1.

Introduction to Fabric Manufacturing

1.1 Introduction
Fabric manufacturing is one of the four major stages (fibre production, yarn manufacturing, fabric
manufacturing, textile chemical processing) of textile value chain. Natural fibres in general and
cotton fibre in particular are the most popular raw material for woven textile fabrics intended for
apparel use. Staple fibres are converted into spun yarns by the use of a series of machines in the
yarn manufacturing section. Continuous filament yarns are texturised to impart spun yarn like
bulk and appearance to them.
Textile fabrics are special materials as they are light-weight, flexible (easy to bend, shear and
twist) and strong. There are four major technologies of fabric manufacturing as listed below.

Weaving

Knitting

Non-woven

Braiding

Woven

Knitted

Nonwoven

Braided

Figure 1.1: Fabrics produced by different technologies

Figure 1.1 depicts the fabrics produced by the four major technologies. Fabric manufacturing
may be preceded either by fibre production (in case of nonwoven) or by yarn manufacturing (in
case of weaving, knitting and braiding). Fabrics intended for apparel use must fulfill
multidimensional quality requirements in terms of drape, handle, crease recovery, tear strength,
air permeability, thermal resistance, moisture vapour permeability. However, looking at the
versatility of textile fabrics, it is now being used in various technical applications where the
requirements are altogether different. Some examples are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Properties of some technical fabrics

Fabric type

Important properties/ parameters

Filter fabric

Pore size, pore size distribution

Body armour fabrics

Impact resistance, areal density, bending resistance

Fabrics as performs for composite Tensile strength and tensile modulus

Knitted compression bandages

Stretchability, tensile modulus, creep

Weaving
Weaving is the most popular way of fabric manufacturing. It is primarily done by interlacing two
orthogonal sets (warp and weft) of yarns in a regular and recurring pattern. Actual weaving
process is preceded by yarn preparation processes namely winding, warping, sizing, drawing and
denting.
Winding converts the smaller ringframe packages to bigger cheeses and cones. Pirn winding is
performed to supply the weft yarns in shuttle looms. Warping is done with the objective to
prepare a warpers beam which contains a large number of ends in a double flanged beam. Sizing
is the process of applying a protective coating on the warp yarns so that they can withstand
repeated stresses, strains and flexing during the weaving process.

Primary Motions:
For fabric formation in weaving, three primary motions are required namely shedding, picking and
beat up.

Shedding
It is the process by which the warp sheet is divided into two groups so that a clear passage is
created for the weft yarn or weft carrying device to pass through it. One group of yarns (red
yarns) either moves in the upward direction or stay in the up position (if they are already in up
position) as shown in Figure 1.2. Thus they form the top shed layer. Another group of yarns
(green yarns) either moves in the downward direction or stay in the bottom position (if they are
already in bottom position). Thus they form the bottom shed layer.

Figure 1.2: Shedding

Except for jacquard shedding, warp yarns are not controlled individually during the shedding
operation. Healds are used to control a large number of warp yarns. The upward and downward
movements are controlled either by cam or bobby shedding mechanisms. The movement of the
healds is not continuous. After reaching the up or bottom position, the healds, in general, remain
stationary for some duration. This is known as dwell. In general, the shed changes after every
pick i.e. the insertion of weft.

Picking
The insertion of weft or weft carrying device (shuttle , projectile or rapier) through the shed is
known as picking. Based on picking device, looms can be classified as follows.

Shuttle loom: weft package is carried by the wooden shuttle

Projectile loom: weft is carried by metallic projectile

Airjet loom: weft is inserted by jet of compressed air

Waterjet loom: weft is inserted by water jet

Rapier loom: weft is inserted by flexible or rigid rapiers

With the exception of shuttle loom, weft is always inserted from only one side of the loom. The
timing of picking is extremely important specially in case of shuttle loom. The shuttle should enter
into the shed and leave the shed when the shed is sufficiently open. Otherwise, the movement of
the shuttle will be obstructed by the warp yarns. As a result, the warp threads may break due to
abrasion.

Figure 1.3: Picking

Beat up
Beat up is the action by which the newly inserted weft yarn is pushed up to the cloth fell (Figure
1.4). Cloth fell is the boundary up to which the fabric has been woven. The loom component
responsible for the beat up is called reed. The reed is carried by sley which sways forward and
backwards due to the crank-connecting rod mechanism. This is known as crank beat up. In
modern looms, beat up is done by cam mechanism which is known as cam beat up. Generally, one
beat up is done after the insertion of one pick.

Figure 1.4: Beat up

Secondary Motions
For uninterrupted manufacturing of fabrics, two additional secondary motions are required. These
are take up and let off motions. Take up motion winds the newly formed fabric on the cloth roller

after the beat up. The take up speed also determines the picks/cm value in the fabric at loom
state. As the take up motion winds the newly formed fabric, tension in the warp sheet increases.
To compensate this, the weavers beam is rotated by the let off mechanism so that some new warp
sheet is released.
Auxiliary motions:
Auxiliary motions are mainly related to the activation stop motions in case of any malfunctioning
like warp breakage, weft breakage or shuttle trapping within the shed. The major auxiliary
motions are as follows:

Warp stop motion (in case of warp breakage)

Weft stop motion (in case of weft breakage)

Warp protector motion (in case of shuttle trapping)

1. Introduction to Fabric Manufacturing

1.2 Some Basic Definitions Related to Woven Fabrics
Warp: The group of longitudinal yarns in a woven fabric is called warp. A single warp is called
end.
Weft: The group of transverse yarns in a woven fabric is called weft. A single weft is called pick.
Crimp: It is the measure of the degree of waviness present in the yarns due to interlacement. It
is expressed as follows:
Crimp% = (Length of yarn - Length of fabric / Length of fabric ) x 100
Contraction : It is expressed as follows:
Contraction%=(Length of yarn - Length of fabric /Length of yarn) x 100
Fractional cover : It is the ratio of area covered by the yarns to the total area of the fabric. If
warp yarn diameter is d inch and spacing between two consecutive ends is p inch
1

then fractional cover for warp(k ) is d / p

1

Now, for cotton yarns, having packing factor of 0.6, the relationship between yarn diameter (inch)
and yarn count (Ne) is as follows:

d=1/28Ne

The relationship between end spacing (p ) and ends per inch (n ) is as follows:
1

n =1/p
1

Rearranging we can write

k = n / 28Ne
1

Cover factor : It is obtained by multiplying fractional cover with 28.

Warp cover factor = k = 28 x k = n / Ne

w

Fabric cover is a very important parameter as it influences the following properties of the woven
fabrics.

Air permeability

Moisture vapour permeability

Ultra violet radiation protection

Areal density : It is expressed by measuring the mass of the fabric per unit area. In most of the
cases the mass is expressed in gram (g) and area is expressed in square meter (m ). Therefore,
the unit becomes g/m which is popularly called as GSM. Areal density of fabric will depend on the
following parameters.
2

Warp yarn count

Weft yarn count

Ends per unit length (EPI or EPcm)

Picks per unit length (PPI or PPcm)

Crimp% in warp

Crimp% in weft

1. Introduction to Fabric Manufacturing

1.3 Nonwovens
Nonwovens are defined as engineered flat structured fabrics which are not made by weaving but by bonding and
entangling fibres by means of mechanical, thermal or chemical processes. Nonwoven technology has attracted the
attention of the researchers and industrialists as it can manufacture the fabric at a very high production rate
bypassing the yarn production stage. The principal end uses of nonwoven materials are in the domain of Technical
Textiles such as geotextiles, filtration, wipes, health and hygiene products, surgical gowns, face masks, automotive
textiles etc. The major nonwoven technologies now available can be listed as shown below:

Web formation

Web bonding

Mechanically formed Fibre webs

Aerodynamically formed Fibre webs
Hydrodynamically formed Fibre webs
Spun bonded nonwovens

Needle punching
Hydro-entanglement
Thermal bonding
Chemical bonding

Needle-punching Technology
Needle punching is the method of consolidation of webs by the repeated insertion of barbed needles into the
fibrous web as shown in Figure 1.5. This process consolidates the structure of fibrous web without any binder by
interlocking of fibres in the third or Z dimension. Continuous filaments or short staple fibres are initially arranged
in the form of a fibrous web in various orientations (random, cross, parallel, or composite). This forms a threedimensional intermingled structure which fulfils the necessary requirements of geotextiles.
Needle punched nonwoven geotextiles are extensively used in civil engineering applications including road and
railway construction, landfills, land reclamation and slope stabilization. Such applications require geotextiles to
perform more than one function including filtration, drainage, and separation. The properties of needle punched
nonwoven depend on parameters like Fibre type, web aerial density, needle penetration depth, punch density and
number of needling passages.

Figure 1.5: Needle-punching process

Hydro-entangling Technology
Hydro-entanglement or spunlacing is a versatile and relatively little explored method of bonding the fibrous web
using high-pressure water jets. In this process, a fabric is produced by subjecting a web of loose fibres to highpressure fine water jets as shown in Figure 1.6. The fibre web is supported either by regularly spaced woven wires
or sleeve with randomly distributed holes (Perfojet technology). As a result of the impact of the jets, the fibres
entangle, forming an integrated web where fibres are held together by friction forces. The resulting fabric strength
depends on the fibre web properties (basis weight, thickness etc.), fibre parameters (fibre diameter, bending
modulus, etc.) and forming wires geometry and jet parameters.

Figure 1.6: Hydro-entanglement process

Hydroentangled nonwoven structures have an extensive range of applications like wipes, carpet backing, filters,
sanitary, medical dressings and composites. Among these applications, personal care and household wipes form the
fastest growing market.

Spun-bonding Technology
In spun-bonding process, fluid polymer is converted into finished fabric by a series of continuous operations.
Polymer is first extruded into filaments and then the filaments are attenuated. While the filaments are being
attenuated, they remain under tension. After attenuation, the tension is released and the filaments are forwarded

to a surface where the web is formed. The web is then subjected to the bonding process which can be done by
chemical and/or thermal process. A binder may be incorporated in the spinning process or applied subsequently
(e.g., a latex). Extensive experimental investigations also have been made for the production of spun bonded
nonwovens made of hollow filaments using polymers like Polypropylene, Metallocene Polypropylene and polyester.

Melt blown technology

It is one of the fastest growing areas of nonwoven technologies. Melt blown technology is unique in the sense that
the web is very fine along with very fine pore sizes which no other nonwoven technology can produce. The polymer
is fed into the die tip and the resulting fibre is attenuated by hot air, which is guided near by the die tip as shown
inFigure 1.7. Air and Fibre are expanded into the free air. Due to the mixture of high speed air and fibre with
ambient air, the fibre bundle starts its movement forward and backward. Whilst flying through ambient air the
filaments are stretched for the first time and on their way down to the belt the fibres are stretched again due to the
so-called form drag. This form drag appears with every change of fibre direction. Therefore the Melt-Blown fibres
usually do not have a constant diameter. The fibres in the melt blown web are laid together by a combination of
entanglement and cohesive sticking. The ability to form a web directly from a molten polymer without controlled
stretching gives melt blown technology a distinct cost advantage over other systems.
Melt blown webs offer a wide range of product characteristics such as random Fibre orientation, very fine Fibre and
low to moderate web strength. The largest end-uses for monolithic melt blown materials are filtration media
(surgical mask filters, liquid and gaseous filtration), surgical disposable gown, sterilization wrap, disposable
absorbent products, oilsorbents. About 40% of Melt-Blown material is used in the uncombined (monolithic) state.
The laminated structures (SMS) are ideal for gradient filtration as the material shows excellent barrier properties
combined with mechanical strength. The filtration efficiency often is increased by applying electrostatic loads to the
filament to improve filtration efficiency. With this standard Melt-Blown technology fibres with diameter of 1-3 m at
throughputs up to 60 kg/h for filter up to filter class F8 can be produced. Several filter applications using MeltBlown fibres are already in the market today.

Figure 1.7: Schematic diagram of melt-blown process

Struto Technology
Struto is a technology for producing nonwoven fabrics by vertical web laying. These fabrics are found to have a
greater resistance to compression than fabrics produced by cross-laying and therefore particularly suitable for the
automotive textiles. This factor improves the heat retention properties of the fabrics. Struto fabrics can be applied
for insulation, furniture and other cushioning material, high quality underfelt fabrics and mattress pads.

1. Introduction to Fabric Manufacturing

1.4 Knitting
Knitting is the process of fabric formation by producing series of intermeshed loops. Loops are the building
blocks of knitted fabrics (Figure 1.8). As a result, the knitted fabrics, in general, are more stretchable than
the woven fabrics. The open structure of knitted fabrics also helps in moisture vapour transmission making it
suitable for the sports garments. Besides, the knitted fabrics have more porosity than the woven fabrics.
Therefore, knitted structures can trap more air resulting in lower thermal conductivity and higher thermal
resistance. There are two types of principles of knitting namely warp knitting and weft knitting

Figure 1.8: A knitted loop

Weft knitting a method in which the loops made by each weft thread are formed across the width of the
fabric (Figure 1.9a)

Warp knitting a method in which the loops made from each warp thread are formed along the length of the
fabric. (Figure 1.9b)

(a) Weft knitted fabric

(b)Warp knitted fabric

Figure 1.9: Weft and

warp knitted fabrics
Weft knitted fabrics can be made even from one supply package of yarn. The machine element which forms
the loop is called needle. Latch needle (Figure 1.10) is most popularly used in weft knitting machines

Figure 1.10: Latch needle

The major parts of a latch needle are

Hook

Latch

Latch spoon

Stem

Butt

Hook is the curved part of the needle which is responsible for forming the loop. Latch is a tiny component and
it is riveted on the upper part of the stem of the needle. Latch spoon is the tip of the latch which touches the
tip of the hook when the former closes. The butt is actually the follower and it is pressed against the cam to
cause movement of the needle. The movement of the needle is caused by a set of cams.
The sequence of loop formation has been explained in Figure 1.11. When the needle moves up, the old loop
forces the latch open. When the old loop rests on the latch, the position is called tuck. The needle moves up
further and the old loop comes out of the latch. This is called the clearing. Then the needle starts to descend
and the hook catches the yarn. The old loop now helps to close the latch so that newly formed loop is caught
between the hook and latch. The needle continues to descend and new loop is cast off through the old one.

Figure 1.11: Sequence of loop formation

Course and wale: The horizontal row of loops is called course. The vertical column of loops is called wale
(Figure 1.12).

Figure 1.12: Course and wale

Knitting machines can primarily be classified under two heads.

Flat bed machines

Circular bed machines

Flat bed machines, as the name implies, have one or two beds to carry the needles. Single bed machines
produce plain or single jersey structure where as double bed machines (V bed) produce double jersey
structures (Figure 1.13). The needles on the two beds in a double bed machine must be offset so that they
do not collide with each other while forming the loop.

Figure 1.13: Single jersey and double jersey (rib) structures

In case of single jersey fabrics, all the heads of the loops are either facing or away from the viewer. In case of
double jersey fabrics, in some of the wales, heads of the loops are facing the viewer and vice versa. Single
jersey fabrics tend to curl at the edges. If the machine gauge (number of needles/inch) and yarn count is
same, then double jersey fabric is thicker and more stretchable in course direction than the single jersey
fabric.
In circular bed machines, two sets of needles namely cylinder and dial needles are used. They operate
perpendicularly to each other. One set of needles (cylinder needles) are arranged on a grooved cylinder.
Generally the cylinder is rotated and needles get the requisite movement from stationary cam jackets.
Another set of needles operate in horizontal plane and they are known as dial needles.
Another important knitted fabric structure which is made on circular machines is known as interlock which is
basically the combination of two rib structures (Figure 1.14). The overlapping of two rib structure is
responsible for lower stretchability of interlock fabrics as compared to the original rib structure. Interlock
fabrics are generally heavy and demonstrate least porosity among the three knitted structures

Figure 1.14: Interlock structure

2. Winding 1
2.1 Objectives of winding

Objectives:
To wrap the forming yarn
on a package in a
systematic manner or to
transfer yarn from one
supply package to
another in such a way
that the latter is
adequately compact and
usable for the
subsequent operations.
To remove the
objectionable faults
present in original yarns.

The most of the winding

operations deal with the
conversion of ringframe
bobbins into cones or
cheeses. One ringframe
bobbin (cop) typically
contains around 100
grams of yarn. If the yarn
count is 20 tex, then the
length of yarn in the
package will be around 5
km. As the warping speed
in modern mills is around
1000 m/min, direct use of
ringframe bobbins in
warping will necessitate
package change after
every 5 minutes which is
unacceptable. Therefore,
ringframe bobbins are
converted into bigger
cones (mass around 2 kgs
or more) or cheeses.
Ringframe bobbins are not
useable as transverse
yarn or weft packages
also because they have
empty core which will
require bigger size of the

Over end
withdrawal
Side withdrawal