RASPA, G., RINALDI, M. and MASSACCI, P.

Evaluation and selection of recoverable reserves in a sublevel

stoping mine. APCOM 87. Proceedings of the Twentieth International Symposium on the Application of
Computers and Mathematics in the Mineral Industries. Volume 3: Geostatistics. J ohannes burg, SAIMM, 1987.
pp. 199 - 206.

Evaluation and Selection of Recoverable Reserves in a

Sublevel Stoping Mine
O. RASPA, M. RINALDI and P. MASSACCI
Department ICMMPM, University of Rome 'La Sapienza', Rome, Italy

The paper describes a computer procedure for evaluating and selecting recoverable reserves in a mine worked by sublevel stoping. The boundaries of
the volume to be mined are optimally defined by means of the 3-dimensional
Lerchs-Grossmann algorithm, separately applied to both sides of the panels.
The procedure, which has been developed for Masua Mine (Sardinia), also
provides for smoothing the optimized boundaries, positioning the drilling
drifts, interactive design of drilling fans and calculation of tonnage and grade
of each volley. These tonnages and grades form the input of another procedure evolved for production planning.

Introduction
In the case of an exploration where free selection of the
mining unit is possible (open pit), the problem of evaluating recoverable reserves is resolved directly by means
of nonlinear geostatistics. When, instead, selection of
mining units is subject to geometrical constraints (as in
underground mines), there is no direct means of calculation: here the quantity and quality of the recoverable
reserves depend on the mining method adopted. The main
factors that generally influence recovery are size of the
mining or selection unit, the precision with which these
units are estimated, the geometric constraints having a
bearing on selection, ore left in slabs and pillars, dilution, etc. In this case, too, geostatistics provide basic support in the form of conditional simulation of the orebody.
With such an orebody model it is theoretically possible
during the feasibility study to superimpose any kind of
mining method desired and to calculate the overall tonnages and grades that can be recovered.
Some work has been done in this regard in recent
years. 1 - 2 In addition to making a small contribution to
one aspect of this problem under particular conditions,
the aim of this paper is also to sustain interest in this important problem which still calls for a considerable
amount of research work to clarify various aspects.

The problem
The problem of evaluating and selecting recoverable
reserves generally arises both when studying the feasibility
of mining an orebody and during the actual operational
stage. However, the problem is not exactly the same where
open pit and underground mining operations are concerned. In the former case recoverable reserves are evaluated

by the estimation of the distribution within a panel of

the frequencies of grades of small blocks representing the
mining units. Disjunctive kriging, indicator co-kriging,
multigaussian kriging and other techniques are normally
used for estimating. The final pit is established on the
basis of the results of the estimate, a parametric selection being made based on the geometric constraints. When
extraction actually gets under way the mining unit is
selected on the basis of the grades estimated by ordinary
kriging which utilizes blasthole data.
In the case of underground mining, even if mineralization is more concentrated and orebody volumes are
smaller and better defined than in the case of the open
pit, it is not possible at the feasibility stage of the project
to define exactly the boundaries of the volumes to be
broken. Extremely detailed sampling, not normally available at the feasibility study stage, would be needed to
achieve such a goal. Yet at this stage, when a decision
has to be taken as to whether or not to work the orebody,
an estimate must be made of recoverable grades and tonnages in order to carry out the economic analysis. Other
things being equal, these grades and tonnages depend on
the mining method chosen.
When the grade is highly variable in the orebody, recoveries normally decrease on passing from a selective
method of mining (such as cut-and-fill, for instance) to
a non-selective method (such as sublevel stoping). For the
same tonnage, grades are lower, while for the same grades
tonnages decrease.
However, a procedure can be envisaged for use in the
design stage to calculate the reserves recoverable from an
underground mine. Such a procedure will involve the

EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF RECOVERABLE RESERVES

199

following three steps:

(a) subdivision of orebody into small blocks (amounting
to a few hundred cubic metres), having the same size
of those that will be estimated, using detailed sampling,
during the actual mining stage;
(b) conditional simulation of the grades of the blocks,
performed by geostatistical techniques;
(c) application of the orebody model to possible alternative mining methods using the computer either
automatically or interactively, in order to evaluate
tonnage and grade of the ore recovered.
The grade simulation model does not coincide locally
with the actual situation, of course, but it faithfully reproduces the variability of grades in the orebody, which
is the main factor affecting recovery. Since the quantity
of recoverable reserves is an overall figure, it can certainly
be argued that the results. provided by the simulation
model are not too different from those that can be
achieved on the actual ore body.
U sing this procedure a comparison can be made of the
results obtained by means of alternative mining methods,
thus permitting selection of the most cost-effective.
The volume to be broken locally during the actual
mining operation is defined as more detailed sampling
data become available prior to the actual advance. In this
case the selection, which must take account of the geometric constraints, is performed on the estimated blocks,
and the algorithms used are the same as those utilized to
calculate recoverable reserves on the simulated orebody.
A methodology for selecting reserves in the case of
sub level stoping is described below, followed by a concrete example of an application to establish the boundaries
of the volumes to be broken during actual mining operations.

Selection of reserves for sublevel stoping

Whether use is made of the set of simulated blocks for
evaluating recoverable reserves or of the set of estimated
blocks for establishing volumes to be broken, the problem of selection in underground mining consists in identifying the subset of blocks that maximizes a given benefit
function and in taking into account the geometric constraints imposed by the particular mining method. Reserves must be parametered. This is done by considering
the cut-off grade as the selection parameter, i.e. the
minimum grade a block must have to be considered for
mining. Blocks with average grade lower than the cutoff grade are left in place.
In underground mining it is necessary to use the cutoff grade as a selection parameter when the orebody does
not have naturally defined limits, i. e. when it is not in
the form of strata, thin veins, etc., but where the grades
are distributed in an irregular manner and gradually tail
out into barren ground. Selection is performed on the
basis of the average grade of the blocks. When sub level
stoping is the mining method adopted, as in the present
case, all the broken ore is sent to the mill.
In this case, let G be the union of N blocks Bj of
average grade gj, belonging to an orebody or to a part

200

thereof (G

U BJ Having fixed a cut-off grade gc'

i=!

whatever evaluation criterion is adopted, optimal selection is given by the set of blocks SkEG which ensures that
L.; (gj - gJ = max.
JES,

The set of blocks Sk must be such that the geometric

constraints of the sub level stoping are respected. If there
are no constraints (free selection) the set Sk consists of
the union of blocks Bj which ensures that gj ~ gc' It is
unusual for the union of blocks selected without any geometric constraints to provide a volume that can be mined
by sub level stoping. For the volume to be minable in this
manner it must be connected together and its form must
be such as to guarantee the stability of the stope created
by the mining operation. There is also the fact that such
variations as occur in the form of the surface defining
the volume must be as smooth as possible so that the fans
of blasthole drilled from the drifts cover the entire
volume. Moreover, the form of the volume must be such
as to avoid the need to open up new raises or crosscuts
during the stoping operation, since this would lower productivity which, on the contrary, must be as high as possible, this being the main feature of the method.
The need to respect these constraints means that a given
number of blocks whose average grade is less than the
cut-off will be included in the broken material, while a
number of blocks whose average grade is higher than the
cut-off will be left in place. As already indicated, optimal
selection is that which maximizes [gj - gJ and provides
a volume of acceptable shape.
When mining is done in large panels bounded by a
bottom and a top slab, as in the case studied, and the
orebody is very thick, the problem of selection comes
down to optimum definition of the boundaries of the
volume to be broken in relation to the two sides. The problem can be tackled by utilizing one of the algorithms
adopted normally for optimizing definition of the final
pit.
In the procedure described the algorithm is applied to
select the barren blocks to be left in place instead of selecting those to be broken. Figure 1 illustrates the significance
of this concept. As the number of blocks to be dealt with
is not generally high (the number concerned being that
into which an underground mining panel can be subdivided), the 3-dimensional Lerchs-Grossmann optimization
algorithm is certainly the most suitable, providing the
mathematical optimum. 3 'The mass' corresponding to
block i will be - (gj - gJ and the optimization procedure, applied separately to the two sides, will select the
barren block to be left in place. For these blocks the sum
L.;(gc - g) will be the maximum, while for the remaining
blocks the sum L.;(gj - gJ will be maximum. When applying the procedure to the first side, in order to ensure that
the barren blocks on the opposite side do not affect the
solution, it is convenient as a preliminary step to cancel
from the data file all those blocks where gj - gc < 0 and
where for all the blocks of the cone defined by each of
them there is the condition: gj - gc < 0 (j E cone defined
by i).

GEOSTATISTICS: CASE STUDIES

Lev. 80

Lev.60

Lev. 40

(a)

Lev. 20

FIGURE 2. Layout of detailed sampling for selection unit

estimation.

(b)

WJ\STE

(c)

FIGURE 1. Optimal establishment of sub level stoping boundaries.

(a) cross-section of a panel with defined left and
right boundaries, (b) and (c) left and right boundary definition using final pit optimization algorithm to select barren blocks.

An actual case: Masua Mine (Sardinia)

Masua Mine works a massive Pb-Zn sulphide orebody
in Cambrian carbonate rocks. The orebody has a N-S
strike and dips to the east at about 70 . It is around 50 m
thick and measures about 250 m in the vertical direction
and some 200 m along the strike. The grade is high in the
central part, but values tail out more or less uniformly
to virtually nil towards the outer walls. The mine has' been
exploited since 1978, and the panels measure almost 80 m
x 100 m, being bounded at the top and bottom by slabs
of ore 20 m thick.
Detailed sampling is performed before the individual
panels are mined. Sampling is done by a fan of coreborings made from a heading on the hangingwall following the strike of the orebody (see Figure 2). The shapes
of the volumes to be broken are established on the basis
of the detailed sampling results which are also used to
decide on the location ofthe drilling drifts, as well as for
calculating the tonnage and grade of ore broken by each
volley. The computer procedure developed for this purpose consists of a set of independent programs, some
automatic, others interactive, running in succession. The

input data are the grades and coordinates of the samples.

The procedure involves the following steps:
estimation of grade of blocks and selective mining
units, into which the panel has been subdivided;
optimal selection of blocks in relation to a fixed cutoff grade and which respects the geometric mining
constraints;
three-dimensional smoothing of boundaries of selected
blocks;
positioning of drilling drifts;
design of drilling fan patterns;
calculation of tonnage and grade of oie broken per
volley.
The results of the last step form the input for another
procedure, the output of which is a production plan that
ensures as regular as possible a feed to the mill.
Estimate of grade of block
The input data for the program for this step are the grades
and spatial locations of the samples, the dimensions of
the blocks to be estimated, their topological matrix and
the variogram parameters. The program makes the estimate by ordinary kriging of the grade of each of the
blocks, calculating the relative variance of the estimate.
In the case studied the blocks chosen for the estimate are
parallelepipeds the edges of which run parallel to the NS (y axis), vertical (z axis) and E-W (x axis) direction. The
dimensions of the blocks in these directions are respectively 10 m (which is the spacing of two consecutive exploratory sampling fans), 20 m (which is the height of a
sub level) and 5 m.
Optimal selection of blocks
The input of the selection program is the set of estimated
blocks and the cut-off grade at which selection is made.
The program first makes a free selection, calculating for
the whole panel and for every cross-section the tonnages

EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF RECOVERABLE RESERVES

201

and grades corresponding to the blocks selected. Subsequently the program makes the selection considering the
cut-off grade, utilizing the Lerchs-Grossmann threedimensional algorithm. Selection is made first on one side,
then on the other.
The geometric constraint is implemented by imposing
the condition that for a block to be left in place it is
necessary also to leave in place the blocks belonging to
the cone defined by it. Having made the selection, the
program calculates the average grade and tonnage of both
the blocks selected and those blocks belonging to every
cross-section. By means of a display program it is possible to view the results of the selection section by section.
An example of the output of the display program is given
in Figures 3 and 4, which refer to an E-W cross-section
located at y= 35 m and to a cross-section at y= 15 m
respectively.
For reasons of confidentiality grade figures have been
altered by a multiplicative factor.
Figure 3 illustrates the results of free selection and of
constrained selection applying a cut-off grade of 1,5070
Pb + Zn, while Figure 4 gives the results of selection obtained by applying a cut-off grade of 2,5% Pb + Zn.
VERTICAL SECllOIl XZ NlnlUER
~
CUT-urF GRWE
Y=::J5.00 1'1'1
AVERAGE GRAUE
TOIlllAGE'
93600.00

1. 50

~.9~

80 . .------------------1-r_r-~r_r_~

VERTICAL SECTIO.l XZ .OlDER 3

fn
CIJI-OfF GRADE 2.50 X
46800.00
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80.

90.

METERS
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YiS.OO ..
CUT-orF GRWE
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(f)
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:!:

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70.

60.

90.

METERS
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FIGURE 4. Free and constrained selections with cut-off grade

of 2,50/0 Pb + Zn.
b.

lB.

0.

30.

~0.

sa.

80.

METERS

UJ

0 Free selection
Ai. Selection under constraints
with cut-off 1,5%
X Selection under constraints
with cut-off 2,5%

VERTICAL SECT ION Xl NUl1DER

~
CIJI-OFF GRWE = 1. 50
AVERAGE GRADE
~.55
TONNAGE - 101~00.00

8B.

x
x

0
0

a.....

"
0

60.

(f)

ffif-

w
:c

~0.

20.

"+--.-.--,-.--.-,--,-,--,-,--,-,--r-.--+
<'13 60

0.

lB.

2B.

3B.

~0.

GB.

60.

70.

80.

90.

METERS
FIGURE 3. Free and constrained selections with cut-off grade
of 1,50/0 Pb + Zn.

202

4.40

5.20

6.00

6.80

7.60

8.40

9.20

Average grade
FI GU RE 5. TQnnage versus average grade curve with free and
constrained selections, with Pb + Zn cut-off
grades of 1,5% and 2,5%.

GEOSTATISTICS: CASE STUDIES

The overall results of the selection on the whole panel

are given in Figure 5; this indicates the average gradetonnage curve with free selection (curve joining symbols
0), as well as the two average grades and tonnage of blocks
selected with cut-off grades of 1,5 % (symbol.6.) and 2,5 %
(symbol x), taking into account the geometric mining
constraints.
Block selection without constraints has been incorporated in the program solely to permit comparison with
selection-considering constraints.
As is evident for a range of average grades around 5070,
on passing from free selection to constrained selection
there is a decrease in the average grade of the selected
ore of about 0,3 %, for the same tonnage. This result confirms quite clearly that more selective mining, an operation which is costlier than that now adopted, would not
be justified for this orebody.
It is readily apparent from the foregoing that use of
an orebody simulation model to compare recoveries by
alternative mining methods enables the most appropriate
decision to be taken in the feasibility study stage.
Smoothing the boundaries
The volume selected takes account of the geometric constraints, and ~lthough it has quite a regular shape as a
whole it is nevertheless always a volume discretized in
large blocks. It thus has boundaries which cannot be respected by the mining blasting. A program has therefore
been developed that can smooth the surface of the body
to be mined and make it more uniform. Smoothing is
done in two phases. In the first boundaries are smoothed on every vertical cross-section (the number of such sections is the same as the number of blocks along the length
of the body) passing through the centreline of the blocks;
the boundary is discretized along the z direction by points
according to a step value (PASZ) supplied by the user.
Horizontal cross-section smoothing is dealt with in the
second phase. The number of the horizontal cross-sections
is the same as the number of the vertical discretization
points; for every section the boundaries of the two sides
are interpolated. The interpolated boundary is then aiscretized along the y direction according to a step value
(PASy) supplied by the user. In the actual case the discretization step selected was 2,5 m in both the vertical and
y directions. Taken as a whole, therefore, each of the two
surfaces defining the body is described by a number of
points N = LIPASY * HIP ASZ where Land H are the
length and height of the panel, respectively. For each section - horizontal and vertical - the boundaries obtained by joining the calculated points are shown on the video
screen by means of a display program.
Figure 6 illustrates the boundaries of a section before
smoothing and the smoothed boundaries of the four corresponding sections (one every 2,5 m). The coordinates
of the 2*H/PASZ points of each of the LlPASY vertical
sections are stored on a random access file. Using the file
as input, a subsequent program calculates the coordinates
of the points that discretize the boundaries of the section
for each desired value of y. The calculation is made by
linear interpolation.
The program displays the boundaries obtained by join-

ing the calculated points.

Positioning the drilling drifts
On the basis of the graphic output reproducing the
smoothed boundaries on the horizontal section of each
sublevel, the mining engineer decides the location of the
mining drifts. An interactive program then enables the
geometry of the drifts as defined here to be stored on disc.
The program permits display of the position of the drifts
as the data are gradually inputted. Each drift is numbered.
The display program mentioned in the preceding point,
which provides horizontal and vertical sections of the
boundaries of the volume to be broken, also indicates the
position of the .drifts. Figure 7 gives an example of horizontal and vertical section output. As an alternative to
the manual method of positioning the drifts a program
is being developed which establishes their position automatically.
Interactive design of blasthole fan
At this step in the procedure the boundaries of the qrebody to be broken and the position of the drifts are stored
in the computer and vertical sections can be produced at
any value of y. Computer-aided design of the drilling fan
can hence save considerable time. Another important
benefit of the computer-aided design is the possibility of
calculating the tonnage and grade of the volleys of each
sublevel, since the geometry depends on that of the fans.
The design of the fans is performed using an interactive
program. The three following constraints are considered
for the design of each fan:
the angle with the horizontal of the two end holes must
not be less than a fixed minimum angle amin;
the distance between the extremities of two consecutive
holes must not exceed a fixed maximum distance
dmax ;
the holes must radiate from a centre positioned on
the axis of the drift and at a fixed height h above the
floor, corresponding to the height of the drilling
machine.
To simplify programming it has also been established
that in two consecutive fans the first holes of the second
one terminate on the last hole of the first. The volume
blocked out by the end holes of two successive sub levels
and by the boundaries of the orebody forms the volley
with reference to the lower sub level. The program starts
by displaying the vertical section at the desired value of
y. The design begins from the highest sublevel and moves
gradually down to the lowest. For a given sublevel the
design commences from either side of the end drifts and
proceeds sequentially towards the other. The possibility
of modifying the design renders the procedure flexible,
since:
the last fan designed can be cancelled and redesigned;
all the fans of the sublevel under examination can be
cancelled and redesigned;
all the fans designed can be cancelled and a fresh start
made.
For the fan of each section the program supplies a printout indicating the angle and the length of every hole and

EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF RECOVERABLE RESERVES

203

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Y,,15.00 III
CUI-orr GRADE re 2.50 ~
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FIGURE 6. Boundaries of a section prior to smoothing and smoothed boundaries of the four intermediate. sections.
204

GEOSTATISTICS: CASE STUDIES

HORIZONIAL SECTION XV
LEVEL
~
Z"60.00 1ft
CUI-OFF GRADE 1.50 X

VERTICAL SECI Jotl XZ 'ltU18ER

Y 5.00

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70.
80.
90.

60.

METERS

FIGURE 7. Example of horizontal and vertical sections of

volume to be broken with layout of drilling drifts
and cross-cut (dotted lines).

the total length of holes. For each section the program

also provides a printout which indicates volley-by-volley
the total length of blastholes, the tonnage of ore that will
be broken, the tonnage per metre of hole and the average
grade of the ore.
An example of the output of the fan design program
is given in Figure 8. The sections refer to two selections
made for cut-off grades of 1,5 and2,5OJo Pb + Zn. Tables
1 and 2 provide an example of the descriptive printout
for Fan 16 of Section 1. The tonnage and grade of each
volley are calculated by discretizing the volume, as shown
in Figure 9.
The results for tonnage and grade of each volley reported as illustrated in Figure 10 - form the input of
a planning procedure whose output is the best breaking
sequence for ensuring the most uniform mill feed over
the short and medium term.

References
1. DERAISME, J., DE FOUQUET, Ch. andFRAISSE,

H. Geostatistical orebody model for computer optimization of profits from different underground mining

"L
e.

I ~r'o-'.:--'3~-.TI-""-

80.

90.

FIGURE 8. Fan design for selection with cut-off grades of 1,5

and 2,5070 Pb + Zn.

FIGURE 9. Discretization of ore-blasting volume.

methods. 18th International Symposium, APCOM 84,

London. pp. 583 - 590.
2. DOWD, P.A. and SCOTT, I.R. Application of geostatistics to mine planning in a complex silver-leadzinc orebody. 18th International Symposium, APCOM
84, London. pp. 253 - 264.
3. LERCHS, H. and GROSSMANN, I.F. Optimum
design of open pit mines. C.I.M. Bulletin, vol. 58, no.
633, Jan. 1965. pp. 47 - 54.

EVALUA nON AND SELECTION OF RECOVERABLE RESERVES

205

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l:

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20 . 1-1- -- - - ... - -.-

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20.

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o
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20.

90.

(Y=5,Om)

Section no. 1

CloOlrOONOlo
0
00 lD v If)

U1 In ..... '0 CD 0
0"'" lfl..-t.p
0

-f- -

TABLE 2. Characteristics of the volleys.

ClOOOClOOC>

W<.D(D(!)(D(DW(DW

60 .

80.

o('lUlCiooooo
Olo...,.Nlf1lDolf)o

Ore blasting 60-80

Total hole length
Tonnage broken
Tons/metre of hole
A verage grade

Level

Ore blasting 40-60

Total hole length
Tonnage broken
Tons/metre of hole
A verage grade

Level

Ore blasting 20-40

Total hole length
Tonnage broken
Tons/metre of hole
Average grade

Level

Ore blasting 0-20

Total hole length
Tonnage broken
Tons/metre of hole
A verage grade

(m)
(t)
(t/m) :
(070)

(m)
(t)
(t/m) :
(070 )

(m)
(t)
(t/m) :
(070)

269,85
3219,53
11,93
2,53
424,15
4946.10
11,66
2,28
526,72
5839,84
11,09
2,27

Level
(m)
(t)
(t/m) :
(070 )

504,54
6316,31
12,51
2,16

110.

METERS

FIGURE 10. Vertical longitudinal section of the panel giving

tonnage (1) and average grade (G) of each volley
(elementary rectangle).
TABLE 1. Geometry of fan holes.
Section no. 1
Hole (no.)
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12

206

Angle (0)
140
129
119
109
100
91
84
77
71
63
54
40

(Y = 5,0 m)
Length (m)
12,13
12,26
13,79
15,86
15,24
20,31
23,19
22,78
17,90
14,05
11,05
9,82

GEOSTATISTICS: CASE STUDIES