PP 324

Professor: Luis Alberto Coln Garca

Senior Reservoir Engineering
Pluspetrol Norte S.A.
(Operating Company fields Jungle
Block 1AB & Block 8)

Parameter

Symbol

Dimensions cgs

SI

Darcy

Field

Length

cm

metre

cm

ft

Mass

gm

kg

gm

lb

Time

sec

Sec

sec

hr

Velocity

L/T

cm/sec

metre/sec

cm/sec

ft/sec
stb/d
(liquid)

Rate

L3 /T

cc/sec

metre3 /sec

cc/Sec
Mscf/d
(gas)

Pressure

(ML/T2 )/L2

dyne/cm2

Newton/metre2

atm

psia

(Pascal)
Density

M/L3

gm/cc

kg/metre3

gm/cc

lb/cu.ft

Viscosity

M/LT

gm/cm.sec

kg/metre.sec

cp

cp

metre2

Darcy

mD

(Poise)
Permeability

L2

cm2

DK
-4
-

1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 bbl = 0.159 m3
1 dyne = 10-5 N
1 psi = 6.9 kPa
1 Btu = 1055 J
1 cp = 0.001 Pa s
1 lb = 0.454 kg

1 acre = 4047 m2 = 43560 ft2

1 acre-ft = 1233 m3
1 atm = 101.3 kPa
1 cal = 4.817 J
1 HP = 746 W
1 md = 10-15 m2
1 bar = 100 kPa

1 acre-ft = 43560 ft3

1 acre-ft = 7758 barrels

1 barrel = 5.61458 ft3

Temperature
Pressure
Thickness
Gravity oil
1 atm

Farenheit
Psia
ft.
API
= 14.7 Psia

DK
-5
-

LECTURE 1

How is petroleum formed?

Petroleum is result of the deposition of plant or animal matter in areas
which are slowly subsiding.These areas are usually in the sea or along its
margins in coastal lagoons or marshes, occasionally in lakes or inland
swamps. Sediments are deposited along with that at least part of the
organic matter is preserved by burial before being destroyed by decay. As
time goes on and the areas continue to sink slowly, the organic material is
buried deeper an hence is exposed to higher temperatures and
pressures.Eventually chemical changes result in the generation of
petroleum,a complex,highly variable mixture lf hydrocarbons.

Objectives are to be able to:

Discuss basic elements of Petroleum Systems
Describe plate tectonics and sedimentary basins
Recognize names of major sedimentary rock types
Describe importance of sedimentary environments
to petroleum industry
Describe the origin of petroleum
Identify hydrocarbon trap types
Define and describe the important geologic
controls on reservoir properties, porosity and
permeability

Petroleum Systems approach

Geologic Principles and geologic time
Hydrocarbon Generation, Migration, and
Accumulation
Rock and minerals, rock cycle, reservoir properties
Hydrocarbon origin, migration and accumulation
Sedimentary environments and facies; stratigraphic
traps
Plate tectonics, basin development, structural
geology
Structural traps

Petroleum System - A Definition

A Petroleum System is a dynamic hydrocarbon
system that functions in a restricted geologic
space and time scale.
A Petroleum System requires timely
convergence of geologic events essential to
the formation of petroleum deposits.
These Include:
Mature source rock
Hydrocarbon expulsion
Hydrocarbon migration
Hydrocarbon accumulation
Hydrocarbon retention
(modified from Demaison and Huizinga, 1994)

Cross Section Of A Petroleum System

Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
System

Pod of Active
Source Rock

Essential
Elements
of
Petroleum
System

Overburden Rock
Seal Rock
Reservoir Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock

Petroleum Reservoir (O)

Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

Top Oil Window

Top Gas Window

Sedimentary
Basin Fill

Uniformitarianism
Original Horizontality
Superposition
Cross-Cutting Relationships

K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity

C
E
D

Igneous
Dike

F
B

Disconformity
An unconformity in which the beds above and
below are parallel

Angular Unconformity
An unconformity in which the older bed intersect
the younger beds at an angle

Nonconformity
An unconformity in which younger sedimentary
rocks overlie older metamorphic or intrusive
igneous rocks

Establishes the age equivalence of rock layers

in different areas
Methods:

Similar lithology
Similar stratigraphic section
Index fossils
Fossil assemblages
Radioactive age dating

Geologic Cycle

The cooling and movements of earth inner

molten rocks caused warping and
movements of the crust resulting in the
formation of mountains and valleys.
Erosion /weathering (wind, water and temp)
is the process of earth breakdown into rock
grains.
Rock grains are transported by water and
deposited in the sedimentary basins (valleys
or the sea) in horizontal beds.
Sedimentary beds are uplifted by structural
movements and the cycle is repeated.

Geologic Time

Oldest beds are deposited in the bottom

Due to erosion and /or non-deposition ,
no single sequence is a complete record
of geologic time (table 1)
Paleontology (study of fossils) is used to
define geologic perods.
Natural radioactivity of minerals (Uranium
& Thorium) determines absoluter rock
age.

4.6

Cretaceous

Jurassic

200

Triassic

250

Permian

300

Pennsylvanian
Mississippian

350
400
450

Devonian
Silurian

Ordovician

500
550
600

Cambrian

0 Pleistocene
10

Pliocene

20 Miocene
30 Oligocene
40

Eocene

50
60 Paleocene

Cenozoic Era

150

Mesozoic

100

Recent

Millions of years ago

Tertiary

50

Paleozoic

Millions of years ago

Quaternary

0
Phanerozoic

Epoch

Tertiary
period

Era Period

Cryptozoic
(Precambrian)

Billions of years ago

Eon

Quaternary
period

Geologic Time Chart

LECTURE 2

Rock-forming Source of
process
material

IGNEOUS

SEDIMENTARY

METAMORPHIC

Molten materials in
deep crust and
upper mantle

Weathering and
erosion of rocks
exposed at surface

Rocks under high

temperatures
and pressures in
deep crust

Crystallization
(Solidification of melt)

Sedimentation, burial
and lithification

Recrystallization due to
heat, pressure, or
chemically active fluids

The Rock Cycle

Magma

Metamorphic
Rock

Heat and Pressure

Igneous
Rock

Sediment

Sedimentary
Rock

Weathering,
Transportation
and Deposition

Sedimentary rocks

Are formed by sediments that have settled

into layers. The layers are squeezed
together until they harden into rock.
Formed by the cementation of sediment
grains/particles on or near surface at
ordinary temperature .
Sandstone
Limestone (CaCO3)
Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2

Igneous Rocks

An igneous rock is a rock that had molted

(derriti) but it later cooled and hardened
(endureci).
Formed by solidification of molten
minerals/materials:
Beneath surface (magma):Granite
At surface (lava): Basalt

Metamorphic Rocks

Is an igneous or sedimentary rock that has

been changed (alterada) by heat and
pressure.
Formed
within
earths
crust
by
transformation of other rocks at high
pressure and temperature (marble,slate)

 Relative abundance

Sandstone
and conglomerate
~11%

Limestone and
dolomite
~13%

Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%

Minerals - Definition
Naturally Occurring
Solid
Generally Formed by
Inorganic Processes

Ordered Internal
Arrangement of Atoms
(Crystal Structure)

Quartz Crystals

Chemical Composition
and Physical Properties
Fixed or Vary Within
A Definite Range

Mineral Composition Shale (%)

Sandstone (%)

Clay Minerals

60

Quartz

30

65

10-15

<5

15

<1

<3

<1

Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Carbonate
Organic Matter,
Hematite, and
Other Minerals

(modified from Blatt, 1982)

Quartz

Mechanically and Chemically Stable

Can Survive Transport and Burial

Feldspar

Nearly as Hard as Quartz, but

Cleavage Lessens Mechanical Stability
May be Chemically Unstable in Some
Climates and During Burial

Calcite

Mechanically Unstable During Transport

Chemically Unstable in Humid Climates
Because of Low Hardness, Cleavage, and
Reactivity With Weak Acid

Some Common Minerals

Oxides
Hematite
Magnetite

Sulfides
Pyrite
Galena
Sphalerite

Carbonates
Aragonite
Calcite
Dolomite
Fe-Dolomite
Ankerite

Sulfates

Halides

Anhydrite
Gypsum

Halite
Sylvite

Silicates
Non-Ferromagnesian

Ferromagnesian
(not common in sedimentary rocks)

(Common in Sedimentary Rocks)

Quartz
Muscovite (mica)
Feldspars
Potassium feldspar (K-spar)
Orthoclase
Microcline, etc.
Plagioclase
Albite (Na-rich - common) through
Anorthite (Ca-rich - not common)

Olivine
Pyroxene
Augite
Amphibole
Hornblende
Biotite (mica)
Red = Sedimentary RockForming Minerals

Framework
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains

Matrix
Clay Size Detrital Material

Cement
Material precipitated post-depositionally, during
burial. Cements fill pores and replace framework
grains

Pores
Voids between above components

KF = Potassium
Feldspar

PRF = Plutonic Rock

Fragment

PRF

KF
CEMENT

P = Pore
Potassium Feldspar is
Stained Yellow With a
Chemical Dye
Pores are Impregnated
With Blue-Dyed Epoxy

Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA

Grains are About =< 0.25 mm in Diameter/Length

Pore
Throat

Pores Provide the

Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids

Pore Throats Restrict

Fluid Flow

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA

Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs

Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Illite

Significant
Permeability
Reduction
Negligible
Porosity
Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation
Migration of
Fines Problem

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA

(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs

Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Offshore Alabama, USA

~ 10 m

(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs

Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Significant Permeability
Reduction
High Irreducible Water
Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA

(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

Authigenic Chlorite

Authigenic Illite
Permeability (md)

100

1000
100

10

10
1
1

0.1

0.1
0.01

0.01
2

10

14

10

14

18

Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)

fe

Clay
Minerals

Dispersed Clay
Detrital Quartz
Grains

fe
Clay Lamination

Structural Clay
(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)

fe

Precipitation
Evaporation

Evapotranspiration

Water Table
Infiltration
Meteoric
Water

COMPACTIONAL
WATER
Petroleum
Fluids

Meteoric
Water
Zone of abnormal pressure

Isotherms
CH 4,CO 2,H2 S

Subsidence

(modified from from Galloway and Hobday, 1983)

Partially
Dissolved
Feldspar

Pore
Quartz Detrital
Grain

Dissolution of
Framework Grains
(Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Enhance the
Interconnected
Pore System

This is Called
Secondary Porosity

Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light

Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina

(Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler)

LECTURE 3

Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rocks

Kerogen

Vitrinite

Disseminated Organic Matter in

Sedimentary Rocks That is Insoluble
in Oxidizing Acids, Bases, and
Organic Solvents.
Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.
The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the
best indicators of coal rank and thermal
maturity of petroleum source rock.

Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal

Hydrocarbon
Generation
Potential

TOC in Shale
(wt. %)

TOC in Carbonates
(wt. %)

Poor

0.0-0.5

0.0-0.2

Fair

0.5-1.0

0.2-0.5

Good

1.0-2.0

0.5-1.0

Very Good

2.0-5.0

1.0-2.0

>5.0

>2.0

Excellent

Progressive Burial and Heating

Schematic Representation of the

Mechanism
of Petroleum Generation and Destruction
Organic Debris
Diagenesis
Oil Reservoir
Kerogen

Initial Bitumen

Catagenesis Thermal Degradation

Oil and Gas
Cracking
Metagenesis
Carbon

(modified from Tissot and Welte, 1984)

Methane

Migration

70

0.4
0.5

Incipient Oil Generation

0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9

1.0

80

2.0
3.0
4.0

Max. Oil Generated

OIL

85

Wet
Gas

1.2

1.3

75

Oil Floor
Wet Gas Floor
Dry Gas Floor

Dry
Gas Max.

Dry Gas
Generated

90

95

(modified from Foster and Beaumont, 1991, after Dow and OConner, 1982)

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

430
450
465

Pyrolysis Tmax (C)

0.3

Spore Coloration Index (SCI)

65

Weight % Carbon in Kerogen

Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) %

0.2

Fault
(impermeable)

Oil/water
contact (OWC)
Migration route

Seal
Hydrocarbon
accumulation
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity
Source rock

Reservoir
rock

Cross Section Of A Petroleum System

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
System

Pod of Active
Source Rock

Essential
Elements
of
Petroleum
System

Overburden Rock
Seal Rock
Reservoir Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock

Petroleum Reservoir (O)

Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

Top Oil Window

Top Gas Window

Sedimentary
Basin Fill

Geographic
Extent
ofExample)
Petroleum System
(Foreland
Basin
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O

what is trap ?
The term trap was first applied to a hydrocarbon accumulation
by Orton: stocks of oil and gas might be reapped in the
summits of folds or arches found along their wat to higher
ground .A detailed historical account of the subsequent
evolution of the concept and etymology of the term trap is found
in Dott and Reynolds(1969).

Structural traps

Stratigraphic traps

Combination traps

Structural Hydrocarbon Traps

Shale

Oil

Oil/Gas
Contact

Trap

Oil/Wat
er
Contact
Fracture Basement

Salt

Dom
e

Salt
Diapir

Gas

Closure

Oil
Fold Trap

Oil

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Hydrocarbon Traps - Dome

Gas

Sandstone

Oil

Shale

Fault Trap
Oil / Gas

Normal Faults

Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps

Unconformity

Pinch out

Oil/Gas

Uncomformity

Oil/Gas

Channel Pinch Out

Oil/Gas

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Other Traps
Meteoric
Water
Asphalt Trap

Biodegraded
Oil/Asphalt
Partly
Biodegraded Oil

Water

Hydrodynamic Trap

Hydrostatic
Head
Shale

Water

Oil
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

where can we find petroleum ?

Hydrocarbonscrude oil and natural gasare found in
certain layers of rock that are usually buride deep beneath
the surface of the earth.

Anticli
ne

Faul
t
Pincho
ut

Unconfor
mity

Salt
Dome

LECTURE 4

Petroleum System Elements

Source Rock - A rock with abundant hydrocarbon-prone
organic matter
Reservoir Rock - A rock in which oil and gas accumulates:
Porosity - space between rock grains in which oil
accumulates
Permeability - passage-ways between pores through
which oil and gas moves
Seal Rock - A rock through which oil and gas cannot move
effectively (such as mudstone and claystone)
Trap - The structural and stratigraphic configuration that
focuses oil and gas into an accumulation
Migration Route - Avenues in rock through which oil and
gas moves from source rock to trap

1. Source Rock
2. Reservoir Rock
3. Timing / Burial
History
4. Maturation
5. Migration
6. Cap Rock
7. Trap

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000

HIGH
PRESSURE

6000
7000
10 km
8000
9000
10000

DK
58
-

Reservoir Components

Reservoir
Rock

Cap Rock

Fluids

Reservoir Trap
DK
59
-

LECTURE 5

For rock to contain petroleum and later allow

petroleum to flow,it must have certain physical
characteristics. Obvilusly, there must be some spaces
in the rock in which the petroleum can be stored.
If rock has openings, voids, and spaces in which
liquid and gas may be stored, it is said to be porous .
For a given volume of rock, the ratio of the open
space to the total volume of the rock is called porosity,
the porosity may be expressed a decimal fraction but
is most often expressed as a percentage. For
example,if 100 cubic feet of rock contains many tiny
pores and spaces which together have a volume of 10
cubic feet, the porosity of the rock is 10%.

Geologic Subsurface Maps

Structure contour maps of structure or zone tops

Data is obtained from open hole logs or seismic
interpretations.
Net pay map using specific cut-off values to gross
pay thickness
Hydro-carbon pore volume map (HCPV)
Cross-section
Structural: Open hole logs are illstrated, as such,
hanging the wells is based on a selected datum
depth
Stratigraphic: Open hole logs are illustrated, as
such, hanging the wells is based on a selected
strato or zone.

POROSITY
The porosity of a rock is a measure of the storage capacity (pore
volume)that is capable of holding fluids. Quantitatively, the
porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume (bulk
volume). This important rock property is determined
mathematically by the following generalized
relationship:

where f=porosity

POROSITY
As the sediments were deposited and the rocks were
being formed during past geological times, some void
spaces that developed became isolated from the other
void spaces by excessive cementation. Thus, many of
the void spaces are interconnected while some of the
pore spaces arecompletely isolated. This leads to two
distinct types of porosity, namely:
Absolute porosity
Effective porosity

Absolute porosity
The absolute porosity is defined as the ratio of the total pore space in
the rock to that of the bulk volume. A rock may have considerable
absolute porosity and yet have no conductivity to fluid for lack of pore
interconnection. The absolute porosity is generally expressed
mathematically by the following relationships:

or

where fa =absolute porosity.

Effective porosity
The effective porosity is the percentage of interconnected
pore space with respect to the bulk volume, or

where f=effective porosity.

One important application of the effective porosity is its

use in determining the original hydrocarbon volume in
place. Consider a reservoir with an areal extent of A
acres and an average thickness of h feet. The total bulk
volume of the reservoir can be determined from the
following expressions:
Bulk volume =43,560 Ah, ft3
or
Bulk volume =7,758 Ah, bbl
where A =areal extent, acres
h =average thickness

When porosity was developed?

Primary porosity.- Rock porosity developed during the
initial rock deposition.
Secondary porosity.- Rock porosity due to a chemical
reaction between the reservoir fluids and the rock, wich
could occur for instance if some of the rock minerals are
dissolved by the formation water (leaching) This
phenomena is called Diagenesis

Factors affecting porosity values

Sorting
Arragement
Cementation
How is porosity determined?
Open hole logs
Core samples
Core plugs vs. Full core diameter (plug selection, fractures, vuggs)
Overburden pressure correction (for permeability rocks)
Core cleaning (humidity oven)

Porosity
i.

Define: Porosity = Total pore volume in the rock sample

Total rock sample volume (solid+pore)

ii.

Mathematically:

iii.

Range of porosity: 0.1 to 0.3

iv.

Use reservoir core to measure porosity

v.

Limitations

a.

Rock sample must be large enough to obtain many sand grains and many pores to be representative

b.

Features sample has a different type of pore space from sandstone

Porosity Determination from Logs Porosity Determination from Logs

Most log interpretation techniques in use today use a bulk volume rock approach
Quantitative rock data must be input into equations to derive values of phi and Sw. For example:
Db = x Df + (1 - ) Dm
Porosity is then derived:
= (Dma - Db)/(Dma - Df)
Values of matrix density are normally assumed:
Dma = 2.65 for clean sand
= 2.68 for limy sands or sandy limes
= 2.71 for limestone
= 2.87 for dolomite
Fluid density is that of the mud filtrate:
Df = 1.0 (fresh)
= 1.0 = 0.73N (salt)
Where: N = NaCl concentration, ppm x 10-6
Accurate knowledge of grain density is essential

Porosity at Net Overburden (NOB)

Increase in NOB can reduce porosity. Generally
the reduction is <10% of total porosity.
Less severe in consolidated rocks, more severe
in unconsolidated rocks
Grain Density
Measure the bulk volume of the sample. Weigh
the sample. GD = Dry weight/Grain volume
Most rocks are mixtures of minerals. The grain
density of any rock is variable and is dependent
on the mineralogy:
1.25gm/cc -- volcanic ash, some coals
2.65gm/cc -- clean, quartz sandstone
2.68gm/cc -- shaly sandstone with some carbonate
2.71gm/cc -- clean limestone
2.87 - >3.0gm/cc dolomite
2.32gm/cc -- gypsum
2.96gm/cc -- anhydrite
3.89gm/cc -- siderite
Accurate values of grain density are important
because grain density is used to correct wireline
logs for potential sources of error

Example
One of the most important determinations for an oil accumulation
is the volume of oil in place. Suppose that in geological evidence is
known that the area extent of an oil reservoir is 2 million sqft and
that the thickness of the bay zone is 30 ft. If the sand porosity
and water saturation are 0.2 and 0.3, respectively, how much oil is
present?
Solution:

Volume of bay = 2,000,000 ft3 x 30 ft = 6x107ft3

Total pore volume = 0.2 x 6x107 = 12x106 ft3
Then Sw+So=1; So = 1 - 0.3 = 0.7
Total oil volume = 0.7 x 12x106 = 8.4x106 ft3

LECTURE 6

PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a property of the porous medium that measures the
capacity and ability of the formation to transmit fluids. The rock
permeability, k, is a very important rock property because it
controls the directional movement and the flow rate of the reservoir
fluids in the formation. This rock characterization was first defined
mathematically by Henry Darcy in 1856. In fact, the equation that
defines permeability in terms of measurable quantities is called
Darcys Law.
Darcy developed a fluid flow equation that has since become one of
the standard mathematical tools of the petroleum engineer. If a
horizontal linear flow of an incompressible fluid is established
through a core sample of length L and a cross-section of area A,
then the governing fluidflow equation is defined as

where n=apparent fluid flowing velocity, cm/sec

k =proportionality constant, or permeability, Darcys
=viscosity of the flowing fluid, cp
dp/dL =pressure drop per unit length, atm/cm
The apparent velocity determined by dividing the flow rate by the
cross-sectional area across which fluid is flowing. Substituting
the relationship, q/A, in place of nin Equation 3-21 and solving
for q results in

where q =flow rate through the porous medium, cm3/sec

A =cross-sectional area across which flow occurs, cm2

One Darcy is a relatively high permeability as the permeabilities of

most reservoir rocks are less than one Darcy. In order to avoid the
use of fractions in describing permeabilities, the term millidarcy
is used. As the term indicates, one millidarcy, i.e., 1 md, is equal
to one-thousandth of one Darcy or,
1 Darcy =1000 md
The negative sign in Equation is necessary as the pressure
increases in one direction while the length increases in the
opposite direction.

Integrate the above equation

Linear flow model

where L =length of core, cm

A =cross-sectional area, cm2
The following conditions must exist during the
measurement of permeability:
Laminar (viscous) flow
No reaction between fluid and rock
Only single phase present at 100% pore space
saturation
This measured permeability at 100% saturation of a
single phase is called the absolute permeability of the
rock.

For a radial flow, Darcys equation in a differential form can be

written as:

Intergrating Darcys equation gives:

The term dL has been replaced by dr as the length term has now
become a radius term.

Rock Permeability
i.

Measurement of the fluid ability to flow through

the connected pores of the reservoir.

ii.

A function of a degree of interconnection

between pores in the rock

iii. The concept was introduced by Darcy in a

classical experimental work from both petroleum
engineering and ground water hydrology. Is
expressed in milidarcies or Darcies.
iv. The flow rate can be measured against pressure
(head) for different porous media
v.

The flow rate of fluid thru specific porous

medium is linearly proportional top head
difference betwen the inlet and outlet and
characteristic property of the medium, thus
u = kDP
Where k = permeability and is a characteristic
property of the porous medium

vi. The rock permeability is measured from core

samples (plugs or whoke core) in the laboratory
or it could also be calculated from well testing

a.

Suppose a cylindrical sample (core) of a porous rock is fully

saturated with liquid of viscosity .
l

Q
P1

P2

b. Experimentally for a particular rock sample the expression

Ql
k =
A( P1 P2 )

Darcy Equation

where k is constant
c.

Q will increase a k increases, the higher the value of k the more

readily will liquid flow through the core

d. If in flow rate contain two fluid (oil and water), free gas is not
present then,

ko

Qo o l
=
A( P1 P2 )

d. If Q (cm3/s), (cp), l (cm) A (cm2), and P1 and P2 (atm), the value

of k in Darcy is
1 Darcy = 10-8 cm2

kw =

Qw wl
A( P1 P2 )

LECTURE 7

SATURATION
Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume
occupied by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water). This property is
expressed mathematically by the following relationship:

Applying the above mathematical concept of saturation to each reservoir

fluid gives

where
So =oil saturation
Sg =gas saturation
Sw =water saturation
Sg +So +Sw =1.0

Fluid Saturations from Cores

Through
knowledge
of
porosity,
permeability and residual fluid saturations
(oil, water and gas), it is possible to predict
with a high degree of accuracy the probable
type of fluid
which will be produced from a given interval.
Review of the core fluorescence can also
be an indicator of oil gravity and should be
factored when type of production is
predicted.

Fluid Saturation
i.

Water saturation, Sw = Volume filled by water/ Total pore volume

Oil saturation, So = Volume filled by oil/ Total pore volume

ii.

If oil and water is the only fluid present, Sw + So = 1

iii.

In most oil fields Sw tends to increase as porosity decrease

iv.

Typical value of Sw 0.1 to 0.5

v.

Free gas also present in oil pools,

Free gas saturation, Sg = Volume filled by free gas/total pore volume

vi.

3 factors should always be remembered conceiving fluid saturation

a. It vary from place to place in reservoir rock; Sw higher in less
porous sections due to gravity segregation of the gas, oil and water

Critical oil saturation, Soc

For the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a
certain value which is termed critical oil saturation. At this particular
saturation, the oil remains in the pores and, for all practical
purposes, will not flow.

Residual oil saturation, Sor

During the displacing process of the crude oil system
from the porous media by water or gas injection (or
encroachment) there will be some remaining oil left that
is quantitatively characterized by a saturation value that
is larger than the critical oil saturation. This saturation
value is called the residual oil saturation, Sor. The term
residual saturation is usually associated with the
nonwetting phase when it is being displaced by a
wetting phase.

Movable oil saturation, Som

Movable oil saturation Som is another saturation of
interest and is defined as the fraction of pore
volume occupied by movable oil as expressed by
the following equation:
Som =1 Swc Soc
where
Swc =connate water saturation
Soc =critical oil saturation

Critical gas saturation, Sgc

As the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure,
gas evolves from the oil phase and consequently the saturation
of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure declines. The gas
phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain
saturation, called critical gas saturation, above which gas begins
to move.

Critical water saturation, Swc

The critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and
irreducible water saturation are extensively used interchangeably
to define the maximum water saturation at which the water
phase will remain immobile.

LECTURE 8

Capillary pressure
If a glass capillary tube is placed in a large open vessel containing
water, the combination of surface tension and wettability of tube to
water will cause water to rise in the tube above the water level
in the container outside the tube as shown in Figure 3.
The water will rise in the tube until the total force acting to pull the
liquid upward is balanced by the weight of the column of liquid
being supported in the tube.
Figure 3

CAPILLARY PRESSURE
The capillary forces in a petroleum reservoir are the result of the
combined effect of the surface and interfacial tensions of the rock
and fluids, the pore size and geometry, and the wetting
characteristics of the system.
Any curved surface between two immiscible fluids has the tendency
to
contract into the smallest possible area per unit volume. This is true
whether the fluids are oil and water, water and gas (even air), or oil
and gas. When two immiscible fluids are in contact, a discontinuity
in pressure exists between the two fluids, which depends upon the
curvature of the interface separating the fluids. We call this
pressure difference the capillary pressure and it is referred to by pc.
Capillary pressure =(pressure of the nonwetting phase) (pressure
of
the wetting phase)
pc =pnw pw

Figure4

Transition Zone
The figure indicates that the saturations are gradually
changing from 100% water in the water zone to irreducible
water saturation some vertical distance above the water
zone. This vertical area is referred to as the transition zone,
which must exist in any reservoir where there is a bottom
water table. The transition zone is then defined as the
vertical thickness over which the water saturation ranges
from 100% saturation to irreducible water saturation Swc.

Water Oil Contact

The WOC is defined as the uppermost depth in the
reservoir where a 100% water saturation exists.
Gas Oil Contact
The GOC is defined as the minimum depth at which a
100% liquid, i.e., oil +water, saturation exists in the
reservoir.

Figure 5

It should be noted that there is a difference between

the free water level (FWL) and the depth at which 100%
water saturation exists. From a reservoir engineering
standpoint, the free water level is defined by zero
capillary pressure. Obviously, if the largest pore is so
large that there is no capillary rise in this size pore, then
the free water level and 100% water saturation level,
i.e., WOC, will be the same.

Capillary Pressure
Capillary pressure in reservoirs can be defined
as the difference between the force acting
downwards (hydrostatic head, related to density
contrasts) and the force acting upwards
(buoyancy, related to pore throat size, interfacial
tension and contact angle)
Capillary pressure is measured in the laboratory
generally using plug samples or rotary sidewall
cores. Occasionally cuttings samples are used
In the most common type of test, a non-wetting
phase fluid (e.g. mercury) is injected into the
rock at slowly increasing values of pressure. The
amount of fluid injected at each increment of
pressure is recorded and is presented as a
capillary curve

Capillary Pressure (1)

Capillary pressure exists in a hydrocarbon
reservoir
fundamentally
because
of
differences in the density of various fluids
that affect the pressure gradients:
Pressure gradient of water = 0.44 psi/ft
(density = 1gm/cc)
Pressure gradient of oil = 0.33 psi/ft
(density = 0.8gm/cc)*
Pressure gradient of gas = 0.09 psi/ft
(density = 0.2gm/cc)**
* 30API
** 5000psi
As hydrocarbons accumulate in a trap, the
difference in density between the fluids
results in a vertical segregation of the
fluids: gas on oil, oil on water
For
example, at 10,000ft, oil pressure = 3300
psi and water pressure = 4400 psi

Capillary Pressure and

Water Saturation (2)
Reservoir Sw decreases with increasing height above the free water level (the level at
which the reservoir produces only water) .
Zones that are at irreducible water saturation (Swirr) produce only hydrocarbons. Swirr
occurs where sufficient closure and hydrocarbon column exist the transition zone occurs
between the free water level and the Swirr level. Formations in this zone produce water
and hydrocarbons. The magnitude of the Swirr and the thickness of the transition zone
are a function of the pore size distribution Small pore throats = low permeability = high
Swirr

Initial Reservoir Fluid Distribution

The amount of Sw at any height in the reservoir is a function of:
Pore throat size, wettability, interfacial tension, saturation history and differences
in fluid densities.
These variables control capillary pressure, therefore there is a relationship
between Sw, h, Pc and pore throat size.
Laboratory measurements of capillary pressure are used to relate Sw to height
above the free water level as long as appropriate values of laboratory and
reservoir interfacial tension and contact angle are used Laboratory tests can be
made with different fluids oil, brine, mercury

Capillary Pressure:
Static Measurement
Static Method Mercury injection
Widely used, rapid, economic and simple. Mercury is the non-wetting phase and is injected into
a cleaned and evacuated core plug at successively increasing pressures from 0 to 60,000psi.
The core plug cannot be used for further testing because of residual Hg saturation Hg capillary
pressure data must be scaled to reservoir conditions using the following formula:
. Conversion factor = Mercury Pc = Sm Cos m
Water-Air Pc Sw Cos w
Where:
Sm = surface tension of mercury
Sw = surface tension of water
m = contact angle of mercury against a solid (140 degrees)
w = contact angle of water against a solid (0 degrees)

Capillary Pressure:
Dynamic Measurement
Dynamic Method -- Centrifuge
Generally uses oil-brine fluid system but
actual reservoir fluids can also be used
Rapid, more complicated and more expensive
than mercury Pc measurements
Requires preserved or restored-state core
plugs Large (2 inch) plugs are required. These
can be used for further analysis
Brine
saturated samples are centrifuged at ever
increasing speeds under oil to obtain a
relationship between capillary pressure and
saturation

Capillary Pressure: Rock Controls

Pore geometry is a fundamental control on
capillary pressure, in particular the size of the pore
throats: the capillary pressure characteristics
change with changes in Rock
Type (pore geometry) In heterogeneous reservoirs,
it is essential to collect capillary pressure data for
each Rock Type that is present in the reservoir All
other factors being equal, the lower the
permeability the smaller the pore throats the higher
the Pce and the higher the Swirr.
Capillary pressure data is used to determine the
height above free water (column height) for each
Rock Type and to improve the prediction of the type
of fluid produced (hydrocarbon/water)

Use of Pc in Reservoir Simulation and Reservoir

Characterization
For purposes of simulation and characterization, it is
necessary to know the Free Water Level (FWL)
When FWL is known it is possible to predict Sw at any
height in the reservoir even in areas that lack well
Penetrations.
This is particularly important in the following cases:
Areas with long transition zones and no obvious FWL
Areas with misidentified or unknown FWL
Areas with unknown or incorrect Rw
Areas where a, m and/or n are incorrect or unknown
Areas with multiple Rock Types (where a, m,n and Sw
vary as a function of Rock Type)
In these situations, it is possible to solve for Sw using
either the Pc curves or the Leverett J Function.

LECTURE 9

WETTABILITY
Wettability is defined as the tendency of one fluid to spread
on or adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other
immiscible fluids. The concept of wettability is illustrated in
Figure1. Small drops of three liquids-mercury, oil, and
waterare placed on a clean glass plate.

The three droplets are then observed from one side as

illustrated in Figure 3-1. It is noted that the mercury retains a
spherical shape, the oil droplet develops an approximately
hemispherical shape, but the water tends to spread over the
glass surface.

The tendency of a liquid to spread over the surface of a

solid is an indication of the wetting characteristics of
the liquid for the solid. This spreading tendency can be
expressed more conveniently by measuring the angle
of contact at the liquid-solid surface. This angle, which
is always measured through the liquid to the solid, is
called the contact angle q.
The contact angle q has achieved significance as a
measure of wettability.

As shown in Figure 1, as the contact angle decreases, the wetting characteristics of the
liquid increase. Complete wettability would be evidenced by a zero contact angle, and
complete nonwetting would be evidenced by a contact angle of 80. There have been
various definitions of intermediate wettability but, in much of the published literature,
contact angles of 60 to 90 will tend to repel the liquid.
The wettability of reservoir rocks to the fluids is important in that the distribution of the
fluids in the porous media is a function of wettability.
Because of the attractive forces, the wetting phase tends to occupy the smaller pores of
the rock and the nonwetting phase occupies the more open channels.

LECTURE 10

UNIT PUMPING

UNIT PUMPING

UNIT PUMPING

SYSTEM PRODUCTION

CONSTANT FLOW GAS LIFT WELL

PRODUCED FLUID

INJECTION GAS

PRESSURE (PSI)
1000

2000

1000
CASING PRESSURE WHEN
WELL IS BEING GAS LIFTED

3000

OPERATING GAS LIFT VALVE

4000

5000

6000

SIBHP

DEPTH (FT TVD)

2000

7000
FBHP

GAS CAP DRIVE

DISSOLVED GAS DRIVE

WATER DRIVE

Sistema cerrado (un pozo)

Field Production

1.Primary Recovery (Natural Methods)

i.

1st method of producing oil from a well

ii. Solution gas drive

a. pressure inside reservoir relieved when well
punctures and gas trapped in oil forms bubbles
b. Bubbles grow, exert pressure push oil to well and
up to surface (20-30%)

iii. Gas cap drive

a. If contain gas cap, drill well directly into oil layer
gas cap expand
b. Expanding gas pushes oil into well (40%)

iv. Water drive scenario

a. Water layer press against oil layer
b. Water pushes oil towards surface and replace it
within the pores of the reservoir rock
c. Highest recovery: up to 75%

2.Secondary Recovery
i.

Used to enhance or replace primary

techniques

ii. Water flooding

a. Additional injection well is drilled
into the reservoir
b. Pressure water injected
c. Water displaces the oil in
reservoir

iii. Mechanical Lift

a. Reciprocating or plunger pumping
called horsehead
b. Pump barrel lowered into well on 6
inch string steel rod (sucker rods)
c. Up and down movement force oil up
to tubing

3. Tertiary Recovery
i.

When 2nd recovery no longer effective

ii. Thermal Process

a. Steam Flooding steam injected, heats oil to
flow readily
b. in-situ combustion (fire flooding) air injected,
a portion if oil ignited , combustion front moves
away from air injection well toward production
well

iii. CO2 injection

a. CO2 injected, mix with oil reduces forces that
hold oil to pores, allows easily displace by
injected water
iv. Chemical recovery
i. Inject polymer into water phase of reservoir
trap, large molecule add bulk to water, water
thicken, wash oil from pores
ii. Sometimes surfactant added to reduce force
water to solid

4. Improvement of formation
characteristic
i.

To aid 3rd recovery because production

drop

ii. Acidizing
a. Injecting acid into a soluble formation (exp:
carbonate) to dissolve rocks
b. Enlarge the existing voids and increase
permeability

iii. Hydraulic Fracturing

a. Inject a fluid into formation under
significant pressure to enlarge existing
fracture and create new fracture
b. This fracture extend outward from well
bore into formation therefore increase
permeability

Petroleum Production System

1. Petroleum hydrocarbon production involve 2 districts
i.

Reservoir a porous medium with a unique storage and flow

characteristic

ii. Artificial structures includes well, bottom hole, surface

gathering, separation and storage facilities
2. Production Engineering - attempts to maximize production in a
cost effective way
3. Appropriate production technology and method related directly
with other major area of petroleum engineering such as
formulation evaluation, drilling and reservoir engineering
4. Petroleum Hydrocarbon

i.

Mixture of many compounds petroleum and natural gas

ii. Mixture depending on its composition and conditions of P and

T occur as liquid or gas or mixture of 2 phase

4. Oil Gravity
i.

Commonly expressed in degree API

o

141.5
API =
131.5
SG60o F

ii. The terms heavy, medium and light crude cover approximately
the ranges 10 to 20o, 20 to 30o and over 30o API, respectively
5. Instantaneous Water/Oil Ratio (WOR)
i.

Homogeneous formation produce only oil and water (no free gas)
then
qo =

k o dP
o dl

qw

k w dP
=
w dl

ii. The pressure drop in oil may differ slightly from that in the
water owing to effect of capillary forces, so dividing the
equations above, results in

qw
k w o
=
qo
ko w

iii. At the surface

qw
Bo q w
=
qo Bo
qo

iv. Or from above equation

(surface)

WOR =

Bo k w o
ko w

Where Bo is oil formation volume factor:

v.

Bo is defined as ratio of the volume of oil (plus the gas in

solution) at reservoir T and P to the volume of oil at standard
conditions (so-called stock-tank oil)

6. Instantaneous Gas/Oil Ratio (GOR)

i.

Homogeneous formation producing only oil and gas (no water

production, although water may be present in the formation)

qo

k o dP
=
o dl

qg =

k g dP

g dl

ii. Where the pressure drop across the distance dl is the same for
both fluid, if capillary forces are neglected. Dividing

qg
qo

k g o
ko g

iii. Stock-tank oil rate will be qo/Bo, and surface free gas rate
qg/Bg. In addition to free gas produced from the formation,
each barrel of stock-tank oil will release a volume Rs of gas,
then the total surface gas/oil ratio is

iv. At the surface

Rs +
v.

qg

Bg

qo

Bo

Bo qg
= Rs +
Bg qo

Therefore
(surface)

GOR = Rs +

Bo k g o

Bg ko g

7. Productivity Index
i.

Bottom hole flowing pressure - producing pressure (Pwf) at the

bottom of the well

ii. The difference bettwen this and the well static pressure (Ps) is

Drawdown = Ps Pwf

iii. Ratio of producing rate of the well to its draw down is called

Producing Index.

iv. If the rate q (bbl/day) of stock-tank liquid and draw down (psi),
the productivity index (J) is defined as

(bbl/day/psi)

q
J =
Ps Pwf

iii. Productivity index is based on the gross liquid rate (oil rate +
water rate)
iv. Specific productivity index, Js is the number of barrel (gross)
of stock-tank liquid produced/day/psi/ft net thickness

Js

J
q
=
=
h
h( Ps Pwf )

LECTURE 11

LECTURE 12

Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as oil or gas reservoirs.

These broad classifications are further subdivided depending on:
The composition of the reservoir hydrocarbon mixture
Initial reservoir pressure and temperature
Pressure and temperature of the surface production
The conditions under which these phases exist are a matter of
considerablepractical importance. The experimental or the
mathematical determinations of these conditions are conveniently
expressed in different types of diagrams commonly called phase
diagrams. One such diagram is called the pressuretemperature diagram.

Figure 1-1 shows a typical pressure-temperature diagram of a

multicomponent system with a specific overall composition.
Although a different hydrocarbon system would have a
different phase diagram, the general configuration is similar.
These multicomponent pressure-temperature diagrams are
essentially
used to:
Classify reservoirs
Classify the naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems
Describe the phase behavior of the reservoir fluid

LECTURE 13

Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as oil or

gas reservoirs.
The composition of the reservoir hydrocarbon
mixture
Initial reservoir pressure and temperature
pressure-temperature diagram

Figure 1-1 shows a typical pressure-temperature diagram of a

multicomponent system with a specific overall composition.
Although a different hydrocarbon system would have a different
phase diagram, the general configuration is similar.
These multicomponent pressure-temperature diagrams are essentially
used to:
Classify reservoirs
Classify the naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems
Describe the phase behavior of the reservoir fluid

Critical pointThe critical point for a multicomponent mixture is

referred to as the state of pressure and temperature at which all
intensive properties of the gas and liquid phases are equal (point C).
At the critical point, the corresponding pressure and temperature are
called the critical pressure pc and critical temperature Tc of the
mixture.

Bubble-point curveThe bubble-point curve (line BC) is

defined as the line separating the liquid-phase region from the
two-phase region.
Dew-point curveThe dew-point curve (line AC) is defined as
the line separating the vapor-phase region from the two-phase
region.

Oil reservoirsIf the reservoir temperature T is less

than the critical temperature Tc of the reservoir fluid,
the reservoir is classified as an oil reservoir.
Gas reservoirsIf the reservoir temperature is greater
than the critical temperature of the hydrocarbon fluid,
the reservoir is considered a gas reservoir.

Low-shrinkage oil

Oil formation volume factor

less than 1.2 bbl/STB
Gas-oil ratio less than 200
scf/STB
Oil gravity less than 35 API
Black or deeply colored

In general, if the reservoir temperature is above the

critical temperature of the hydrocarbon system, the
reservoir is classified as a natural gas reservoir. On
the basis of their phase diagrams and the prevailing
reservoir conditions, natural gases can be classified
into 3 categories:
Retrograde gas-condensate
Wet gas
Dry gas

Retrograde gas-condensate reservoir

If the reservoir temperature T lies
between the critical temperature Tc
and cricondentherm Tct of the
reservoir fluid, the reservoir is
classified as a retrograde gascondensate reservoir.
the gas-oil ratio for a condensate
system increases with time due to the
liquid dropout and the loss of heavy
components in the liquid.
Condensate gravity above 50 API
Stock-tank liquid is usually water-white
or slightly colored.

Wet-gas reservoir

Temperature of wet-gas reservoir

is above the cricondentherm of
the hydrocarbon mixture. Because
the reservoir temperature exceeds
the cricondentherm of the
hydrocarbon system, the reservoir
fluid will always remain in the
vapor phase region as the
reservoir is depleted isothermally,
along the vertical line A-B.

Wet-gas reservoir

Wet-gas reservoirs are characterized by the following

properties:
Gas oil ratios between 60,000 to 100,000 scf/STB

Stock-tank oil gravity above 60 API

Liquid is water-white in color
Separator conditions, i.e., separator pressure and
temperature, lie within the two-phase region

Dry-gas reservoir
The hydrocarbon mixture
exists as a gas both in the
reservoir and in the
surface facilities.
Usually a system having a
gas-oil ratio greater than
100,000 scf/STB is
considered to be a dry gas.

t1

oil

t2

oil

gas

V t3= V b

t4

oil

gas
t5

oil
oil

Hg

Hg

Hg

Hg
Hg

P 1 >> P b

P2 > P b

P3 = P b

P4 < P b

P5 < P

Temperature of Test = Reservoir Temperature

Properties determined
Pb
Co

Gas off
1

gas

gas

gas
oil

Hg

oil

oil

oil

Hg

oil

Hg

Hg

P1 = Pb

P2 < Pb

oil
Hg

P2 < Pb

P2 < Pb

P3 < P2 < Pb

Temperature of Test = Reservoir Temperature

Properties Determined
Oil formation volume factor at the Bubble Point
pressure Bodb and below the bubble point
pressure Bod
Solution gas-oil ratio at the Bubble Point pressure
Rsdb and below the bubble point pressure Rsd
Isothermal compressibility (derived property)

LECTURE 14

The Water-Drive Mechanism

Many reservoirs are bounded on a portion or all of their peripheries
by water bearing rocks called aquifers. The aquifers may be so
large compared to the reservoir they adjoin as to appear infinite for
all practical purposes, and they may range down to those so small
as to be negligible in their effects on the reservoir performance.
Reservoir have
a water drive

Characteristics

Trend

Reservoir pressure

Declines very slowly (remains

very high)

Gas oil ratio

Little change during the life of

the reservoir (remains low)

Water production

Early excess water production

Well behavior

Flow until water production gets

excessive.

Oil recovery

35 to 75 %

Rock and Liquid Expansion

When an oil reservoir initially exists at a pressure higher than
its bubble-point pressure, the reservoir is called an
undersaturated oil reservoir.
At pressures above the bubble-point pressure, crude oil,
connate water, and rock are the only materials present. As the
reservoir pressure declines, the rock and fluids expand due to
their individual compressibilities.
The reservoir rock compressibility is the result of two factors:
Expansion of the individual rock grains
Formation compaction

Both of the above two factors are the results of a

decrease of fluid pressure within the pore spaces,
and both tend to reduce the pore volume through
the reduction of the porosity.
This driving mechanism is considered the least
efficient driving force and usually results in the
recovery of only a small percentage of the total
oil in place.

LECTURE 15

The Depletion Drive Mechanism

This driving form may also be referred to by the following various

terms:
Solution gas drive
Dissolved gas drive
Internal gas drive

In this type of reservoir, the principal source of energy is a result of gas

liberation from the crude oil and the subsequent expansion of the
solution gas as the reservoir pressure is reduced. As pressure falls
below the bubble-point pressure, gas bubbles are liberated within
the microscopic pore spaces. These bubbles expand and force the
crude oil out of the pore space as shown conceptually in Figure 1

Figure 1 Solution gas drive reservoir

Gas Cap Drive

Gas-cap-drive reservoirs can be identified by the presence of
a gas cap with little or no water drive as shown in Figure 2.
Due to the ability of the gas cap to expand, these reservoirs
are
characterized by a slow decline in the reservoir pressure.
The natural energy available to produce the crude oil
comes from the following two sources:
Expansion of the gas-cap gas
Expansion of the solution gas as it is liberated

Figure 2 Gas-cap drive reservoir

The Gravity-Drainage-Drive Mechanism

The mechanism of gravity drainage occurs in petroleum

reservoirs as a result of differences in densities of the
reservoir fluids. The effects of gravitational forces can be
simply illustrated by placing a quantity of crude oil and a
quantity of water in a jar and agitating the contents. After
agitation, the jar is placed at rest, and the more denser
fluid (normally water) will settle to the bottom of the jar,
while the less dense fluid (normally oil) will rest on top of
the denser fluid. The fluids have separated as a result of
the gravitational forces acting on them.

Characteristics

Trend

Reservoir pressure

Variable rates of pressure

decline, depending principally
upon the amount of gas
conservation.

Gas oil ratio

Low gas-oil ratio

Water production

Little or no water production.

Well behavior

Oil recovery

Near to 80 %

The principle of natural water drive is that an aquifer provides the energy for
hydrocarbon production. Both water expansion, as a result of pressure
reduction, and inflow are involved.

Natural water drive is associated with high recovery rates; oil from
35-75% OIIP; gas from 60-80% GIIP.
It is not uncommon for flow from the
surface to supply the energy for
natural water drive.

When a pressure drop occurs, both

the oil and water liquid phases
expand resulting in production.
Additionally, water inflow radially and
vertically displaces the oil towards
the producers.

Hydrocarbon
Water

Cross-section view

Plane view
The Upper Devonian Leduc pools are driven by inflow from the Cooking Lake
Aquifer.

Both bottom water drive, where the water leg underlies the entire reservoir, and
edge water drive, where only part of the areal extent is contacted by water, are
recognized.

Edge Water Drive

Bottom Water Drive

Oil producing well

Oil producing well

Oil

Zone

Water

Oil

Water

Cross Section

Zone
Water

Cross Section

pressure

NATURAL WATER
DRIVE HISTORY

OIL PRODUCTON

watercut

GOR (R)
Rsi

time

Pressure remains high; small drop.

R (producing gas oil ratio) remains low.
Water influx starts early and increases to appreciable levels.
Residual oil may be trapped behind the advancing water.
Wells flow freely until water production (watercut) becomes excessive.

The Combination-Drive Mechanism

The driving mechanism most commonly encountered is one in
which both water and free gas are available in some degree to
displace the oil toward the producing wells. The most common
type of drive encountered,
therefore, is a combination-drive mechanism as illustrated in Figure
4. Two combinations of driving forces can be present in
combinationdrive reservoirs. These are (1) depletion drive and a
weak water drive and; (2) depletion drive with a small gas cap
and a weak water drive.
Then, of course, gravity segregation can play an important role in
any of the aforementioned drives.

Figure 4 Combination drive reservoir

RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE DATA (1)

Pressure trends in reservoirs under various drive mechanisms are distinctive.

100
WATER DRIVE

80

P
%

60
40
GAS CAP DRIVE

SOLUTION
GAS DRIVE

20
0
0

10

20

30

% OIIP Produced

40

50

RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE DATA (2)

Producing GOR is also strongly diagnostic of drive mechanism.

100
GAS CAP DRIVE

80
GOR 60
%
40

SOLUTION
GAS DRIVE

20

WATER DRIVE

0
0

10

20

30

%OIIP Produced

40

50

Drive Mechanism

Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Water drive
Gravity-drainage
drive

Average Oil Recovery

Factors,
% of OOIP
Range
Average
5 - 30
15
15 - 50
30
30 - 60
40
16 - 85
50

Recovery factor is defined as the fraction (or percentage) of the volume of

hydrocarbon produced (recovered) from the amount of volume initially in place.

Drive Mechanism

Volumetric reservoir
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive

Average Gas Recovery

Factors,
% of OGIP
Range
Average
70 - 90
80
35 - 65

50

Solution-gas drive - API study

0.1741
f (1 S 0.1611 k 0.0979

pb
0.3722
wi

(S wi
ER = 41.8
Bob

ob
pa

Water drive - API study

0.2159
f (1 S 0.0422 k 0.0770

p
0.1903
wi
w
i

(S wi
ER = 54.9
Boi

oi
pa

Water drive - Guthrie-Greenberger study

ER = 0.272 log10 k + 0.256 S wi 0.136 log10 o 1.538 f 0.0003 h + 0.114

These correlations work best for sandstone reservoirs.

Nomenclature
ER = Oil recovery efficiency (recovery factor), [% (for API
study); fraction (for G-G study)]
f = Reservoir porosity, fraction
Swi = Interstitial water saturation, fraction
Bob = Formation volume factor of oil at bubblepoint, RB/STB
k = Reservoir permeability, [darcy (for API study);
md (For G-G study)]
ob = Oil viscosity at bubblepoint pressure, cp
pb = Bubblepoint pressure of oil, psig
pa = Abandonment reservoir pressure, psig

Solution-gas drive oil reservoirs

Low oil density
Low oil viscosity
High oil bubblepoint pressure

Large aquifer
Low oil viscosity
High relative oil permeability
Little reservoir heterogeneity
and stratification

Gas-cap drive oil reservoirs

Favorable oil properties
Relatively large ratio of gas cap to
oil zone
High reservoir dip angle
Thick oil column

Water drive oil reservoirs

Gravity drainage oil reservoirs

High reservoir dip angle
Favorable permeability
distribution
Large fluid density difference
Large segregation area
Low withdrawal

Volumetric gas reservoir

(gas expansion drive)
Low abandonment
pressure

Water-drive gas reservoir

Small aquifer
Small degree of reservoir
heterogeneity and
stratification

LECTURE 16

When an oil and gas reservoir is trapped with

wells, oil and gas, and frequently some water,
are produced, thereby reducing the reservoir
pressure and causing the remaining oil and gas
to expand to fill the space vavated by the fluids
removed. When the oil-and gas-bearing strata
are hydraulically connected with water-bearing
strata, or aquifers, water encroaches into the
reservoir as the pressure drops owing to
production .This water encroachment decreases
the extent to which the remaining oil and gas
expand and accordingly retards the decline in
reservoir pressure.

In as much as the temperature in oil and

gas reservoir remains substantially constant
during the course of production, the degree
to which the remaining oil and gas expand
depends only on the pressure .By taking
bottom-hole samples of the reservoir fluids
under pressure and measuring their relative
volumes in the laboratory at reservoir
temperature and under various pressures ,it
is possible to predict how these fluids
behave in the reservoir as reservoir
pressure declines.

The general material balance equation is

simply a volumetric balance, Which states
that since the volume of a reservoir (as
defined by its initial limits)is a constant , the
algebraic sum of the volume changes of the
oil , free gas , water , and rock volumes in
the reservoir volumes decreases , the sum of
these two decreases must be balanced by
changes of equal magnitude in the water
and rock volumes .

If the assumption is made that complete

equilibrium is attained at all times in the
reservoir between the oil and its solution
gas , it is possible to write a generalized
material balance expression relating the
quantities of oil , gas and water
produced , the average reservoir
pressure , the quantity of water that may
have encroached from the aquifer , and
finally the initial oil and gas content of
the reservoir.

LECTURE 17

Reserves are natural resources that have

already been discovered and can be exploited

for profit today
Resources are deposits that we know of (or
believe to exist), but are not exploitable today
Example: oil reserves ~1.2 trillion barrels, oil
resources ~2 trillion barrels
Types: Oil, Gas, Natural Gas, Condensated gas,
GNL and other fluids(CO2,N2,H S)
2

Based :
Interpretation of Data Engineering and / or
Geology available to date.
Economic conditions such as prices, costs
and market.

NATURAL ENERGY (PRIMARY RECOVERY)

ENHANCED RECOVERY METHODS

Analogies
Volumetric Methods
Material balance
Decline Curve Analysis
Reservoir Simulation
Probalistic (Monte Carlo)

Contour map of the productive

zone (net productive sand).

Two methods are used for determining the gross volume:

Trapezoidal
Pyramidal

V = h*( 0.5*A0 + A1+A2+A3+0.5*A4)

V = h (A0 + 4*A1+2*A2+4*A3+A4)
3

For calculating insitu oil:

N = 7758*V*f*(1-Swi) / Boi STB
For the remaining oil:
Nf = 7758*V*f*(1-Swg) / Bo
Nf = 7758*V*f*(1-Sw -Sg) / Bo
The recovery factor F.R. :
F.R. = Np/N = 1 - Nf/N
V = Gross volume in Acres*ft
f = Porosity in fraction
Swi = Initial water saturation Fraction
Boi = Formation volume factor initial oil
Bo = formation volume factor of the final oil

Gas for calculating insitu:

G = 43560*V*f*(1-Swi) / Bgi SCF
Para el gas remanente:
Ga = 43560*V*f*(Sgr) / Bga

The recovery factor F.R. :

F.R. = Gp/G =(Bga-Bgi)/Bgi

Mthod
o = 141.5 / (131.5 + API)
Mo= 6084/(API-5.9)
mw = R g 28.97 + 350 o
379
nw = R + 350 o
379
Mo
Mw = 0.07636 Rg + 350 o
0.002636 R + 350 o
Mo
w = Mw/28.97=Rg + 4584 o
R + 132800o
Mo

We found the Tr and Pr and

then the value of Z then
determine:
Gw = 379 PV/ ZRT
V = 43560 AH f(1-Swi)
R = 10.73 Psia-ft3 / lb-mol R
Gas fraction:
fg = R /(R + 132800o/Mo
Amount of gas:
G = Gw* fg
Amount of liquids
N = Gw fg/R

There is a graph of Bo
Method 2.
function:
avg gas prod. = gt ;
R SCF/STB, gt , st ,
gt = qps ps + qst st
Temperature reserv.
qps + qst
Knowing STB cond. / MMSCF P reservoir,
relations at high gas / oil.
and developed by using a
graph Standing can determine Amount of liquids
N = 7758Ah f (1-Swi)/ Bo
a ratio (R)= u/ gt and by
empirical correlation can be Amount of gas:
G = Rsi* N
developed by finding Bo
Standing for condensate
reservoir.

Exponential Decline Conversions (where b = 0)

Hyperbolic Decline Conversions (where 0 < b < 1)

qi
q (t = Di t
e

qi
q (t =
1b
(1+ bDit

Harmonic Decline Conversions (where b = 1)

Lineal (where b = 1)

qi
q(t =
(1 + Dit

q(t = qi * (1 Di * t )

Exponential Decline Conversions (where b = 0)

Np = (qi q) / Di

Hyperbolic Decline Conversions (where 0 < b < 1)

Np = qi b * (qi

1b

q1b ) /( Di bDi )

Harmonic Decline Conversions (where b = 1)

N p = qi ln( qi / q ) / Di

Lineal (where b = 1)

Np = (q1 q 2) / 2

Applications

Mechanism

PLOT

Hyperbolic

Solution Gas

log (Np)

Exponential

Solution Gas

Np

vs q

Water drive
wc = 0

Np

vs q 2

Water drive
wc <> 0

Np

vs cut (oil/water)

Np

vs q

Np

vs q

Np

vs 1/p

vs log (q)

Lineal

Exponential

Harmonic

Water drive with

fluid production cte.

Water drive edge

Lineal

Gas cap
with slow GOR,
Solution gas = 0

Hyperbolic

Gas cap drive

with slow GOR
with solution gas slow

Gas cap drive

after GOC break through
well producres.

log (Np)

Np
Np

vs log (q)

vs GOR
vs Depth GOC

b = 2,0

Para el clculo tenemos:

masa inicial- masa final final = masa removida
Pi/zi
ni - nf = n producido del reservorio
P/z
PiVi/ziRT - PfVf/zfRT = PscGp/RTsc
Vf = Vi - We + WpBw
GBgi -(G -Gp) Bgf = We + WpBw
Reservorio volumtrico, no hay intrusin de
agua entonces Vi=Vf
Pf/zf = Pi/zi - Psc TGp/Tsc = b - m Gp

Gi

Gp MMM SCF

Reservorios No saturado, produccin

cerca al punto de Burbuja no hay intrusin
de agua, Compresibilidad de la formacin
y agua=0
Vi = Vf ; Vi = N Boi ;
Vf = Nf Bof = (N - Np) Bof
Luego: N Boi = (N - Np) Bof
Noofsaturado,
N =Reservorios
Np Bof / (B
- Boi ) produccin
al punto de Burbuja no hay intrusin agua , si
F.R.cerca
=
(B
of - Boi )/ Bof
efectos compresibilidades
Cf +w = Cf +CwSwi/ (1-Swi)
N = Np Bof / (Bof - Boi (1- Cw+f DP))
F.R. = Bof - Boi (1- Cw+f DP)/ Bof

PETROLEO

PETROLEO

AGUA

AGUA

Pi

Pb

Pb
GAS

PETROLEO

PETROLEO

AGUA

AGUA

Pi

Reservorios No saturado, produccin

debajo al punto de Burbuja no hay
intrusin de agua
Vi = Vf = Vo + Vg;
N Boi = (N - Np) Bof + Gf Bgf
Gf = Nrsi - (N-Np)Rs - NpRp siendo Rp = Gp/Np

N = Np [Bof + Bg (Rp- Rs)]/ [Bof - Boi + Bg(Rsi-Rs)]

F.R.= [Bof - Boi + Bg(Rsi-Rs)]/ [ Bof + Bg (Rp- Rs)]
Si hay intrusin de agua:

Vi = Vf = Vo + Vg+ Vw

Pf

Pb
GAS

PETROLEO

PETROLEO

AGUA

AGUA

Pi
Reservorios No saturado, produccin
debajo al punto de Burbuja no hay
intrusin de agua, considerando la
expansin del volumen poroso
N=

Np [Bof + Bg (Rp- Rs)]

[Bof - Boi + Bg(Rsi-Rs) + Cf+w Boi DP]
F.R.= [Bof - Boi + Bg(Rsi-Rs) + Cf+w Boi DP ]
[ Bof + Bg (Rp- Rs)]

Pf

Pb
GAS

GAS

PETROLEO

PETROLEO

AGUA

AGUA

Pi

Pf

Intrusin de agua.
Reservorios saturado, produccin
debajo al punto de Burbuja , intrusin
de agua, considerando la
expansin del volumen poroso
m= Vgli/Voi
Vi = Vf = Vo + Vgd + Vgl + Vw;
Vgl = m N Boi [Bg - Bgi] / Bgi
N=

Np [Bof + Bg (Rp- Rs) - (We-BwWp) ]

[Bof - Boi + B (R -R ) + m B [B - Bgi] / Bgi]

LECTURE 17

The area of concern in this lecture includes:

Types of fluids in the reservoir
Flow regimes
Reservoir geometry
Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir

TYPES OF FLUIDS
In general, reservoir fluids are classified into three
groups:
Incompressible fluids
Slightly compressible fluids
Compressible fluids
Incompressible fluids
An incompressible fluid is defined as the fluid whose
volume (or density) does not change with pressure.
Incompressible fluids do not exist; this behavior,
however, may be assumed in some cases to simplify
the derivation and the final form of many flow
equations.

Slightly compressible fluids

These slightly compressible fluids exhibit small changes in
volumeor density, with changes in pressure.
It should be pointed out that crude oil and water systems fit into
this category.

Compressible Fluids
These are fluids that experience large changes in volume as a
function of pressure. All gases are considered compressible
fluids.

FLOW REGIMES
There are three flow regimes:
Steady-state flow
Unsteady-state flow
Pseudosteady-state flow
Steady-State Flow
The flow regime is identified as a steady-state flow if
the pressure at every location in the reservoir
remains constant, i.e., does not change with time.
Mathematically, this condition is expressed as:

(4-1)

The above equation states that the rate of change of pressure p

with respect to time t at any location i is zero. In reservoirs, the
steady-state flow condition can only occur when the reservoir is
completely recharged and supported by strong aquifer or
pressure maintenance operations.
Unsteady-State Flow
The unsteady-state flow (frequently called transient flow) is
defined as the fluid flowing condition at which the rate of change
of pressure with respect to time at any position in the reservoir
is not zero or constant.
This definition suggests that the pressure derivative with respect
to time is essentially a function of both position i and time t, thus

(4-2)

Pseudosteady-State Flow
When the pressure at different locations in the reservoir is
declining
linearly as a function of time, i.e., at a constant declining rate, the
flowing condition is characterized as the pseudosteady-state
flow. Mathematically, this definition states that the rate of
change of pressure with respect to time at every position is
constant, or
(4-3)
It should be pointed out that the pseudosteady-state flow is
commonly referred to as semisteady-state flow and
quasisteady-state flow.
Figure shows a schematic comparison of the pressure declines as
a function of time of the three flow regimes.

RESERVOIR GEOMETRY
For many engineering purposes, however, the actual flow geometry
may be represented by one of the following flow geometries:
Radial flow
Linear flow
Spherical and hemispherical flow
Because fluids move toward the well from all directions and
coverage at the wellbore, the term radial flow is given to
characterize the flow of fluid
into the wellbore. Figure 4-1 shows idealized flow lines and isopotential lines for a radial flow system.

radial
into a wellbore

Figure 4-1 Ideal

flow

Linear Flow
Linear flow occurs when flow paths are parallel and the fluid flows
in a
single direction. In addition, the cross sectional area to flow must
be
constant. Figure 4-2 shows an idealized linear flow system.
Figure 4-2 Ideal linear flow
into vertical fracture

Spherical and Hemispherical Flow

Depending upon the type of wellbore completion configuration,
it is possible to have a spherical or hemispherical flow near
the wellbore. A well with a limited perforated interval could
result in spherical flow in the vicinity of the perforations as
illustrated in Figure 4-3. A well that only partially penetrates
the pay zone, as shown in Figure 4-4, could result in
hemispherical flow. The condition could arise where coning
of bottom water is important.
Figure 4-3 Spherical flow due to limited entry

Figure 4-4 Hemispherical flow in a partially penetrating well

NUMBER OF FLOWING FLUIDS IN THE RESERVOIR

There are generally three cases of flowing systems:
Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)
Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-water)
Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)
The description of fluid flow and subsequent analysis of pressure
data becomes more difficult as the number of mobile fluids
increases.

LECTURE 18

Since 1980, horizontal wells began capturing an ever-increasing

share of hydrocarbon production. Horizontal wells offer the
following advantages over those of vertical wells:
Large volume of the reservoir can be drained by each horizontal
well.
Higher productions from thin pay zones.
Horizontal wells minimize water and gas zoning problems.
In high permeability reservoirs, where near-wellbore gas velocities
are high in vertical wells, horizontal wells can be used to reduce
near-wellbore velocities and turbulence.
In secondary and enhanced oil recovery applications, long
horizontal injection wells provide higher injectivity rates.
The length of the horizontal well can provide contact with multiple
fractures and greatly improve productivity.

The actual production mechanism and reservoir flow regimes around

the horizontal well are considered more complicated than those for
the vertical well, especially if the horizontal section of the well is of
a considerable length. Some combination of both linear and radial
flow actually exists, and the well may behave in a manner similar
to that of a well that has been extensively fractured.
Assuming that each end of the horizontal well is represented by a
vertical well that drains an area of a half circle with a radius of b,
Joshi (1991) proposed the following two methods for calculating
the drainage area of a horizontal well.

Method I
Joshi proposed that the drainage area is represented by two half
circles of radius b (equivalent to a radius of a vertical well rev) at
each end and a rectangle, of dimensions L(2b), in the center.
The drainage area of the
horizontal well is given then by:
Figure 5-1

(5-1)
where
A =drainage area, acres
L =length of the horizontal well, ft
b =half minor axis of an ellipse, ft

Method II
Joshi assumed that the horizontal well drainage area is an ellipse
and given by:
(5-2)
with
(5-3)
where a is the half major axis of an ellipse.
Joshi noted that the two methods give different values for the
drainage area A and suggested assigning the average value for
the drainage of the horizontal well. Most of the production rate
equations require the value of the drainage radius of the
horizontal well, which is given by:

(5-4)

Where
reh =drainage radius of the horizontal well, ft
A =drainage area of the horizontal well, acres

LECTURE 19

A thorough understanding of the flowing

well is necessary prior to placing it on
artificial lift . There are two surface
conditions under which a flowing well is
produced , that is , it may be produced
with a choke at the surface or it may be
produced with no choke at the surface.
The majority of all flowing wells utilize
surface chokes . Some of the reasons for
this are safety ; to maintain production
allowable ; to maintain an upper flow rate
limit to prevent sand entry ; to produce
the reservoir at the most efficient rate ; to
prevent water or gas coning ; and others.

In particular , flowing wells utilize a choke in

their early stages of production . As time
progresses , the choke size may have to be
increased and eventually removed
completely in order to try to optimize
production .
The second condition that we are
concerned with is producing the flowing well
with no restrictions at the surface except
normal Christmas tree turn , bends, etc .
Even these may be streamlined in order to
obtain the maximum flowing rate possible .

In order to analyze the performance of a

conventionally completed flowing well , in is
necessary to recognize that there are three distinct
phases , which have to be studied separately and
then finally linked together before an overall picture
of a flowing wells behavior can be obtained . These
phase are the inflow performance , the vertical lift
performance , and the choke (or bean )performance.
The inflow performance , that is , the flow of oil ,
water , and gas from the formation into the bottom
of the well , is typified , as far as gross liquid
production is concerned , by the PI of well or , more
generally , by the IPR .
The vertical lift performance involves a study of
the pressure losses in vertical pipes carrying twophase mixtures(gas and liquid).

LECTURE 20

Oil well pumping methods can be divided into

two main groups:
Rod systems.Those in which the motion of the
subsurface pumping equipment originates at
the surface and is transmitted to the pump by
means of a rod string.
Rod less systems.Those in which the pumping
motion of the subsurface pump is produced by
means other than sucker rods.
Of these teo groups,the first is represented by
the beam pumping system and the second is
represented by hydraulic and centrifugal
pumping systems.

The beam pumping system consists essentially of

five parts:
The subsurface sucker rodfriven pump.
The sucker rod string which transmits the
surface pumping motion and power to the
subsurface pump.Also included is the necessary
string of tubing and/or casing within which the
sucker rods operate and which conducts the
pumped fluid from the pumpto the surface.
The surface pumping eauipment which changes
the rotating motion of the prime mover into
oscillatinf linear pumping motion .
The power transmiddion unit or speed reducer.
The prime mover which furnishes the necessary
power to the system.

LECTURE 22

Skin Factor

It is not unusual for materials such as mud

filtrate, cement slurry, or clay particles to
enter the formation during drilling,
completion or workover operations and
reduce the permeability around the wellbore.

Skin Factor
This effect is commonly referred to as a wellbore damage and
the region of altered permeability is called the skin zone. This
zone can extend from a few inches to several feet from the
wellbore. Many other wells are stimulated by acidizing or
fracturing which in effect increase the permeability near the
wellbore. Thus, the permeability near the wellbore is always
different from the permeability away from the well where the
formation has not been affected by drilling or stimulation. A
schematic illustration of the skin zone is shown in Figure 4-5.

Those factors that cause damage to the formation can produce

additional localized pressure drop during flow. This additional
pressure drop is commonly referred to as Dpskin. On the other
hand, well stimulation techniques will normally enhance the
properties of the formation and increase the permeability around
the wellbore, so that a decrease in pressure drop is observed.
Figure 4-5

 Positive Skin Factor, s > 0

When a damaged zone near the wellbore exists, k-skin is less
than k and hence s is a positive number. The magnitude of the
skin factor increases as k-skin decreases and as the depth of
the damage r skin increases.
Negative Skin Factor, s < 0
When the permeability around the well k-skin is higher than that of
the formation k, a negative skin factor exists. This negative
factor indicates an improved wellbore condition.
Zero Skin Factor, s = 0
Zero skin factor occurs when no alternation in the permeability
around the wellbore is observed, i.e., k-skin =k.

LECTURE 23;24

FINAL TEST

LECTURE 25