Coordination and Control

Coordination and Control
This section looks at how our body controls and

coordinates all aspects of human processes. We
have looked at most of these processes in
detail, but what coordinates a lot of these
processes?
Growth
Reproduction
Irritability
Movement
Nutrition
Excretion
Respiration
Irritability
Irritability is the ability of living organisms
to detect changes in their environment
and respond to it
- Changes in the surroundings or within
the body that the body detects are
called Stimuli (Singular Stimulus) (e.g.
temperature, pain, sound)
- Stimuli causes the body to react, which
is called a Response
- Animals have many sensory organs to
detect stimuli. Response is controlled
by the Nervous System
Example of irritability: When

we smell food, our brain
makes us realize we want
food by making our mouths
fill with saliva.

Where does coordination and control begin?
All of these processes are controlled in one way or
another by the Central Nervous System.
It is necessary for our body processes to work
together. For example, antagonistic action by our
muscles must be coordinated for the movement of
a limb.

Nervous System
The nervous system is an organ system containing
a network of specialized cells called neurons that
coordinate the actions of a human and transmit
signals between different parts of its body.
In most animals the nervous system consists of two
parts, the central and the peripheral.

Nervous System
The Central Nervous System in humans contains
the brain, spinal cord, and retina.
The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory
neurons, clusters of neurons called ganglia, and
nerves connecting them to each other and to the
central nervous system.

Nervous System
If we zoom in to the nervous system, we will
observe that it is made up of a large network of
fibres that run throughout the body. These are
called Nerves. These nerves act as a
communication network that receives and
transmits signals from the body to the CNS and
vice versa.
Nerves can be divided up into millions of smaller
components.

How does the Nervous System Work?
The nervous system consists of a network of
receptors, communication lines, a control centre,
and effectors.
Receptors detect changes in the environment and
collects information the body needs to process.
These are carried to the control centre, where a
response is sent back to the effector.
The Effectors are the organs, muscles or groups of
secretory cells that carry out the response to the
stimuli.

Receptors are connected to organs that detect
changes in the surroundings. These include the
eyes, ears, nose, mouth, skin and other organs.
These are called Sensory Organs.
Effectors are connected to organs that respond to
these changes. These include the skin and muscles,
and all the body organs that are controlled
automatically by the brain.

The nervous system derives its name from nerves,
which are cylindrical bundles of fibres that
emanate from the brain and central cord, and
branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the
body.
Nerves are large enough to have been recognized
by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, but
their internal structure was not understood until it
became possible to examine them using a
microscope.

A microscopic examination shows that nerves
consist primarily of the axons of neurons, along
with a variety of membranes that wrap around
them.
The nervous system contains two main categories
or types of cells: neurons and glial cells.
Neurones:
Nerves in a dissection appear as white threads. These
threads consist of bundles of fibres bound together in one
sheath. Each fibre is also bound by sheath.
Inside the fibres are the long processes from the cell
bodies of nerve cells. A whole nerve cell is called a
Neurone.
The long process that conducts impulses towards a cell
body is called a Dendron.
Axons conducts impulses away from the cell body. Axons
and Dendrons are surrounded by Myelin Sheath. This fatty
sheath acts as an insulator for the electrical activity on the
inside. It causes impulses to pass rapidly from node to
node.
Neurones:
A Motor Neurone conducts an impulse outward from the

central nervous system to effector organ. The axon has
the cell body at one end and a nerve ending at the other
end in the muscle
A Sensory Neurone conducts incoming impulses from the
sense organs to the central nervous system. Sensory
neurones differ from motor neurones in that the cell body
is not at the end part of the neurone, but in some
position along the axon. These cell bodies, all together,
make swelling called Ganglia.
Neurones have projections from the cell body called
dendrites. Dendrites connect to the terminal end of other
neurones.
Neurones:
Therefore, the three types of neurones are:
1. Motor Neurone: Takes messages from the CNS to
the effector Organs
2. Sensory Neurone: Takes messages from the
sensory organs to the CNS
3. Relay or Intermediate Neurones: Connects a motor
neurone to a sensory neurone.
Relay Neurone or
Intermediate
Neurone
How does a neurone transmit messages?

In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a
neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell
(neural or otherwise).
Neurons have specialized projections called dendrites and
axons. Dendrites bring information to the cell body and axons
take information away from the cell body.
Information from one neuron flows to another neuron across
a synapse. The synapse contains a small gap separating
neurons.

The synapse consists of:
A presynaptic ending that contains neurotransmitters,
mitochondria and other cell organelles
A postsynaptic ending that contains receptor sites for
neurotransmitters
A synaptic cleft or space between the presynaptic and
postsynaptic endings.

The message that is being transmitted from one
neurone to another is called an Impulse.
The nerve impulse travels from one end of the
neurone to the other end and is transmitted via the
synapse to the other neurone, or to the effector.
When the nerve impulse arrives at the synapse it
causes the release of chemicals from vesicles
(bubbles). These chemicals are called
Neurotransmitters.

The Neurotransmitter is released into the synapse
and travels across the gap. When they arrive at the
membrane on the other side, they cause the
impulse to flow to the other neurone.
Synapses are found between two neurones, at the
point of connection. They are either found
between the dendrites of two neurones, or
between the dendrite and cell bodies to which
they are applied.
An example of a neurotransmitter is Acetyl
Choline.

1. Signal is received in the cell body or the receiving
end of the neurone.
2. Neurotransmitter is synthesised and transported
down then axon.
3. An Action Potential is created. An action potential
is the increase in the ability of the axon to conduct
an electrical signal. Therefore this electrical signal
travels towards the other end of the Neurone.
4. The action potential causes calcium to enter at the
terminal end of the dendrite. This causes the
neurotransmitter to be released into the synapse.

5. The neurotransmitter attaches to the membrane
of the postsynaptic neurone (Where the impulse is
to go). This causes the neurone to become excited,
and the impulse is sent across the synaptic cleft to
the other neurone.
6. When the signal is transmitted, the
neurotransmitter is released, and reabsorbed into
the presynaptic neurone.
The Human Brain

The control centre of the nervous system is the
Central Nervous System. The brain is the main part
of this, and is where most of the processing of
information is done.
It receives information from the sensory organs
and sends signals to effector organs such as
muscles and glands.
It is the organ that controls most of our bodily
processes, whether automatically or voluntarily.
The Human Brain

The main parts of the brain:
1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Medulla oblongata
4. Hypothalamus
5. Pituitary glands
The Human Brain

1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Medulla oblongata
4. Hypothalamus
5. Pituitary glands
The Human Brain

Cerebrum: The Cerebrum is the forebrain, made up of two

enormous cerebral hemispheres. The surface of these
have folds or convolutions called the cerebral cortex. This
increases the surface area to contain the enormous
amount of neurones present. Approximately 10,000
Million neurones are interconnected by synapses, making
it very complicated.
This part of the brain is concerned with some memory as
well as the ability to perform intelligent action.
The Human Brain

The cerebrum is the large rounded area that
divides into left and right hemispheres (halves) at a
fissure (deep groove).
Surprisingly, each hemisphere controls muscles and
glands on the opposite side of the body.
Comprising 85% of total brain weight, the
cerebrum controls language, conscious thought,
hearing, somatosensory functions (sense of touch),
memory, personality development, and vision.
The Human Brain

The Cerebellum: At the rear of the brain is the
cerebellum. The cerebellum is similar to the
cerebrum: each has hemispheres that control the
opposite side of the body and are covered by gray
matter and surface folds.
It lies behind and above the Medulla Oblongata.
The cerebellum controls balance, posture, and
coordination. It receives information on the
balance of the body from the ear and the muscles
and constantly sends out impulses to the muscles
to maintain correct posture.
The Human Brain

The Brain Stem: The brain stem connects the
cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. Its
superior portion, the midbrain, is the centre for
visual and auditory reflexes; e.g. blinking and
volume of ear.
The middle section, the pons, bridges the
cerebellum hemispheres and higher brain centres
with the spinal cord.
Below the pons lies the medulla oblongata; it
contains the control centres for swallowing,
breathing, digestion, and heartbeat.

The Human Brain
The Hypothalamus: . The hypothalamus 'master
switchboard' resides in the brain stem upper end.
It controls many body activities that affect
homeostasis (maintenance of a stable internal
environment in the body).
The hypothalamus is the main neural control
centre (brain part that controls endocrine glands).
The Human Brain

The pituitary gland lies just below the
hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is a small
endocrine gland that secretes a variety of
hormones (organic chemicals that regulate the
body's physiological processes).
When the hypothalamus detects certain body
changes, it releases regulating factors (chemicals
that stimulate or inhibit the pituitary gland). The
pituitary gland then releases or blocks various
hormones.
The Human Brain

Because of this close association between the
nervous and endocrine systems, together they are
called the neuroendocrine system.
The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord passes from the base of the brain
down the vertebral column. The spinal cord acts as
a relay system as well as a centre for Reflex
Actions.
The spinal cord is divided into grey matter and
white matter. The grey matter are darker because
the cell bodies of motor and intermediate
neurones are here.
White matter is mainly the nerve fibres of
neurones. The white matter conducts impulses
from the brain to the spinal nerves and vice versa.
The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord has a central canal that runs from
the brain. This acts as a transport system and
contains cerebro-spinal fluid.
How does the spinal cord control the reflex
actions?
Reflex Action
When we have sudden sharp pains such as a burn
from a fire, then we very quickly remove our body
from that source of pain.
This action is called the reflex action. The reflex
action is very rapid to avoid harm to the body.
The impulses from the receptor therefore follow a
special pathway through nerves, which does not
involve the brain.
This gives us a quick response because impulses
pass from the sense organs in the skin to the spinal
cord and straight back to the effector muscles.
Reflex Action
Such a reaction is a spinal reflex and the quick
response serves to protect the body from
dangerous external stimuli.
Reflex Action: Steps:

1. Receptor detects sudden change. E.g. The hand
touching a hot plate causes temperature and pain
receptors in the skin stimulates sensory neurones
to conduct an impulse along the spinal nerve in
the arm.
2. Impulse is sent to the Spinal Cord. Sensory
neurones that conduct the impulse enter the
spinal cord through the dorsal root. Together the
cell bodies all make a swelling forming the dorsal
root ganglion.

3. The neurones enter the spinal cord in the
dorsal part of the grey matter. Here the cell
bodies form a synapse with the cell bodies of
the intermediate neurones.
4. The impulse is then sent across the
intermediate synapse to the Motor Neurone.
5. The motor neurones leave the spinal cord
via the ventral root and have nerve endings
in the muscles of the arm.

6. The muscles are stimulated to contract
and remove the hand from the source of the
pain.
In the very simplest form, such a reflex arc
requires three neurones: sensory,
intermediate and motor neurones.
The response is quick since the information
does not have to pass to the brain.
Cranial Reflex Action:

A cranial reflex is a fast, involuntary response to a
stimulus. It uses the brain stem as an integrating centre
(the brain receives sensory information and generates a
response). This is contrasted to a spinal reflex, when the
response is generated in the spinal cord itself, and the
brain only finds out a reflex has occurred after the fact.
An example of a cranial reflex would be the tracking
movements of your eyes as you are reading this sentence.
The dilation and contraction of your pupils in response to
different levels of light is another cranial reflex.
Voluntary and involuntary actions

With the help of your peripheral nerves, you are able to
carry out voluntary and involuntary actions.
If you pick up a mug, clap your hands or lift weights in the
gym, you are performing voluntary actions. You are
conscious of what you're doing. Your brain receives nerve
impulses and analyses them before you decide what to do
next.
In contrast, your heart beats and your intestines digest
without your conscious control. Involuntary actions such
as these are regulated by your autonomic nervous system.
The autonomic part of your peripheral nervous system
ensures that all your internal organs and glands function
smoothly.

Voluntary action is controlled by the cerebrum of
the brain. It involves free will.
In voluntary action the sensory stimuli may be
conveyed directly to the brain through sensory
neurons or may first go to the spinal cord from
where the information may be passed on to the
brain by associative neurons. The brain then
comprehends the information and sends motor
impulse to the specific effectors for relevant
controlled response.

A spinal nerve arises from spinal cord by two roots. The
two roots combine to form spinal nerve. The nerve thus
formed is a mixed nerve. In an organ which is supplied by
it i.e. fore-arm of man the sensory fibres supply the skin
and the motor fibre supply muscles. When a person
accidentally touches something very hot the hand is
abruptly with drawn. In the nerve cord the associative
neurons transfer the nerve impulse from sensory to the
motor neurons
Sense Organs
The sense organs are the organs that receives
stimuli and transmits it to the nervous system for
processing.
There are 5 senses in the human body:
Sense of Sight
Sense of Sound
Sense of Taste
Sense of Touch
Sense of Scent
Sense Organs
The eyes respond to the sense of sight (seeing)
The ears respond to the sense of sound (hearing)
The human eye

Name
Function
External Eye Muscle
Moves eyeball in socket
Sclerotic Coat
Tough fibrous layer keeps spherical shape
Choroid
Well supplied with capillaries to provide nutrients
Conjunctiva
Thin membrane stops entry of grit and protects the eye
Cornea
Transparent window, refracts (bends) light rays
Aqueous Humour
Refracts light, helps maintain shape
Lens
Becomes more or less convex to focus light on the retina
Suspensory Ligament
Supports lens
Ciliary Muscle
Contracts and relaxes to alter the shape of the lens
The human eye

Name
Yellow Spot
Pupil
Function
Provides detailed vision at the centre
Hole through which light passes
Iris
Controls the amount of light passing through the

pupil
Retina
Converts light energy to nerve impulses
Vitreous humour Refracts light, helps eyeball keep shape
Optic Nerve
Blind Spot
Transmits nerve impulses to brain

Lacks retina, no vision at this point

The Eye: How are images formed
The optics of the eye create an image of the visual
world on the retina, which serves much the same
function as the film in a camera. Light striking the
retina initiates a cascade of chemical and electrical
events that ultimately trigger nerve impulses.
These are sent to various visual centres of the brain
through the fibres of the optic nerve.
The retina is made up of cones, which are sensitive
to colour; and rods which are sensitive only to
black and white.

Cones are only affected at high light intensities,
therefore it is difficult to see colour in poor light
Rods can detect black and white at low light
intensities.
The fovea or yellow spot is the centre of the retina,
which is thus the centre of our field of vision. It
only contains cones but are closer together than
elsewhere, to give good resolution.

Pupil size is smaller in bright light and larger in
poor light. In bright light, circular muscles in the iris
contract, enlarging the iris and so reducing the
pupil size.
In poor light, radial muscles contract to make the
iris smaller, and enlarge the pupil.

The Eye:
If you are near sighted, the cornea of your eye is
overly curved or your eyeball is too long. This
combination brings images of distant objects (street
signs) to a focus point in front of the retina. When the
light reaches the retina, a blurred image is seen since
the light rays spread apart after the focus point.

The Eye:
If you are farsighted, the cornea of your eye is not curved
enough or your eyeball is too short. This combination of
factors causes the focus point of the eye to be located behind
the retina. When light reaches the retina, a blurred image is
seen since the light rays have not been brought to focus prior
to reaching the retina.

The Eye:
If you have astigmatism, the cornea of your eye has a nonspherical shape (like a football) and does not bring light to
focus at a single point. Instead, it focuses images over a range
of points producing a blurred image. Both shortsighted and
farsighted eyes can also have astigmatism.

The Eye:
Accommodation is the process by which the eye changes
optical power to maintain a clear image (focus) on an
object as its distance varies.
Accommodation acts like a reflex, but can also be
consciously controlled. Mammals, birds and reptiles vary
the optical power by changing the form of the elastic lens
using the ciliary body.
The young human eye can change focus from

distance (infinity) to 7 cm from the eye in 350
milliseconds.

The Eye:

The Eye:
Glaucoma is an eye disease in which the optic nerve is
damaged in a characteristic pattern. This can permanently

damage vision in the affected eye(s) and lead to blindness
if left untreated. It is normally associated with increased
fluid pressure in the eye (aqueous humour).
Glaucoma has been called the "silent thief of sight"
because the loss of vision often occurs gradually over a
long period of time, and symptoms only occur when the
disease is quite advanced.
Once lost, vision can not normally be recovered and so
treatment is aimed at preventing further loss. Worldwide,
glaucoma is the second leading cause of blindness after
cataracts

The Eye:
A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens
of the eye or in its envelope (lens capsule), varying in
degree from slight to complete opacity and obstructing the
passage of light. Early in the development of age-related
cataract, the power of the lens may be increased, causing
near-sightedness (myopia), and the gradual yellowing and
opacification of the lens may reduce the perception of
blue colours.
Cataracts typically progress slowly to cause vision loss, and
are potentially blinding if untreated. The condition usually
affects both eyes, but almost always one eye is affected
earlier than the other

The Eye:

The Eye:

The Eye:

The Endocrine System
The endocrine system is the system of glands, each of
which secretes a type of hormone directly into the
bloodstream to regulate the body.
The endocrine system's effects are slow to initiate, and
prolonged in their response, lasting for hours to weeks.
The nervous system sends information very quickly, and
responses are generally short lived
Hormones are substances (chemical mediators) released
from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream where they
travel to target tissue and generate a response. Hormones
regulate various human functions, including metabolism,
growth and development, tissue function, and mood.

Hormone
Site of
Production
Purpose
Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)
Pituitary Gland
Controls the kidneys ability to

reabsorb water
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Pituitary Gland
FSH regulates the development,

growth, pubertal maturation, and
reproductive processes of the
body.
Luteinising Hormone (LH)
Pituitary Gland
In females, an acute rise of LH

called the LH surge triggers
ovulation and development of the
corpus luteum. In males, it
stimulates the production of
testosterone.
Thyroxin
Thyroid Gland
Controlling the rate of metabolic

processes in the body and
influencing physical development.

Hormone
Site of Production
Purpose
Insulin
Pancreas
Conversion of excessive blood sugar into Glycogen

to be stored in the liver
Glucagon
Pancreas
Conversion of glycogen into glucose to maintain

blood sugar levels
Adrenaline
Adrenals
Adrenaline is a hormone and a neurotransmitter.

It increases heart rate, constricts blood vessels,
dilates air passages and participates in the fightor-flight response of the sympathetic nervous
system
Oestrogen
Ovary
Oestrogen induces oestrus, stimulate changes in

the female reproductive organs during the
oestrous cycle, and promote development of
female secondary sexual characteristics

Hormone
Site of Production
Purpose
Progesterone
Ovary
Progesterone helps prepare the lining of the

uterus to receive the egg if it becomes fertilized
by a sperm. If the egg is not fertilized,
progesterone levels drop and menstrual bleeding
begins. It also rises during pregnancy.
Testosterone
Testes
In men, testosterone plays a key role in the

development of male reproductive tissues such as
the testis and prostate as well as promoting
secondary sexual characteristics such as increased
muscle, bone mass, and the growth of body hair.
In addition, testosterone is essential for health
and well-being as well as the prevention of
osteoporosis.

Coordination and Control

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Coordination and Control

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Coordination and Control

This section looks at how our body controls and