Table of Contents

Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iv
Disclaimer .......................................................................................................................................v
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................x
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xi

Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................................1
1.0 General Introduction ..............................................................................................................1
1.1 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................7
1.2 Objectives of The Study .........................................................................................................8
1.3 Scope of The Study ................................................................................................................8
1.4 Plan of The Study ...................................................................................................................9
Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................................11
2.0 Background Review of Literature .....................................................................................11
2.1 Kalahari Sands......................................................................................................................11
2.2 Mechanism of Salt Damage .................................................................................................13
2.3 Incidences of Salt damage on Pavements in Botswana ........................................................15
2.3.1 Sua Pan Airfield ............................................................................................................15
2.3.2 Nata Maun Road .........................................................................................................15
2.3.3 Sekoma - Kang Road .....................................................................................................16
2.3.4 Tsabong Middlepits Road...........................................................................................16
2.4 Current Practice to Limit Salt Damage to Bituminous Surfaced Pavements ......................17
2.5 Historical Review of Chemical Stabilisation in Road Construction ....................................18
2.6 Review of Some Chemical Stabilisers .................................................................................21
2.6.1 Calcium or Magnesium Chlorides .................................................................................21
2.6.2 Clay Additives ...............................................................................................................21
2.6.3 Enzymes ........................................................................................................................22
2.6.4 Lignosulphates ...............................................................................................................22
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2.6.5 Synthetic Polymer Emulsions........................................................................................22

2.6.6 Tall Oil Emulsions From Paper Mills ...........................................................................22
2.6.7 Sulphonated Petroleum Products ...................................................................................22
2.6.8 Conaid Stabilisation.......................................................................................................23
2.6.9 Fly Ash Stabilisation .....................................................................................................23
2.6.10 Other Documented Tests on Kalahari Sands ...............................................................24
2.7 Traditional Stabilisers ..........................................................................................................25
2.7.1 Lime Stabilisation ..........................................................................................................25
2.7.2 Cement and Lime Stabilisation in Botswana.................................................................26
2.7.2.1 Jwaneng Kanye Road ....................................................................................26
2.7.2.2 Other Cement Stabilised Roads in Botswana ...................................................29
2.7.3 Properties of Cement .....................................................................................................29
2.7.4 Portland Cement and Roadcem Compound ..................................................................31
2.8 Roadcem Compound in Road Construction .........................................................................33
2.9 Laboratory Evaluation by Others .........................................................................................34
2.9.1 CSIR Transportek Initial Tests ......................................................................................34
2.9.2 Demonstration Projects .................................................................................................37
2.9.2.1 Rusternberg Koster Road ..................................................................................37
2.9.2.2 Danie Theron Road in Fochville .......................................................................38
2.9.3 Alkaline Earth Metals and Zeolite Stabiliser.................................................................38
Chapter 3 Methodology ...............................................................................................................41
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................41
3.2 Description of the Study Area ..........................................................................................42
3.2.1 Geology .....................................................................................................................44
3.3 Sampling Procedures ........................................................................................................44
3.3.1 Soil Sampling ............................................................................................................44
3.3.2 Sampling Groundwater .............................................................................................45
3.4 Test Procedures ................................................................................................................47
3.4.1 Soil Classification Tests ............................................................................................47

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3.4.1.1 Grading Analysis ..............................................................................................47

3.4.1.2 The Soil Index Properties Atterberg Limits ...................................................48
3.4.1.3 Compaction Characteristics ..............................................................................51
3.4.2 Strength Tests............................................................................................................53
3.4.2.1 Unconfined Compressive Strength ...................................................................53
3.4.2.2 California Bearing Ratio ...................................................................................55
3.4.3 Chemical Tests ..........................................................................................................56
3.4.3.1 pH Testing .........................................................................................................57
3.4.3.2 Electrical Conductivity .....................................................................................58
3.4.3.3 Total Dissolved Solids ......................................................................................59
Chapter 4 Results .........................................................................................................................61
4.1.0 Material Characterisation ..............................................................................................61
4.2.1 California Bearing Ratio Test ..............................................................................61
4.2 Chemical Tests .................................................................................................................62
4.2.1 Chemical Tests on Water .....................................................................................62
4.2.2 Acidity and Alkalinity of the Water Samples ......................................................64
4.2.3 Chemical Tests on the Soil Specimens ................................................................65
4.2.3.1 pH Testing Results .....................................................................................65
4.2.3.2 Total Dissolved Solids ...............................................................................66
4.3 Compaction Characteristics ..............................................................................................66
4.4 Strength Characteristics....................................................................................................68
Chapter 5 Conclusion and Recommendations ..........................................................................74
5.1 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................74
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work .................................................................................75
References ..................................................................................................................................78
Appendices
Appendix 1

Gravel Classification
viii

Appendix 2

Compaction Characteristics

Appendix 3

Chemical Analysis of Experimental Water

Appendix 4

UCS Test Results

Appendix 5

Chemical Test Results for Soil Samples

Appendix 6

Powercem Mixing Protocol

Appendix 7

Additional Photos

Appendix 8

Geological Map of Botswana

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Groundwater Total Dissolved Solids Map ..................................................................3
Figure 2: Ecozones Map of Botswana ..........................................................................................4
Figure 3: Decision Flow Chart as per Jones and Ventura ......................................................34
Figure 4: Map of the Study Area ...............................................................................................42
Figure 5: Location of Sampling Positions .................................................................................43
Figure 6: Kalahari Sand Being Loaded for the Subgrade Layers by the Contractor ...........44
Figure 7: Illustration of the Herringbone Sampling Pattern Adopted ..................................45
Figure 8: Sampling Borehole Water for Road Construction ..................................................46
Figure 9: Sieve Stack Assembly and the Sand Sample Using the Mechanical Shaker ..........48
Figure 10: Cassagrande Equipment for Atterberg Limits .......................................................50
Figure 11: Linear Shrinkage Moulds ........................................................................................51
Figure 12: Proctor Moulds, Hammers and Sample Being Weighed for
Determination of OMC/MDD ....................................................................................................52
Figure 13: Soaked Specimens Prior to Compressive Strength Determination .....................54
Figure 14: UCS Testing Apparatus and Results Being Captured ..........................................54
Figure 15: CBR Equipment, Moulds and CBR Pressing Machine ........................................56
Figure 16: pH Test Kit ................................................................................................................57
Figure 17: Hand Held EC Meter ...............................................................................................58
Figure 18: TDS Meter ..................................................................................................................60
Figure 19: Specimen Failuer Due to Applied Loading ............................................................69
Figure 20: Graph of UCS Against Cement Content% ............................................................70
Figure 22: Maximum Dry Density Against Cement Content .................................................71

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Common Water Soluble Salts ......................................................................................13
Table 2: Typical Composition of Ordinary Portland Cement .................................................30
Table 3: UCS Results from CSIR Transportek ........................................................................35
Table 4: Material Properties .......................................................................................................61
Table 5: Results of Chemical Analysis of Borehole Water Samples ......................................63
Table 6: Acidity and Alkalinity Scale ........................................................................................64
Table 7: Compaction Characteristics of the Specimens ..........................................................67

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