easily rearranged to the following:

Pff

q k
= Pi

2 kh C t x f 2

Which is the equation of a straight line:

y = mx + c

m = -

q k

2 kh C t x f 2

Thus, if a plot of Pff, measured by the downhole pressure transducer,

against t , the square root of the flowing time, is made, the gradient
m, can be evaluated.

Pff = P1

q k

2 kh C t x f 2

Pff - measured by pressure transducer

t - recorded over flow period

Pi - (not important) but measured by RFT or early DST

Plot Pff v

Evaluate gradient through data, m

m =

q k

2 kh C t x f 2

Model Solutions to Examination

q - held constant through test and recorded at surface

- known from PVT test data

h - known from geological modelling

- known from petrophysics/core tests etc

C t - known from rock mechanical testing of cores

k - known - as given in question

= xf =

q k

m 2 kh u C t

The analysis of the plot of Pff v t should be carefully carried out, i.e.
select appropriate data that is not affected by early time effects e.g.
wellbore storage, or late time effects e.g. influenced by boundaries to
flow.

ANSWER 2

a) Gas material balance is given by:

Mg = Mgi - Mgp

(1)

i.e. current mass of gas

in reservoir

= initial mass

- produced mass

of gas in reservoir

of gas

From equation of state:

(PV = ZnRT)

g =

Mg = Vgg

Mass = volume x density

MW.P
ZRT

MW = molecular weight of gas

Define G = Volume of gas at standard conditions

= Vg =

G.sc G.MW.Psc ZRT

=
Z sc RTsc MW.P
g

at standard conditions ZSC = 1

= Vg =

G.Psc TZ
Tsc P

Model Solutions to Examination

This equation can be written, taking account of gas material balance

equation (1) as:

Vg =

(G i G p )Psc Tz
Tsc P

Also, by the same argument:

Vgi =

G i Psc T
Zi
Tsc Pi

T = constant reservoir pressure

For volumetric depletion

Vg = Vgi

(G i G p )Psc Tz
Tsc P

= (G i G p )

G i Psc Tzi
Tsc Pi

Z
Z
= Gi i
P
Pi

P (G i G p ) Pi
=
Z
Gi
Zi

P Pi
P
=
i Gp
Z Zi GiZi

Thus, plotting - against Gp

where P = measured reservoir pressure

Z = compressibility of gas at P
Gp = cumulative gas produced at standard conditions

yields a straight line:

Pi
Zi

P
Z

The data points can be plotted, as above, and the line

extrapolated to = 0.

At this point, Gp = Gi i.e. the initial gas-in-place.

(b)

In most situations the plot will not be valid since

depletion will not be entirely volumetric. The expansion of rock

and connate water will lead to errors in the process, sometimes
of 100%.

Model Solutions to Examination

This is most apparent in abnormally pressured reservoirs where

over-pressure results in gas compressibility and rock and water
compressibility being of similar magnitude. Under such
circumstances, these effects cannot be ignored.

The modification is as follows:

Vg = Vgi - Vg
Vg = Vpi (SwcCw+Cf) P

here Vpi is the initial pore volume

P is the pressure depletion
Swc is the connate water solution
Cw is the water compressibility
Cf is the formation compressibility

Vgi = Vpi (1-Swc )

= Vg = Vgi

Vgi
(SwcC w + C f ) P
(1 Swc )

P
(SwcC w + C f )
= Vg = Vgi 1
(1 Swc )

From before, Vg =

Vg =

=> (G i G p )

(G i G p )Psc Tz
Tsc P
G i Psc Tzi
Tsc Pi

P
Z
Z
(SwcC w + C f )
= G i i 1
P
Pi 1 Swc

=>

(G G p ) Pi
P
P
(SwcC w + C f ) = i
1

Z 1 Swc
Gi
Zi

=>

P
P
P
P
(SwcC w + C f ) = i i G p
1

Z (1 Swc )
Zi GiZi

This will give a straight line only when Cf is constant. This is rarely
the case, since Cf is a pressure dependent quantity. Selection of Cf is
therefore a difficult and important decision if this modified plot is to
be of benefit.

10

Model Solutions to Examination

(c)

The problems with water influx are significant. Not only does

influx affect the material balance

Vg = Vgi - We,

but there are additional effects of gas trapping in the invaded region
of the reservoir/aquifer system.

The management of such fields demands that both reservoir and

aquifer behaviour are understood. The nature of gas sales is to
arrange long term contracts with specified Daily Contracted
Quantities of gas, which are, additionally, subject to swing factors i.e.
the delivery must be able to meet demand above the DCQ, or below,
depending on seasoned variation. In designing such contracts, it is,
therefore, crucially important to fully understand reservoir and
aquifer characteristics, as failure to meet contracts can prove a costly
business.

The DCQ is based on the peak production rate of the reservoir, again
accounting for saving factor. The Annual Contract Quantity = 365
DCQ i.e. saving is balanced. The reservoir model must be able to
predict future performance. In this situation of Water influx, the
material balance equation can be conveniently coupled to an analysis
method which has well testing theory as its routes. The reservoir
becomes the well, while the aquifer becomes the reservoir.

11

Variable rate solution of this familiar problem is required to model the

aquifer performance.

Fetkovich showed that results derived by a quasi-semi-steady state

solution to the problem generated acceptable results, saving on
computation time.

With the material balance and Fetkovich model, the production of the
system can be predicted. The aquifer inner boundary pressure is the
gas reservoir average pressure, so required depletion rates can be
modelled.

The timing of decline will be when:

P = Pg swing i.e. the gas reservoir average pressure is equal to that

required to meet the maximum gas output. Both this and the peak
production rate must be well designed to honour the gas contract.

Production problems include the trapping of gas in the region of water

influx. As water invades the reservoir it displaces gas to a residual
concentration Sgr which becomes lost in terms of production.

The water influx will then be impeded due to relative permeability

effects and pressure maintenance may be affected.

12

Model Solutions to Examination

A major benefit in the management of such fields is to have good

aquifer description which may be achieved by better data gathering
from the aquifer i.e. core sampling. Many characteristic will be
different between reservoir and aquifer not least of which is
permeability, which will be greater in the aquifer due to increased
periods of diagenesis.

With good aquifer data, simulation becomes more valuable, helping the
management process.

ANSWER 3

a) Several factors influence well test design.

Assuming wellbore storage, an estimate of CD, which can be deter

mined from very early time data (for constant compressibility (in
single

phase) and skin (an estimate can be determined from an

earlier well test or from corey time data using type curve matching)
can give an indication of the time needed to reach the semi-log
straight line. So, to be able to set good estimates of k and S, the
straight line on the semi-log plot must be reached (out of wellbore
storage affected region) and at least 1 log cycle of data should be
measured in this region (MTR).

13

In a bounded reservoir, if the geometry of the drainage region (and

- average drainage area) is the objective of the test, then time to
reach the boundaries has to be allocated to the test (reservoir limit
test). In this case, m* is calculated from slope in SSS depletion. In
Cartesian plot m* =
shape factor

q
and
cthA

can be determined. CA Dietz

necessary for the MBH correction. If CA is already

known, the well test only needs to reach the SSS zone. The radius at

4kt
investigation ri = 4t = c gives an indication of the distance that
t
the pressure disturbance traveled, so if the distance to boundaries
(faults, etc) is known (from geophysics, etc), an estimation of time
taken to reach boundaries can also be performed.

For this, relevant data is compressibility of oil, total compressibility

(great uncertainty), estimates of k and S, oil viscosity, porosity,
thickness of formation, and flow rates.

b) A software package can import data in real time and perform an

early time analysis to determine the existence of wellbore storage,
and from type curve matching or derivative (log-log) analysis set CD,
and type curve matching an estimate of K and S can be made and CD
stated before, this can give management an indication of time
necessary to reach MTR region. Analysis of log - log (p vs t) plot can
give a real time indication of when the MTR region is reached
(derivative plateau) and depending on objective of test, the real time

14

Model Solutions to Examination

analysis can continue for the design of the testing in the LTR as
stated before, with some knowledge of the distance to the boundaries.
If this distance is not known, then testing should be extended to
feel them : normally performed after well is drilled.

c) Flow rate is dependent on type of fluid and associated conditions,

such as:

- In oil wells, qo is normally limited by test separator capacity

- In gas wells (exploration), gas rate can be limited by the capacity of
the flaring system
- In High Pressure, high temperature wells, rate can be limited by
the maximum allowable temperature at the wellhead (rating of
elastomers seals).

Production software performing a nodal analysis taking in consideration

all this (separator, chokes, tubing lift performance and reservoir in
flow - needs k and S estimates) can give a good indication of the welltest flow rate or ranges at allowable rates.

15

ANSWER 4

a) This is a very useful plot. Allows the identification of 3 flow

regimes (this diagnostic role is a very important application of the
derivative response) and also allows a precise identification of the
boundaries (in time) of those regimes (another important role of the
log-log derivative diagnostic plot).

MTR)

In this case, the existence of the derivative plateau

indicates the existence of a middle time region (MTR) in radial flow.

ETR)

After a transition period that may be shorter or longer

(depends on geometry of system and well location within it). A period

of half slope is reached, indicating the existence of linear flow.

Following this period, another transition is reached, when the far

boundaries of the system start to affect the pressure response.
When the period of unit slope is reached, the pressure response is
dominated by the bounded reservoir model, being semi-steady-state
depletion beyond that. This transition period is also affected by the
distance to the reservoir boundaries, and if they are reached or not at
the same time. A possible geological interpretation could be a bounded
fluvial channel

16

Model Solutions to Examination

Unit slope period other

boundaries are reached
(SSS depletion)
Radial flow perid

Linear flow perid

For the correct unique interpretation, input needs to be received from

other disciplines such as geology, geophysics, Petrophysics, etc
multidisciplinary task!

b) Not counting a possible wellbore storage dominated period that

would be analysed in the log-log plot, the following specialist plots are
necessary.

Semilog-plot to perform the analysis of the MTR region (derivative

plateau), giving the best estimates of k and S. Flow in the MTR region
(radial) is a straight line in a semilog plot.

I assume the flow periods were already defined in the log-log

derivative plot.

Linear flow plot (

) after the MTR period analysis, the relevant

parameters are stored (k,S) and the linear flow plot can give estimates
of the geometry of the system, L1, L2 and W

17

L1
W
L2

Cartesian flow plot _ in SSS regime, pwf vs t is a straight line at slope

q
ct hA and assuming that ct is known, an estimate of the connected

pore volume can be achieved. This allows the estimation of reserves.

Also the extrapolation of the pressure to t=0 yields a relation with the
Dietz shape factor of the drainage area.

ANSWER 5

i) The lack of uniqueness can be overcome by the input of geologists,

geophysicists, petrophysicists, etc, giving information about the
depositional environment, likely geological structure, faulting, layering
(cores, WFTs) etc.

ii) In some situations, these can be overcome using the Hawkins

equation. AC> the resistivity or equivalent logs can help.

iii) Analysis of cores (permeameter) or WFT measurements can allow

the estimation of vertical profiles for the permeability and identify
layering, etc.

18

Model Solutions to Examination

iv) This can be overcome using an approximation such as:

qs
tp =
Q
tp

Q
qs

Where Q is cumulative production, qs is surface rate and Tp is a

production time accounting for variation in the rate during the test.
The limitation is that before shut in a stabilised rate qs should exist.
This can overcome some variability in the rate (uncertainty). The
continuous development of more precise flowmeters (multiphase) can
also help in reducing uncertainty.

v) A material balance using the pressure decline and estimated

reserves from geology can help in identifying if there is some
pressure support from an aquifer.

b)
i) Lack of uniqueness is an important issue but assuming that there is
some previous geological or geophysical study, the effects of it can be
reduced. In new exploration areas this problem can be more serious,
where data input from other disciplines is still reduced (lack of
information).

19

ii) This is also important because when designing a stimulation

treatment to reduce or overcome the damaged region (acidising,
fracturing), the knowledge of the depth of damage would help in
optimising this.

iii) As long as WFT data (MDT) and/or cores are available, this should
be a minor problem.

iv) This is very important as the transient well test analysis normally
assumes constant and known rate. If this is not the case, then the
analysis is incorrect. Maybe thats why such a large effort is being put
on the development of accurate and reliable multiphase flowmeters.

v) This can be very important because in the exploration & appraisal

stage of a field, especially offshore, the knowledge of whether there
is aquifer support or not would be extremely valuable in optimising the
development cost. (Accounting for water injection support or not and
all the related facilities).

c) The fact that when there are no measurements of initial Pi by WFt

or MDT, some error can be introduced if the pressure transducer is
not at perforation depth. Pi = Ptranducer + h and this h may notbe well
known if there is some cushion fluid going down through valve.

20

Model Solutions to Examination

The calculation of the wellbore storage coefficient assumes

constant single phase compressibility. This can lead to serious errors
in estimating CD because prior to shut-down most oil wells would be in
Z phase flow.

Very important limitation deferred production while test is

being performed (no production at all during buildups) maybe the
largest limitation of well testing from the managers point of view!

21