Mmaryyyy

A Review of Water Hammer
Mohamed S. Ghidaoui
email: ghidaoui@ust.hk
Ming Zhao
email: cezhm@ust.hk
Department of Civil Engineering, The Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology,

Hong Kong, China
Duncan A. McInnis
Surface Water Group, Komex International Ltd.,
4500 16th Avenue, Suite 100, N. W. Calgary,
Alberta T3B 0M6, Canada
David H. Axworthy
163 N. Marengo Avenue, #316, Pasadena,
Theory and Practice

Hydraulictransientsinclosedconduitshavebeenasubjectofboththeoreticalstudyand
intensepracticalinterestformorethanonehundredyears.Whilestraightforwardin
termsoftheonedimensionalnatureofpipenetworks,thefulldescriptionoftransientuid
owsposeinterestingproblemsinuiddynamics.Forexample,theresponseofthe
turbulencestructureandstrengthtotransientwavesinpipesandthelossofow
axisymmetryinpipesduetohydrodynamicinstabilitiesarecurrentlynotunderstood.Yet,
suchunderstandingisimportantformodelingenergydissipationandwaterqualityin
transientpipeows.Thispaperpresentsanoverviewofbothhistoricdevelopmentsand
presentdayresearchandpracticeintheeldofhydraulictransients.Inparticular,the
paperdiscussesmassandmomentumequationsforonedimensionalFlows,wavespeed,
numericalsolutionsforonedimensionalproblems,wallshearstressmodels;two
dimensionalmassandmomentumequations,turbulencemodels,numericalsolutionsfor
twodimensionalproblems,boundaryconditions,transientanalysissoftware,andfuture
practicalandresearchneedsinwaterhammer.Thepresentationemphasizesthe
assumptionsandrestrictionsinvolvedinvariousgoverningequationssoastoilluminate
therangeofapplicabilityaswellasthelimitationsoftheseequations.Understandingthe
limitationsofcurrentmodelsisessentialfor(i)interpretingtheirresults,(ii)judgingthe
reliabilityofthedataobtainedfromthem,(iii)minimizingmisuseofwaterhammer
modelsinbothresearchandpractice,and(iv)delineatingthecontributionofphysical
processesfromthecontributionofnumericalartifactstotheresultsofwaterhammer
models.Thereare134refrencescitedinthisreviewarticle.@DOI:10.1115/1.1828050#
CA 91101
email: bm300@lafn.org
Introduction
Thusthegrowthofknowledgeofthephysicalaspectofreality
cannotberegardedasacumulativeprocess.ThebasicGestaltof
thisknowledgechangesfromtimetotime...Duringthe
cumulativeperiodsscientistsbehaveasifrealityisexactlyasthey
knowitexceptformissingdetailsandimprovementsinaccuracy.
Theyspeakofthelawsofnature,forexample,whicharesimply
modelsthatexplaintheirexperienceofrealityatacertaintime.
Latergenerationsofscientiststypicallydiscoverthatthese
conceptionsofrealityembodiedcertainimplicitassumptionsand
hypothesesthatlateronturnedouttobeincorrect.Vanderburg,
@1#
Unsteadyuidowshavebeenstudiedsincemanrstbentwater
tohiswill.TheancientChinese,theMayanIndiansofCentral
America,theMesopotamiancivilizationsborderingtheNile,
Tigris,andEuphratesriversystems,andmanyothersocieties
throughouthistoryhavedevelopedextensivesystemsforconvey
ingwater,primarilyforpurposesofirrigation,butalsofordomes
ticwatersupplies.Theancientsunderstoodandapplieduidow
principleswithinthecontextof``traditional,''culturebasedtech
nologies.Withthearrivalofthescienticageandthemathemati
caldevelopmentsembodiedinNewton'sPrincipia,ourunder
standingofuidowtookaquantumleapintermsofits
theoreticalabstraction.Thatleaphaspropelledtheentiredevelop
mentofhydraulicengineeringrightthroughtothemidtwentieth
century.Theadventofhighspeeddigitalcomputersconstituted
anotherdiscretetransformationinthestudyandapplicationof
uidsengineeringprinciples.Today,inhydraulicsandotherareas,
engineersndthattheirmandatehastakenongreaterbreadthand
depthastechnologyrapidlyentersanunprecedentedstageof
knowledgeandinformationaccumulation.
AscitedinTheStructureofScienticRevolutions,ThomasKuhn
@2#callssuchperiodsofradicalandrapidchangeinourviewof
physicalrealitya``revolutionary,noncumulativetransition
period''and,whilehewasreferringtoscienticviewsof
TransmittedbyAssociateEditorHJSFernando.
reality,hisremarksapplyequallytoourtechnologicalabilityto
dealwitharevisedormorecomplexviewofthephysicaluni
verse.Itisinthisconditionthattheeldofclosedconduittran
sientow,andevenmoregenerally,thehydraulicanalysis,de
sign,andoperationofpipelinesystems,currentlyndsitself.
Thecomputerageisstilldawning,bringingwithitamassive
developmentandapplicationofnewknowledgeandtechnology.
Formerlyaccepteddesignmethodologies,criteria,andstandards
arebeingchallengedand,insomeinstances,outdatedandrevised.
Computeraidedanalysisanddesignisoneoftheprincipalmecha
nismsbringingaboutthesechanges.
Computeranalysis,computermodeling,andcomputersimulation
aresomewhatinterchangeableterms,alldescribingtechniques
intendedtoimproveourunderstandingofphysicalphenomena
andourabilitytopredictandcontrolthesephenomena.By
combiningphysicallaws,mathematicalabstraction,numerical
procedures,logicalconstructs,andelectronicdataprocessing,
thesemethodsnowpermitthesolutionofproblemsofenormous
complexityandscope.
Thispaperattemptstoprovidethereaderwithageneralhistory
andintroductiontowaterhammerphenomena,ageneralcom
pendiumofkeydevelopmentsandliteraturereferencesaswellas
anupdatedviewofthecurrentstateoftheart,bothwithrespect
totheoreticaladvancesofthelastdecadeandmodelingpractice.
2MassandMomentumEquationsforOneDimensional
WaterHammerFlows
Beforedelvingintoanaccountofmathematicaldevelopments
relatedtowaterhammer,itisinstructivetobrieynotethesocietal
contextthatinspiredtheinitialinterestinwaterhammerphenom
ena.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,Europewasonthecuspofthe
industrialrevolutionwithgrowingurbanpopulationsandindus
triesrequiringelectricalpowerforthenewmachinesofproduc
tion.Asthefossilfuelerahadnotbeguninearnest,hydroelectric
generationwasstilltheprincipalsupplyofthisimportantenergy
source.Althoughhydroelectricgenerationaccountsforamuch
smallerproportionofenergyproductiontoday,theproblemsasso
Applied Mechanics Reviews

Copyright 2005 by ASME
JANUARY 2005, Vol. 58 49
damentalequationofwaterhammer.''Healsostudiedwavereections
ciatedwithcontrollingtheowofwaterthroughpenstocksand
fromanopenbranch,theuseofairchambersandsurgetanks,and
turbinesremainsanimportantapplicationoftransientanalysis.
springtypesafetyvalves.
Hydrogenerationcompaniescontributedheavilytothedevelop
mentofuidsandturbomachinerylaboratoriesthatstudied,
amongotherthings,thephenomenonofwaterhammerandits
Joukowsky'sfundamentalequationofwaterhammerisasfol
control.SomeofAllievi'searlyexperimentswereundertakenas
lows:
adirectresultofincidentsandfailurescausedbyoverpressure
duetorapidvalveclosureinnorthernItalianpowerplants.
D P 56ra DV or DH 56
Frictionlessapproachestotransientphenomenawereappropriate
aDV
intheseearlydevelopmentsbecause~i!transientsweremost
(1)
inuencedbytherapidclosureandopeningofvalves,which
generatedthemajorityoftheenergylossinthesesystems,and
~ii!thepipesinvolvedtendedtohavelargediametersandtheow
velocitiestendedtobesmall.
Bytheearly1900s,fueloilswereovertakinghydrogenerationas
theprincipalenergysourcetomeetsociety'sburgeoningdemand
forpower.However,thefascinationwith,andneedtoun
derstand,transientphenomenahascontinuedunabatedtothisday.
Greateravailabilityofenergyledtorapidindustrializationand
urbandevelopment.Hydraulictransientsarecriticaldesign
factorsinalargenumberofuidsystemsfromautomotivefuel
injectiontowatersupply,transmission,anddistributionsystems.
Today,longpipelinestransportinguidsovergreatdistanceshave
becomecommonplace,andthealmostuniversaldevelopmentof
sprawlingsystemsofsmallpipediameter,highvelocitywater
distributionsystemshasincreasedtheimportanceofwallfriction
andenergylosses,leadingtotheinclusionoffrictioninthe
governingequations.Mechanicallysophisticateduidcontrol
devices,includingmanytypesofpumpsandvalves,coupled
withincreasinglysophisticatedelectronicsensorsandcontrols,
providethepotentialforcomplexsystembehavior.Inaddition,
therecentknowledgethatnegativepressurephasesoftransients
canresultincontaminationofpotablewatersystems,meanthat
theneedtounderstandanddealeffectivelywithtransient
phenomenaaremoreacutethanever.
2.1HistoricalDevelopment:ABriefSummary.Theproblemof
waterhammerwasrststudiedbyMenabrea@3# ~although
Michaudisgenerallyaccordedthatdistinction!.Michaud@4#ex
aminedtheuseofairchambersandsafetyvalvesforcontrolling
waterhammer.Neartheturnofthenineteenthcentury,researchers
likeWeston@5#,Carpenter@6#andFrizell@7#attemptedto
developexpressionsrelatingpressureandvelocitychangesinapipe.
Frizell@7#wassuccessfulinthisendeavorandhealsodiscussed
theeffectsofbranchlines,andreectedandsuccessivewaveson
turbinespeedregulation.Similarworkbyhiscontemporaries
Joukowsky@8#andAllievi@9,10#,however,attractedgreaterat
tention.Joukowsky@8#producedthebestknownequationintran
sientowtheory,sowellknownthatitisoftencalledthe``fun
wherea5acoustic~waterhammer!wavespeed,P5rg(H2Z)
piezometricpressure,Z5elevationofthepipecenterlinefroma
givendatum,H5piezometrichead,r5uiddensity,V5*AudA
crosssectionalaveragevelocity,u5locallongitudinalvelocity,A
5crosssectionalareaofthepipe,andg5gravitationalacceleration.
ThepositivesigninEq.~1!isapplicableforawaterhammerwave
movingdownstreamwhilethenegativesignisapplicableforawater
hammerwavemovingupstream.Readersfamiliarwiththegas
dynamicsliteraturewillnotethatDP56raDVisobtainablefromthe
momentumjumpconditionunderthespecialcasewheretheow
velocityisnegligibleincomparisontothewavespeed.Thejump
conditionsareastatementoftheconserva
50 Vol. 58, JANUARY 2005
tionlawsacrossajump~shock! @11#.Theseconditionsareob
tainedeitherbydirectlyapplyingtheconservationlawsforacon
trolvolumeacrossthejumporbyusingtheweakformulationof
theconservationlawsindifferentialformatthejump.
Allievi@9,10#developedageneraltheoryofwaterhammerfrom
rstprinciplesandshowedthattheconvectiveterminthe
momentumequationwasnegligible.Heintroducedtwoimportant
dimensionlessparametersthatarewidelyusedtocharacterize
pipelinesandvalvebehavior.Allievi@9,10#alsoproducedcharts
forpressureriseatavalveduetouniformvalveclosure.Further
renementstothegoverningequationsofwaterhammerappearedin
Jaeger@12,13#,Wood@14#,Rich@15,16#,Parmakian@17#,
StreeterandLai@18#,andStreeterandWylie@19#.Their
combinedeffortshaveresultedinthefollowingclassicalmassand
momentumequationsforonedimensional~1D!waterhammerows
1g
tw 50
(3)
]x
2
a ]V
rD
]H
]t
50
(2)
]x
]t
]V
]H
inwhichtw5shearstressatthepipewall,D5pipediameter,x5the
spatialcoordinatealongthepipeline,and t 5temporalcoordinate.
AlthoughEqs.~2!and~3!werefullyestablishedbythe1960s,these
equationshavesincebeenanalyzed,discussed,rederivedand
elucidatedinnumerousclassicaltexts~e.g.,@2023#!.Equations
~2!and~3!constitutethefundamentalequationsfor1Dwater
hammerproblemsandcontainallthephysicsnecessarytomodel
wavepropagationincomplexpipesystems.
2.2Discussionofthe1DWaterHammerMassandMo
mentumEquations.Inthissection,thefundamentalequations
for1Dwaterhammerarederived.Specialattentionisgiventothe
assumptionsandrestrictionsinvolvedinvariousgoverningequa
tionssoastoilluminatetherangeofapplicabilityaswellasthe
limitationsoftheseequations.
Rapidowdisturbances,plannedoraccidental,inducespatialand
temporalchangesinthevelocity~owrate!andpressure~pi
ezometrichead!eldsinpipesystems.Suchtransientowsare
essentiallyunidirectional~i.e.,axial!sincetheaxialuxesof
mass,momentum,andenergyarefargreaterthantheirradial
counterparts.TheresearchofMitraandRouleau@23#forthe
laminarwaterhammercaseandofVardyandHwang@25#for
turbulentwaterhammersupportsthevalidityoftheunidirectional
approachwhenstudyingwaterhammerproblemsinpipesystems.
Withtheunidirectionalassumption,the1Dclassicalwaterham
merequationsgoverningtheaxialandtemporalvariationsofthe
crosssectionalaverageoftheeldvariablesintransientpipe
owsarederivedbyapplyingtheprinciplesofmassandmomen
tumtoacontrolvolume.Notethatonlythekeystepsofthe
derivationaregivenhere.Amoredetailedderivationcanbe
foundinChaudhry@20#,Wylieetal.@23#,andGhidaoui
@26#.
wherecv5controlvolume,cs5controlsurface,n5unitoutward
normalvectortocontrolsurface,v5velocityvector.
ReferringtoFig.1,Eq.~4!yields
]
x1dx
UsingtheReynoldstransporttheorem,themassconservation
~``continuityequation''! foracontrolvolumeisasfollows ~e.g.,
@2023#!
r~ v"n!dA 50
(5)
]
rd ;1
r~ v"n!dA 50
(4)
rAdx 1
]t
E
E
]t
cv
cs
cs
ThelocalformofEq.~5!,obtainedbytakingthelimitasthe
lengthofthecontrolvolumeshrinkstozero~i.e.,dxtendsto
zero!,is
Transactions of the ASME
]t
]x
Fig. 1 Control volume diagram used for continuity equation

derivation
]~ rA ! ]~ rAV !
Equation~6!providestheconservativeformoftheareaaveraged
massbalanceequationfor1Dunsteadyandcompressibleuidsin
aexiblepipe.Therstandsecondtermsonthelefthandsideof
Eq.~6!representthelocalchangeofmasswithtimeduetothe
combinedeffectsofuidcompressibilityandpipeelasticityand
theinstantaneousmassux,respectively.Equation~6!canbere
writtenasfollows:
1Dr1DA]V
1DrA]V
1
50
(6)
50
or
50
r
dP
Dt
50(7)
A
r
dP
Dt
Dt
A
]x
Dt
]x
ra 2
Dt
rA
]x
Dt
]x
whereD/Dt5]/]t1V]/]x5substantial~material!derivativein
onespatialdimension.Realizingthatthedensityandpipearea
varywithpressureandusingthechainrulereducesEq.~7!tothe
following:
1drDP1dADP]V
1DP]V
(8)
1
22
wherea 5dr/dP1(r/A)dA/dP.Thehistorical
developmentandformulationoftheacousticwavespeedinterms
ofuidandpipepropertiesandtheassumptionsinvolvedinthe
formulationarediscussedinSec.3.
Themomentumequationforacontrolvolumeis~e.g.,@20
23#!:
1
50or
E
cv
52A
2pD tw2gA sin a (10)
]t
]x
5
]
rv;1
rv~ v"n!dA
(9)
]x
Fig. 2 Control volume diagram used for momentum equation

derivation
ext
]t
cs
ApplyingEq.~9!tothecontrolvolumeofFig.2;considering
gravitational,wallshearandpressuregradientforcesasexternally
applied;andtakingthelimitasdxtendstozerogivesthefollow
inglocalformoftheaxialmomentumequation:
]rAV
]P
]brAV
whereg5rg5unitgravityforce,a5anglebetweenthepipeandthe
2
horizontaldirection,b5*Au dA/V 5momentumcorrection

coefcient.Usingtheproductruleofdifferentiation,invoking
Eq.~7!,anddividingthroughby rA givesthefollowing
nonconservativeformofthemomentumequation:
]V]V
1 ]~ b21 !rAV
1]P
1g sin a1
twpD
1V
1
compressibleuidinaexibletube.AlternativederivationsofEqs.
~8!and~11!couldhavebeenperformedbyapplyingthe
unidirectionalandaxisymmetricassumptionstothecompressible
NavierStokesequationsandintegratingtheresultingexpression
withrespecttopipecrosssectionalareawhileallowingforthis
areatochangewithpressure.
Inpractice,theorderofmagnitudeofwaterhammerwavespeed
rangesfrom100to1400m/sandtheowvelocityisoforder1to
10m/s.Therefore,theMachnumber,M5U1/a,inwater
22
23
hammerapplicationsisoftenintherange10 10 ,whereU1
5longitudinalvelocityscale.ThefactthatM!1inwaterhammer
wasrecognizedandusedbyAllievi@9,10#tofurthersimplify
Eqs.~8!and~11!.ThesmallMachnumberapproximationto
Eqs.~8!and~11!canbeillustratedbyperforminganorderof
magnitudeanalysisofthevarioustermsintheseequations.Tothis
end,letr0aU15waterhammerpressurescale,r05densityofthe
uidattheundisturbedstate,andT5zL/a5timescale,whereL
5pipelength,X5aT5zL5longitudinallengthscale,z5apositive
2
realparameter,rfU 1/85wallshearscale,andf5Darcy
1
Weisbachfrictionfactor T d 5radialdiffusiontimescale. The

parameterzallowsonetoinvestigatetherelativemagnitudeofthe
varioustermsinEqs.~8!and~11!underdifferenttimescales.For
example,iftheorderofmagnitudeofthevarioustermsinthe
massmomentumoverafullwavecycle~i.e.,T54L/a)is
desired,zissetto4.ApplyingtheabovescalingtoEqs.~8!and
~11 ! gives
]t
]x
rA
]x
r
]x
rA
50
(11)
Equations~8!and~11!governunidirectionalunsteadyowofa
r0 DP *
]V *
]V *
50
or
1MV *
50
(12)
r
r
]t *
Dt*
]x *
]x *
]x *
]V *
]V *
1]~b21!rAV*
r0 ] P *
r
1MV *
]P*
1M
]P*
D1
Ua
]t *
]x *
D
2
rA
]x *
r
wherethesuperscript*isusedtodenotedimensionlessquantities.
]x *
SinceM!1inwaterhammerapplications,Eqs.~12!and~13!
become
gzL
zL
1
sina1
M
tw*50
(13)
r0 ] P *
]V *
Td
50
(14)
sina1z
M
1z
Dtw*50.
]t *
r
r
]x *
]t *
Ua
]x *
D
2
L/a
]V * r0 ] P * gzL
L
f
1
50
(16)
(15)
RewritingEqs.~14!and~15!indimensionalformgives
ra
]t
]P
]x
]V
]V
1]P
50
(17)
twpD
]t
r
]x
rA
1
1g sin a1
UsingthePiezometricheaddenition~i.e.,P/gr05H2Z),Eqs.
~16! and ~17! become
gr0
]H
]V
50
(18)
3WaterHammerAcousticWaveSpeed
ra
]t
]x
Thewaterhammerwavespeedis~e.g.,@8,20,23,33,34#!,
]Vr0 ]H
twpD
5
drr dA
(25)
1g
1
50
(19)
a
2
r ]x
rA
]t
dPAdP
Thechangeindensityinunsteadycompressibleowsisofthe
ThersttermontherighthandsideofEq.~25!representsthe
orderoftheMachnumber@11,27,28#.Therefore,inwaterhammer
effectofuidcompressibilityonthewavespeedandthesecond
termrepresentstheeffectofpipeexibilityonthewavespeed.In
problems,whereM!1,r'r0,Eqs.~18!and~19!become
fact,thewavespeedinacompressibleuidwithinarigidpipeis
]H
]V
obtainedbysettingdA/dP50inEq.~25!,whichleadstoa
50
(20)
5dP / d r.Ontheotherhand,thewavespeedinanincompressible
a2
]t
]x
uidwithinaexiblepipeisobtainedbysettingdr/dP50in
]V
]H
twpD
~25!,whichleadsto a 5AdP / rdA .
1g
50
(21)
Korteweg@33#relatedtherighthandsideofEq.~25!tothe
]t
]x
rA
materialpropertiesoftheuidandtothematerialandgeometrical
whichareidenticaltotheclassical1Dwaterhammerequations
propertiesofthepipe.Inparticular,Korteweg@33#introducedthe
givenbyEqs.~2!and~3!.Thus,theclassicalwaterhammerequa
uidpropertiesthroughthestateequationdP/dr5Kf/r,which
tionsarevalidforunidirectionalandaxisymmetricowofacom
wasalreadywellestablishedintheliterature,whereKf5bulk
pressibleuidinaexiblepipe~tube!,wheretheMachnumberis
modulusofelasticityoftheuid.Heusedtheelastictheoryof
verysmall.
continuummechanicstoevaluatedA/dPintermsofthepipe
AccordingtoEq.~15!,theimportanceofwallshear,tw,de
radius,thicknesse,andYoung'smodulusofelasticityE.Inhis
pendsonthemagnitude
ofthe
dimensionless
parameterG
derivation,he~i!ignoredtheaxial~longitudinal!stressesinthe
5zL Mf /2D 1zT d /( L / a ).Therefore,thewallshearisimportant
pipe~i.e.,neglectedPoisson'seffect!and~ii!ignoredtheinertiaof
whentheparameterGisorder1orlarger.Thisoftenoccursin
thepipe.Theseassumptionsarevalidforuidtransmissionlines
applicationswherethesimulationtimefarexceedstherstwave
thatareanchoredbutwithexpansionjointsthroughout.Withas
cycle~i.e.,largez!,thepipeisverylong,thefrictionfactoris
sumptions~i!and~ii!,aquasiequilibriumrelationbetweenthe
signicant,orthepipediameterisverysmall.Inaddition,wall
pressureforceperunitlengthofpipeDdPandthecircumferential
shearisimportantwhenthetimescaleofradialdiffusionislarger
~hoop! stressforceperunitpipelength2 ed su isachieved,where
thanthewavetraveltimesincethetransientinducedlargeradial
su5hoopstress.Thatis, DdP 52 ed su or dp 52 ed su / D .Using
gradientofthevelocitydoesnothavesufcienttimetorelax.Itis
theelastic
stressstrain
relation,
dA5pdjD /2,where
dj
notedthatTdbecomessmallerastheReynoldsnumberincreases.
5d su / E 5radial ~lateral! strain.Asaresult, AdP / rdA 5eE / D r
Thepracticalapplicationsinwhichthewallshearisimportantand
and
thevarioustwmodelsthatareinexistenceintheliteratureare
Kf
discussedinSec.4.
IfGissignicantlysmallerthan1,frictionbecomesnegligible
1
5
r
1
r
or
2
a 5
r
(26)
andtwcanbesafelysettozero.Forexample,forthecaseL
a
2
510,000m, D 50.2m, f 50.01,

andM50.001,
andTd/(L/a)
Kf
KfD
11
eE
50.01thecondition G!1isvalidwhen z!4.Thatis,forthecase
considered,wallfrictionis
irrelevantas
longas
thesimulation
TheaboveKortewegformulaforwavespeedcanbeextended
timeissignicantlysmallerthan4L/a.Ingeneral,thecondition
toproblemswheretheaxialstresscannotbeneglected.Thisis
G!1issatisedduringtheearlystagesofthetransient ~i.e., z is
accomplishedthrough
theinclusionof
Poisson's
effectin
the
small!providedthattherelaxation~diffusion!timescaleissmaller
stressstrain
relations.In
particular,
the
totalstrain
becomesdj
thanthewavetraveltime
L/a.In
fact,
itiswellknownthat
5d su / E 2npd sx / E ,
wherenp5Poisson'sratioandsx5axial
waterhammermodelsprovideresultsthatareinreasonableagree
stress.Theresultingwavespeedformulais~e.g.,@17,23#!
mentwithexperimentaldataduringtherstwavecycleirrespec
Kf
tiveofthewallshearstressformulabeingused~e.g.,@2932#!.
WhenG!1,theclassicalwaterhammermodel,givenbyEqs.~20!
a 5
and~21!,becomes
(27)
11c
KfD
]H
]V
eE
50
(22)
]t
]x
wherec512np/2forapipeanchoredatitsupstreamendonly,
]V
]H
c512np forapipeanchoredthroughoutfromaxialmovement,
1g
50
(23)
andc51forapipeanchoredwithexpansionjointsthroughout,
]t
]x
whichisthecaseconsideredbyKorteweg~i.e.,sx50).
whichisidenticaltothemodelthatrstappearedinAllievi@9,10#.
Multiphaseandmulticomponentwaterhammerowsarecom
moninpractice.Duringawaterhammerevent,thepressurecan
TheJoukowskyrelationcanberecoveredfromEqs.~22!and
cyclebetweenlargepositivevaluesandnegativevalues,themag
~23!.Considerawaterhammermovingupstreaminapipeof
nitudesofwhichareconstrainedatvaporpressure.Vaporcavities
lengthL.Letx5L2atdenethepositionofawaterhammer
canformwhenthepressuredropstovaporpressure.Inaddition,
frontattimetandconsidertheinterval@L2at2e,L2at1e#,
gascavitiesformwhenthepressuredropsbelowthesaturation
wheree5distancefromthewaterhammerfront.IntegratingEqs.
pressureofdissolvedgases.Transientowsinpressurizedorsur
~22! and ~23! from x 5L 2at 2e to x 5L 2at 1e,invokingLeib
chargedpipescarryingsedimentareexamplesofmulticomponent
nitz'srule,andtakingthelimitaseapproacheszerogives
waterhammerows.Unsteadyowsinpressurizedorsurcharged
DH 52
aDV
(24)
sewersaretypicalexamplesofmultiphaseandmulticomponent
transientowsinclosedconduits.Clearly,thebulkmodulusand
densityofthemixtureand,thus,thewavespeedareinuencedby
Similarly,therelationforawaterhammerwavemovingdown
thepresenceofphasesandcomponents.Thewavespeedformul
streamisDH51aDV/g.
tiphaseandmulticomponentwaterhammerowscanbeobtained
Fig. 3 Velocity proles for steady-state and after wave passages
bysubstitutingan
effectivebulkmodulus
ofelasticityKeandan
effectivedensityrein
placeofKfandrin
Eq.~27!.The
effectivequantities,K
eandre,areobtained
bytheweighted
averageofthebulk
modulusanddensity
ofeachcomponent,
wherethepartial
volumesarethe
weights~see,@23#!.
Whiletheresulting
mathematical
expressionissimple,
theexplicitevaluation
ofthewavespeedof
themixtureis
hamperedbythefact
thatthepartialvol
umesaredifcultto
estimateinpractice.
Equation~27!includes
Poisson'seffectbut
neglectsthemotionand
inertiaofthepipe.This
isacceptableforrigidly
anchoredpipesystems
suchasburiedpipesor
pipeswithhighdensity
andstiffness,toname
onlyafew.Examples
includemajor
transmissionpipelines
likewaterdistribution
systems,naturalgas
lines,andpressurized
andsurcharged
sewerageforcemains.
However,themotion
andinertiaofpipescan
becomeimportantwhen
pipesareinadequately
restrained~e.g.,
unsupported,free
hangingpipes!orwhen
thedensityandstiffness
ofthepipeissmall.
Someexamplesin
whichapipe'smotion
andinertiamaybe
signicantincludefuel
injectionsystemsin
aircraft,coolingwater
systems,unrestrained
pipeswithnumerous
elbows,andblood
vessels.Forthese
systems,afullycoupled
uidstructure
interactionmodelneeds
tobeconsidered.Such
modelsarenot
discussedinthispaper.
Thereaderisinstead
directedtotherecent
excellentreviewofthe
subjectbyTijsseling
@35#.
4
Wall
ShearStress
Models
Itwasshownearlierin
thispaperthatthewall
shearstresstermis
importantwhenthe
parameterGislarge.
Itfollowsthatthe
modelingofwall
frictionisessentialfor
practicalapplications
thatwarranttransient
simulationwell
beyondtherstwave
cycle~i.e.,largez!.
Examplesinclude~i!
thedesignandanalysis
ofpipelinesystems,
~ii!thedesignand
analysisoftransient
controldevices,~iii!
themodelingof
transientinduced
waterquality
problems, ~iv! the
designofsafeand
reliableelddata
programsfordiag
nosticandparameter
identication
purposes,~v!the
applicationoftransient
modelstoinverteld
dataforcalibration
andleakagedetection,
~vi!themodelingof
columnseparationand
vaporouscavitation
and~vii!systemsin
whichL/a!Td.
Carefulmodelingof
wallshearisalso
importantforlong
pipesandforpipes
withhighfriction.
4.1QuasiSteadyWall
ShearModels.In
conventionaltransient
analysis,itisassumed
thatphenomenological
expressionsrelating
wallsheartocross
sectionallyaveraged
velocityinsteadystate
owsremainvalidunder
unsteadyconditions.
Thatis,wallshear
expressions,suchasthe
DarcyWeisbachand
HazenWilliams
formulas,areassumed
toholdateveryinstant
duringatransient.For
example,theformof
theDarcyWeisbach
equationusedinwater
hammermodelsis
~StreeterandWylie
@36#!
Applied Mechanics
Reviews
r f ~ t !uV~ t !uV~ t !
tw~ t !5tws 5
(28)
wheretws(t)5quasi
steadywallshearasa
functionoft.
Theuseofsteadystate
wallshearrelationsin
unsteadyproblemsis
satisfactoryforvery
slowtransientsso
slow,infact,thatthey
donotproperlybelong
tothewaterhammer
regime.Tohelpclarify
theproblemswiththis
approachforfast
transients,consider
thecaseofatransient
inducedbyan
instantaneousandfull
closureofavalveat
thedownstreamendof
apipe.Asthewave
travelsupstream,the
owrateandthecross
sectionallyaveraged
velocitybehindthe
wavefrontarezero.
Typicaltransient
velocityprolesare
giveninFig.3.
Therefore,usingEq.
~28!,thewallshearis
zero.Thisisincorrect.
Thewavepassage
createsaowreversal
nearthepipewall.The
combinationofow
reversalwiththeno
slipconditionatthe
pipewallresultsin
largewallshear
stresses.Indeed,
discrepanciesbetween
numericalresultsand
experimentaland
elddataarefound
wheneverasteady
statebasedshearstress
equationisusedto
modelwallshearin
waterhammer
problems~e.g.,
@25,30,32,37,38#!.
steepened,giving
highershear.For
constantdiameter
conduit,therelation
givenbyDailyetal.
@39#canberewritten
as
Lettwu(t)bethe
discrepancybetween
theinstantaneouswall
L]V
shearstresstw(t)and
thequasisteady
contributionofwall
Ku5Ks12c2
shearstresstws(t).
Mathematically
tw~ t !5tws~ t !1twu~ t !
(30)
(29)
twu ( t )iszerofor
steadyow,smallfor
slowtransients,and
signicantforfast
transients.The
unsteadyfriction
componentattempts
torepresentthe
transientinduced
changesinthevelocity
prole,whichoften
involveowreversal
andlargegradients
nearthepipewall.A
summaryofthe
variousmodelsfor
estimating
wu(t)inwater
hammerproblemsis
givenbelow.
EmpiricalBased
CorrectionstoQuasi
SteadyWallShear
Models.Dailyetal.
@39#conducted
laboratoryexperi
mentsandfoundtwu(
t)tobepositivefor
acceleratingowsand
negativefor
deceleratingows.
Theyarguedthat
duringacceleration
thecentralportionof
thestreammoved
somewhatsothatthe
velocityprole
V
2
]t
whereKu5unsteady
owcoefcientof
boundaryresistance
andmomentumuxof
absolutelocalvelocity
andKs5fL/D5
steadystateresistance
coefcient.Dailyet
al.@39#notedthat
thelongitudinal
velocityand
turbulence
nonuniformitiesare
negligibleandKu'K
2
5F/rAV /25unsteady
owcoefcientof
boundaryresistance,
whereF52pDLtw
5wallresistanceforce.
Therefore,Eq.~30!
becomes
JANUARY 2005, Vol.
58 53
Fig. 4 Pressure head traces obtained from models and experiment
tw 5
r fV
c2rD]V
(31)
Theoreticalinvestigationsaimedatidentifyingthedomainof
applicabilityofEq.~32!haveappearedintheliterature.Forex
]t
8
4
ample,CarstensandRoller@43#showedthatEq.~32!canbede
2
Denotingc2bykandrfV /8bytws
reducesEq.~31!
tothe
rivedbyassumingthattheunsteadyvelocityprolesobeythe
following:
powerlawasfollows:
krD]V
tw 5tws 1
(32)
4
]t
TheformulationsofDailyetal.@39#showsthatcoefcientc2
5kisameasureofthedeviations,duetounsteadiness,ofthewall
shearandmomentumux.Therefore,kgenerallydependsonx
andt.Thisremarkissupportedbytheextendedthermodynamics
approachusedbyAxworthyetal.@30#.Figure4clearlyillus
tratesthepooragreementbetweenmodelanddatawhenusingEq.
~32! withaconstantvalueof k .
TheexperimentaldataofDailyetal.@39#showthatk50.01for
acceleratingowsandk50.62fordeceleratingows.Ontheother
hand,theresearchofShuy@40#ledtok520.0825forac
celeratingowsandk520.13fordeceleratingows.Infact,Shuy's
dataledhimtoconcludethatunsteadywallfrictionincreasesin
deceleratingowsanddecreasesinacceleratingows.Thisresult
contradictsthepreviouslyacceptedhypothesis,namely,that
unsteadywallfrictiondecreasesindeceleratingowsand
increasesinacceleratingows.Shuy@40#attributedthede
creaseinwallshearstressforaccelerationtoowrelaminariza
tion.Givenitscontroversialconclusion,thispapergenerateda
urryofdiscussionintheliteraturewiththemostnotableremarks
beingthoseofVardyandBrown@41#.
VardyandBrown@41#arguedthatShuy'sresultsshouldnotbe
interpretedascontradictingpreviousmeasurements.Instead,the
resultsindicatedthattheowbehaviorobservedinShuy'sexperi
mentsmayhavebeendifferentfromtheowbehaviorinprevious
experiments.VardyandBrown@41#putforwardthetimescale
hypothesisasapossibleexplanationforthedifferentowbehavior
betweenShuy's@40#experimentsandpreviousones.Theyalso
observedthat,whileShuy'sexperimentsdealtwithlongtimescales,
previousmeasurementsdealtwithmuchshortertimescales.Vardy
andBrown@41#providedinsightfulandconvincingarguments
abouttheimportanceoftimescaletotheowbehaviorinunsteady
pipeows.Infact,thestabilityanalysisofGhidaouiandKolyshkin
@42#concurswiththetimescalehypothesisofVardyandBrown
@41#.Moreover,thestabilityanalysisshowsthat,whileother
experimentsbelongtothestabledomain,theexperimentsofShuy
belongtotheunstabledomain.
u~x,r,t! ~2n11!~n11!
Chaudhry@37#,Pezzinga@38,44#,EichingerandLein@45#
andGhidaouietal.@46#.ThetheoreticalworkofCarstensand
Roller@43# showsonlythatEq. ~32! appliestoveryslow
transientsin whichtheunsteadyvelocityprolehasthesame
shapeasthesteadyvelocityprole.Unfortunately,theCarstens
andRoller@43# studyneithersupportsnorrefutesthepossibility
ofusingEq. ~32! inwaterhammerproblems.
r
1/n
ThetheoreticalworkofVardyandBrown@47#showsthatEq.
~32! canbederivedforthecaseofanunsteadypipeowwith
constantacceleration.Inaddition,theyshowthatthismodelis
approximatelyvalidforproblemswithtimedependentaccelera
tionaslongasthetimescaleofthetransienteventgreatlyexceeds
therisingtime,whichisameasureoftimerequiredforthevor
ticitydiffusionthroughtheshearlayer.Theirworkalsowarns
againstusingEq.~32!forproblemswithtimedependentaccelera
tioninducedbytransienteventswithtimescalessmallerthanthe
1 2
(33)
V~x,t!
2
2n
risingtime(i.e.,L/a!Td).
Axworthyetal.@30#foundthatEq.~32!isconsistentwiththe
theoryofExtendedIrreversibleThermodynamics~EIT!andsatisfy
thesecondlawofthermodynamics.Inaddition,theEITderivation
showsthatunsteadyfrictionformulasbasedoninstantaneous
accelerationsuchasEq.~32!areapplicabletotransientowproblems
inwhichthetimescaleofinterest~e.g.,simulationtime!is
signicantlyshorterthantheradialdiffusiontimescaleofvorticity.
Usingthevorticityequation,Axworthyetal.@30#showedthatfor
suchshorttimescales,theturbulencestrengthandstructureis
unchanged~i.e.,``frozen''!,andtheenergydissipation
wheren57forReynoldsnumberRe510 andincreaseswith
Reynoldsnumber,r5distancefromtheaxisinaradialdirection,
R5radiusofthepipe.AnunsteadyowgivenbyEq.~33!de
scribesowsthatexhibitslowaccelerationanddoesnotallowfor
owreversal~i.e.,doesnotcontaininectionpoints!.Infact,Eq.
~33! cannotrepresenttypicalwaterhammervelocityproles
such asthosefoundinVardyandHwang@25#,SilvaArayaand
Thedependenceofh1fonxandtaswellastheowaccelerationisconsistentwiththetheoreticalformulationsin@30#and@39#.In
addition,theformof h1f givessignicantcorrectionfor
Equation~36!providesadditionaldissipationforareservoirpipevalvesystemwhenthetransientiscausedbyadownstreamsudden
valveclosure.ThepressureheadtracesobtainedfromthemodelsandexperimentareplottedinFig.4.Itisshownthatalthoughboth
theDarcyWeisbachformulaandEq.~32!withconstantkcannotproduceenoughenergydissipationinthepressureheadtraces,the
modelbyBrunoneetal.@50#isquitesuccessfulinproducingthenecessarydampingfeaturesofpressurepeaks,veriedbyother
researchers@29,5255#.
SlightmodicationstothemodelofBrunoneetal.@50#,whichrendersthismodelapplicabletobothupstreamanddownstream
transients,wereproposedin@44#andin@52#.Inparticular,Pezzinga@44#proposed
behindawavefrontiswellrepresentedbythedegreeofshiftin
theunsteadyfrictionwhentheowisaccelerated(V]V/]t.0)
thecrosssectionalmeanvalueofthevelocity~i.e.,dV/dt)and
andsmallcorrectionwhentheowisdecelerated(V]V/]t,0)
thecrosssectionalmeanvalueofV,itself.
@50#.
ThetimescaleargumentsbyVardyandBrown@47#andAx
Utilizationofthemodelspresentedinthissectionrequiresa
worthyetal.@30#representtwolimitcases:veryslowtransients
reliableestimateoftheparameterk.ThedataofBrunoneetal.
andveryfasttransients,respectively.Intheformercase,thereis
@31#,Dailyetal. @39#,andothersshowthat k isnotauniversal
enoughmixingsuchthattheaccelerationhistorypatternisde
constant.Anempiricalmethodforestimatingthisparameterwas
stroyed,onlytheinstantaneousaccelerationissignicanttothe
proposedbyBrunoneetal.@52#byttingthedecayofmeasured
wallshearstress.Inthelattercase,thepreexistingowstructure
pressureheadhistory.Moodydiagramlikechartsforkwerede
isfrozen,thereisnoadditionalaccelerationhistorydeveloped
velopedbyPezzinga@44#usingaquasitwodimensionalturbu
except
thatofinstantaneous
acceleration.TheAxworthy
etal.
lencemodel.VardyandBrown@47#providedatheoreticallybased
@30# argumentrepresentsawaterhammerowsituationwherethe
expressionfordeterminingthecoefcientk.Thisexpressionwas
accelerationbehaveslikeapulse,say,theowdropsfromanite
successfullyappliedbyBergantetal.@52#andVitkovskyetal.
valuetozeroinashortperiod.
@55#.AlthoughthechartsofPezzinga @44# andtheformulaof

Animportantmodicationofinstantaneousaccelerationbased
VardyandBrown@47#aretheorybased,theirreliabilityislimited
unsteadyfrictionmodelswasproposedbyBrunoneandGolia
bythefactthattheyrelyonsteadystatebasedturbulencemodels
@48#,Greco @49#,andBrunoneetal. @50,51#.Thewellknown
toadequatelyrepresentunsteadyturbulence.Itshould,however,
Brunoneetal.@50#modelhasbecomethemostwidelyused
bestressedthatmodelingturbulentpipetransientsiscurrentlynot
modicationinwaterhammerapplicationduetoitssimplicityand
wellunderstood~seeSec.9!.
itsabilitytoproducereasonableagreementwithexperimental
Themechanismthataccountsforthedissipationofthepres
pressureheadtraces.
sureheadisaddressedinthediscussionbyGhidaouietal.@46#.
Brunoneetal.@50#incorporatedtheCorioliscorrectioncoef
Theyfoundthattheadditionaldissipationassociatedwiththein
cientandtheunsteadywallshearstressintheenergyequation
stantaneousaccelerationbasedunsteadyfrictionmodeloccurs
forwaterhammerasfollows:
onlyattheboundaryduetothewavereection.Itwasshownthat
]H
1]V
h1f ]V
afternccompletewavecycles,thepressureheadisdampedbya
1
1
1J s 50
(34)
2n
factorequivalentto@1/(11k)# c.
]x
g]t
]t
4.3PhysicallyBasedWallShearModels.Thisclassofun
whereh5differencefromunityoftheCorioliscorrectioncoef
steadywallshearstressmodelsisbasedontheanalyticalsolution
oftheunidirectionalowequationsandwaspioneeredbyZielke
cient,
Js5(fuVuV)/2gD5steadystate
friction
term,
(f/g)(]V/]t)5differencebetweenunsteadyfrictionanditscor
@56#.ApplyingtheLaplacetransformtotheaxialcomponentof
theNavierStokesequations,hederivedthefollowingwallshear
respondingsteadyfriction.InEq.~34!,theconvectivetermis
expressionforunsteadylaminarowinapipe:
droppedastheMachnumberoftheowissmallinwaterhammer
problems.
4nr
2nr
]V
Aconstitutiveequationisneededforh1f.Brunone
etal.
t ~ t !5
w
V~ t !1
]t 8 ~
W t 2t dt
(39)
8! ~
8! 8
@50# proposed
]V
]V
wheret85adummyvariable,physicallyrepresentstheinstanta
h1f5k
12a
(35)
neoustimeinthetimehistory;n5kinematicviscosityoftheuid;
]x
Y D
]t
W5weightingfunction
orintermsofwallshearstress
W~ t !5e 226.3744~ nt / R !1e 270.8493~ nt / R !1e 2135.0198~ nt / R
krD
]V
]V
2
2
1e 2218.9216~ nt / R !1e 2322.5544~ nt / R !
tw 5tws 1
2a
D
(36)
]t
]x
nt
for
.0.02
R2
W~t!50.282095
nt
21/2
21.2500011.057855
nt
D1/2
R2
R2
nt
nt
nt
3/2
for
,0.0210.937500
10.396696
D
20.351563
nt
D
(40)
h1f5k
1 1sign
]V
V ] x
]V
a ] x
Y G
]V
] t
andBergantetal.@53#proposed
F1 1sign~ V !aU]]VxUY ]]Vt G
h1f5k
ThersttermontherighthandsideofEq.~39!
representsthesteadystatewallshearstresstwsand
thesecondtermrepresentsthecorrectionpartdueto
theunsteadinessoftheowtwu.Thenumerical
integrationoftheconvolutionintegralinEq.~39!re
quiresalargeamountofmemoryspacetostoreallpreviouslycalculatedvelocitiesand
largecentralprocessingunit~CPU!timetocarryoutthenumericalintegration,
especiallywhenthetimestepissmallandthesimulationtimelarge.Trikha@57#used
threeexponentialtermstoapproximatetheweightingfunction.Thead
vantageofusingexponentialformsisthatarecursiveformulacaneasily
beobtained,sothattheowhistorycanbelumpedintothequantitiesat
theprevioustimestep.Inthisway,onlythecalculatedquantitiesatthe
previoustimestepneedstobestoredinthecomputermemory,andthere
isnoneedtocalculatetheconvolu
tionintegralfromthebeginningateverytimestep.Thisreducesthe
memorystorageandthecomputationaltimegreatly.InSuzukietal.
@58#,fort,0.02,thesummationiscalculatedinanormalway;for
t.0.02,therecursiveformulasimilartothatofTrikha@57# isused,
sinceeachofthevetermsincludedintheweighting functionis
exponential.AlthoughZielke'sformulaisderivedforlaminarow,
Trikha@57#andothers@29,52#foundthatthisformulaleadsto
acceptableresultsforlowReynoldsnumberturbulentows.
However,VardyandBrown@47#warnedagainsttheapplicationof
Zielke'sformulaoutsidethelaminarowregime,butdidnotethatthe
errorinapplyingZielke'sformulatoturbulentowsdiminishesasthe
durationofthewavepulsereduces.
Vardyetal.@59#extendedZielke'sapproachtolowReynolds
numberturbulentwaterhammerowsinsmoothpipes.Inalater
paper,VardyandBrown@60#developedanextensionofthemodel
ofVardyetal.@59#thatwasapplicabletohighReynoldsnumber
transientowsinsmoothpipes.Inaddition,VardyandBrown@60#
showedthatthismodelgivesresultsequivalenttothoseof Vardyet
al.@59#forlowReynoldsnumberowsandtothoseofZielke
@56#forlaminarows.Thatis,theVardyandBrown@60#model
promisestoprovideaccurateresultsforReynoldsnumbersranging
fromthelaminarregimetothehighlyturbulentregime.Thismodel
hasthefollowingform:
E
0
tw~ t !5r f
1
W~t2t8!
dt8(41)
8
D
V~t!uV~t!u
4nr
]t 8
t
]V
where
W~t!5aexp~2bt!/A
;
a5D /4A
;
pt
Fig. 5 Weighting function for different Reynolds numbers
b50.54n Re / D ;
k5log~ 14.3/Re
0.05
andRe5Reynoldsnumber.SimilartoZielke'smodel,theconvo
lutionnatureofEq.~41!iscomputationallyundesirable.Anaccu
rate,simple,andefcientapproximationtotheVardyBrownun
steadyfrictionequationisderivedandshowntobeeasily
implementedwithina1Dcharacteristicssolutionforunsteadypipe
ow@32#.Forcomparison,theexactVardyBrownunsteadyfriction
equationisusedtomodelshearstressesintransientturbulentpipe
owsandtheresultingwaterhammerequationsaresolvedbythe
methodofcharacteristics.TheapproximateVardyBrownmodelis
morecomputationallyefcient~i.e.,requires61ththeexecution
timeandmuchlessmemorystorage!thantheexactVardyBrown
model.Bothmodelsarecomparedwithmeasureddatafromdifferent
researchgroupsandwithnumericaldataproducedbyatwo
dimensional~2D!turbulencewaterhammermodel.Theresultsshow
thattheexactVardyBrownmodelandtheapproximateVardyBrown
modelareingoodagreementwithbothlaboratoryandnumerical
experimentsoverawiderangeofReynoldsnumbersandwave
frequencies.Theproposedapproximatemodelonlyrequiresthe
storageofowvariablesfromasingletimestepwhiletheexact
VardyBrownmodelrequiresthestorageofowvariablesatall
previoustimestepsandthe2Dmodelrequiresthestorageofow
variablesatallradialnodes.
AsummaryoftheassumptionsinvolvedinderivingEqs.~39!and
~41!isinorder.TheanalyticalapproachofZielke@56#involves
thefollowingassumptions:~i!theowisfullydeveloped,~ii! the
convectivetermsarenegligible, ~iii! theincompressible versionof
thecontinuityequationisused~i.e.,theinuenceofmassstorageon
velocityproleisnegligible!,and~iv!thevelocityproleremains
axisymmetric~i.e.,stable!duringthetransient.Inordertoextend
Zielke'sapproachtoturbulentows,VardyandBrown@60#made
twofundamentalassumptionsinrelationtotheturbulenteddy
viscosityinadditiontoassumptions~i!through~iv!.First,the
turbulentkinematicviscosityisassumedtovary linearlywithinthe
wallshearlayerandbecomesinnite~i.e.,auniformvelocity
distribution!inthecoreregion.Second,theturbulenteddyviscosity
isassumedtobetimeinvariant~i.e.,frozentoitssteadystatevalue!.
Assumptions~i!,~ii!,and~iii!areaccurateforpracticalwater
hammerows,wheretheMachnumberis
oftennegligiblysmallandpipelengthfarexceedsowdevelop
mentlength.Thevalidityofassumptionssuchasthattheow
remainsaxisymmetric~stable!,thattheeddyviscosityisindepen
dentoftime,andthatitsshapeissimilartothatinsteadyow,is
discussedlaterinthepaper~seeSecs.6and7!.
UnderstandingtheconnectionbetweenEq.~32!andthephysi
callybasedunsteadywallfrictionmodelsproposedbyZielke
@56#andVardyandBrown@60#furtherilluminatesthe
limitationsofinstantaneousacceleration,unsteadywallfriction
modelsasdescribedintheprevioussection.Inparticular,itis
evidentfromEqs.~39!and~41!thatEq.~32!isrecoveredwhen
theaccelerationisconstant.Inaddition,plotsofWinFig.5show
thatforowswithlargeReynoldsnumber,thisfunctionisvery
2
smalleverywhereexceptwhennt/R approaches0,thatis,
whent8approachestinEq.~41!.TheregionwhereW(t2t8)
inEq.~41!becomessignicantandprovidesameasureofthe
timescaleoftheradialdiffusionofvorticityTd.Ifthe
accelerationvariesslowlyintheregionwhereW(t2t8)is
signicant,itisclearthatEqs.~39!and~41!canbeaccurately
approximatedbyEq.~32!.Thisissimplyanalternativewayto
statethatEq.~32!isacceptablewhentheaccelerationisnot
constantaslongasthetimescaleoftheowdisturbancefar
exceedsthetimescaleofradialdiffusionofvorticityacrossthe
shearlayer.Moreover,itisobviousthatEq.~32!isagood
approximationtoEqs.~39!and~41!whentissmall,asthe
integralintervalissosmallthattheintegrandcanbeconsideredas
aconstant.Furthermore,thetimeintervalwhereW(t2t8)is
signicantreduceswithReynoldsnumber,whichshowsthatEq.
~32!becomesmoreaccurateforhighlyturbulentows.
5NumericalSolutionsfor1DWaterHammerEqua
tions
Theequationsgoverning1Dwaterhammer~i.e.,Eqs.~20!and~21!!
canseldombesolvedanalytically.Therefore,numerical techniques
areusedtoapproximatethesolution.Themethodofcharacteristics
~MOC!,whichhasthedesirableattributesofaccuracy,simplicity,
numericalefciency,andprogrammingsimplicity~e.g.,
@20,23,61#!,ismostpopular.Othertechniquesthathavealso been
appliedtoEqs.~20!and~21!includethewaveplan,nitedifference
~FD!,andnitevolume~FV!methods.Ofthe11commercially
availablewaterhammersoftwarepackagesreviewedinSec.12,eight
useMOC,twoarebasedonimplicitFDmethods,andonlyone
employsthewaveplanmethod.
5.1MOCBasedSchemes.Asignicantdevelopmentinthe
numericalsolutionofhyperbolicequationswaspublishedby
Lister@62#.ShecomparedthexedgridMOCschemealso
calledthemethodofxedtimeintervalwiththeMOCgrid
inspaceatconstanttime.FixedgridMOChassincebeenused
withgreatsuccesstocalculatetransientconditionsinpipe
systemsandnetworks.
ThexedgridMOCrequiresthatacommontimestep(Dt)be
usedforthesolutionofthegoverningequationsinallpipes.
However,pipesinthesystemtendtohavedifferentlengthsand
sometimeswavespeeds,makingitimpossibletosatisfythe
Courantcondition~CourantnumberCr5aDt/Dx<1)exactlyif
acommontimestepDtistobeused.Thisdiscretizationproblem
canbeaddressedbyinterpolationtechniques,orarticial
adjustmentofthewavespeedorahybridofboth.
Todealwiththisdiscretizationproblem,Lister@62#usedlinear
spacelineinterpolationtoapproximateheadsandowsatthefoot
ofeachcharacteristicline.Trikha@57#suggestedusingdifferent
timestepsforeachpipe.Thisstrategymakesitpossibletouse
largetimesteps,resultinginshorterexecutiontimeandtheavoid
anceofspatialinterpolationerror.Thisincreasedexibilitycomes
atthecostofhavingtointerpolateattheboundaries,whichcanbe
amajorsourceoferrorwhencomplex,rapidlychangingcontrol
actionsareconsidered.
WiggertandSundquist@63#derivedasingleschemethatcombines
theclassicalspacelineinterpolationwithreachoutinspace
interpolation.UsingFourieranalysis,theystudiedtheeffectsof
interpolation,spacing,andgridsizeonnumericaldispersion,at
tenuation,andstability.Theseresearchersfoundthatthedegreeof
interpolationjdecreasesastheratioofthewavelengthofthekth
harmonicLktothereachlengthDxincreases.Asaresult,both
numericaldissipationanddispersionareimproved.Theseconclu
sionsarenotsurprisingforseveralreasons.First,everyinterpolation
techniquecanbeexpectedtoproducebetterresultsforwave
componentswithlargerwavelengths.Second,foraxedtimestep
Dt ,largervaluesof n implysmallervaluesof Dx andviceversa,
sincenDxrepresentsthetotallengthofthereachoutononeside.
Consequently,thisschemegeneratesmoregridpointsand,therefore,
requireslongercomputationaltimesandcomputerstorage.
Furthermore,analternativeschememustbeusedtocarryoutthe
boundarycomputations.
Thereachbacktimelineinterpolationscheme,developedby
GoldbergandWylie@64#,usesthesolutionfrommpreviously
calculatedtimelevels.Theauthorsobservedthatreachbacktime
lineinterpolationismoreaccuratethanspacelineinterpolation
forthesamediscretization.Thisisasubjectivecomparisonbe
cause,asthedegreeoftemporalinterpolationjvariesfrom0to1,
thedegreeofspatialinterpolationaisonlyallowedtovaryfrom
1/(m11)to1/m.Afairercomparisonwouldhavebeentoalso
dividethedistancestepbymsothatbothjandavaryequally.In
addition,GoldbergandWylie@64#assertthatnumericalerrors
arereducedbyincreasingm.Thisissomewhatmisleading
because,foraxedDx,increasingmmeansincreasingthe
numberofcomputationalsteps~i.e.,reducingtheeffectivetime
stepDt)whichinturngeneratesnerinterpolationintervals.
Moreover,incaseswherethefrictiontermislargeand/orwhen
thewavespeedisnotconstant,reachingbackintimeincreases
theapproximationerroroftheseterms.
Lai@65#combinedtheimplicit,temporalreachback,spatial
reachback,spatialreachout,andtheclassicaltimeandspaceline
schemeandfoundthatthexedgridMOCwasmucheasierto
compute,givingtheanalystfullcontroloverthegridselectionand
enablingthecomputationofboththepressureandvelocityelds
interpolationsintoonetechniquecalledthemultimodescheme.
Dependingonthechoiceofgridsize(Dt,Dx)andthelimiton
themaximumallowablereachbacksintimem,thisschememay
functionaseitherofthemethodsoracombinationofanytwo
methods.Numericalerrorswerestudiedusingamassbalanceap
proach.StabilityconditionswerederivedfromVonNeumann
analysis.Themultimodeschemegivestheusertheexibilityto
selecttheinterpolationschemethatprovidesthebestperformance
foraparticularproblem.
YangandHsu@66,67#publishedtwopapersdealingwiththe
numericalsolutionofthedispersionequationin1Dand2D,re
spectively.Theauthorsproposereachingbackintimemorethan
onetimestepandthenusingtheHollyPreissmannmethodto
interpolateeitherinspaceorintime.Itisclaimedthatthereach
backHollyPreissmannschemeissuperiortotheclassicalHolly
Preissmannmethod.Aninterestingdiscussionofthiswork,pub
lishedinBentley@68#,showedthatthesolutionobtainedbythe
classicalHollyPreissmannmethodwhenthetimestepequalsm
DtisidenticaltothatobtainedbythereachbackinspaceHolly
Preissmann~i.e.,thefootofthecharacteristiclineisextended
backmorethanonetimestepuntilitintersectsthespaceline!
withmreachbacksandatimestepvalueofDt.Theonlydiffer
enceisthatthereachbackapproachproducesm21extrainterme
diatesolutionsatthecostofmorecomputationaltime.
Sibetherosetal.@69#showedthatthesplinetechniqueiswell
suitedtopredictingtransientconditionsinsimplepipelinessub
jecttosimpledisturbanceswhenthenatureofthetransientbehav
iorofthesystemisknowninadvance.Themostseriousproblem
withthesplineinterpolationisthespecicationofthespline
boundaryconditions.
Theauthorspointoutthattheselectionprocedurewasa``trial
anderror''oneinvolvingmanypossibilities.This`èxibility''
suffersfromthecurseof``permutability,''i.e.,inacomplexsys
temthenumberofpermutationsandcombinationsofspline
boundaryconditionscanbecomeenormous.Moreover,inmany
multipipeapplicationsitisnotaccuracythatdirectlygovernsthe
selectionofthetimestep,butthehydraulicallyshortestpipein
thesystem.Sincethemostsuccessfulsplineboundaryconditions
necessarilyinvolveseveralreaches,applicationofthemethod
becomesproblematicinshortpipes.Itwouldappeartorequire
muchsmallertimestepssimplytoapplythemethodatall.Other
necessaryconditionsforthesuccessofsplineschemesare:~i!
thedependentvariable~s!mustbesufcientlysmooth,~ii!the
computationofthederivativesatinternalnodesmustbe
accurate,and~iii! theformulationofthenumericaland/or
physicalderivative boundaryconditionsmustbesimpleand
accurate.Conditions~i!and~iii!areaprobleminwaterhammer
analysisbecausetheboundaryconditionsarefrequentlynonlinear
andcomplex,andthedependentvariablesmaybediscontinuous.
KarneyandGhidaoui@70#developed``hybrid''interpolation
approachesthatincludeinterpolationalongasecondarycharacter
isticline,``minimumpoint''interpolation~whichreducesthedis
tancefromtheinterpolatedpointtotheprimarycharacteristic!,
andamethodof``wavepathadjustment''thatdistortsthepathof
propagationbutdoesnotdirectlychangethewavespeed.The
resultingcompositealgorithmcanbeimplementedasapreproces
sorstepandthususesmemoryefciently,executesquickly,and
providesaexibletoolforinvestigatingtheimportanceofdis
cretizationerrorsinpipelinesystems.Thepropertiesofthealgo
rithmareanalyzedtheoreticallyandillustratedbyexampleinthe
paper.
5.2OtherSchemes.Thewaveplanmethod@71#issimilarto
theMOCinthesensethatbothtechniquesexplicitlyincorporate
wavepathsinthesolutionprocedure.However,thewaveplan
methodrequiresthatowdisturbancefunctionssuchasvalve
curvesbeapproximatedbypiecewiseconstantfunctions.Thatis,
owdisturbancesareapproximatedbyaseriesofinstantaneous
changesinowconditions.Thetimeintervalbetweenanytwo
consecutiveinstantaneouschangesinowconditionsisxed.The
piecewiseconstantapproximationtodisturbancefunctionsimplies
thattheaccuracyoftheschemeisrstorderinbothspaceand
time.Therefore,nediscretizationisrequiredforachievingaccu
ratesolutionstowaterhammerproblems.
Thewaveplanmethod``lumps''frictionatthecenterofeachpipe.
Inparticular,frictionismodeledusingadisturbancefunction,
wheretheformofthisfunctionisdeterminedusingthe`òrice
analogy.''Thisdisturbancefunctionisfrictionapproximatedby
piecewiseconstantfunctions.Themodelingoffrictionasaseries
ofdiscretedisturbancesinspaceandtimegeneratessmall
spuriouswaves.Ingeneral,withsmallvaluesoffriction,these
wouldbeobservedonlyaslowamplitudenoiseonthemaintran

ChaudhryandHussaini@74#applytheMacCormack,Lambda,and
sientsignal.Itisalsounclearastohowadditionalphysics,such
Gabuttischemestothewaterhammerequations.Thesethreemethods
asconvolutionintegralunsteadyfrictionmodels,canbeincorpo
areexplicit,secondorder~intimeandspace!nitedifference
ratedwiththewaveplanmethodology.
WylieandStreeter@72#proposesolvingthewaterhammer
equationsinanetworksystemusingtheimplicitcentraldifference
methodinordertopermitlargetimesteps.Theresultingnonlinear
differenceequationsareorganizedinasparsematrixformandare
solvedusingtheNewtonRaphsonprocedure.Onlypipejunction
boundaryconditionswereconsideredinthecasestudy.Itisrec
ognizedthatthelimitationonthemaximumtimestepissetbythe
frequencyofthedependentvariablesattheboundaries.Twocom
merciallyavailablewaterhammersoftwarepackagesusethefour
pointimplicitscheme~seeSec.12WaterHammerSoftware!.The
majoradvantageofimplicitmethodsisthattheyarestableforlarge
timesteps~i.e.,Cr.1@65,72#!.Computationally,however,implicit
schemesincreaseboththeexecutiontimeandthestoragerequirement
andneedadedicatedmatrixinversionsolversincealargesystemof
equationshastobesolved.Moreover,formostproblems,iterative
schemesmustalsobeinvoked.Fromamathematicalperspective,
implicitmethodsarenotsuitableforwavepropagationproblems
becausetheyentirelydistortthepathofpropagationofinformation,
therebymisrepresentingthemathematicalmodel.Inaddition,asmall
timestepisrequiredforaccuracyinwaterhammerproblemsinany
case@23#.Forthesereasons,mostoftheworkdoneonnumerical
modelingofhyperbolicequationsinthelastthreedecades
concentratedondeveloping,testing,andcomparingexplicitschemes
~e.g.,@63,64,73#!.
schemes.Twotypesofboundaryconditionsareused:~i!one
characteristicequationandoneboundaryequation,or~ii!ex
trapolationprocedureboundarycondition.Thesecondboundary
conditionsolutionmethodaddsonectitiousnodeupstreamofthe
upstreamboundaryandanotherdownstreamofthedownstream
boundary.UsingtheL1andL2normsasindicatorsofthenumerical
errors,itwasshownthatthesesecondordernitedifferenceschemes
producebetterresultsthanrstordermethodofcharacteristics
solutionsforCr50.8and0.5.Spuriousnumericaloscillationsare
observed,however,inthewaveprole.
AlthoughFVmethodsarewidelyusedinthesolutionofhyperbolic
systems,forexample,ingasdynamicsandshallowwaterwaves~see
recentbooksbyToro@75,76#!,thisapproachisseldomappliedto
waterhammerows.Totheauthors'knowledge,therstattemptto
applyFVbasedschemeswasbyGuinot@77#.Heignoredthe
advectiveterms,developedaRiemanntypesolutionforthewater
hammerproblem,andusedthissolutiontodeveloparstorder
basedFVGodunovscheme.Thisrstorderschemeisverysimilarto
theMOCwithlinearspacelineinterpolation.Atthetimeofwriting,a
secondpaperbyHwangandChung@78#thatalsousestheFV
methodforwaterhammer,hasappeared.UnlikeinGuinot@77#,the
advectivetermsarenotneglectedintheworkofHwangandChung
@78#.Instead,theyusetheconservativeformofthecompressible
owequations,inwhichdensity,andnothead,istreatedasan
unknown.Theapplicationofsuchaschemeinpracticewouldrequire
astateequationrelatingdensitytoheadsothat~i!allexisting
boundaryconditionswouldhavetobereformulatedintermsof
densityandowratherthanheadandow,and~ii!theinitialsteady
statehydraulicgradelinewouldneedtobeconvertedtoadensity
curveasafunctionoflongitudinaldistance.Atpresent,nosuch
equationofstateexistsforwater.Applicationofthismethodwould
befurthercomplicatedatboundarieswhereincompressible
conditionsaregenerallyassumedtoapply.
5.3MethodsforEvaluatingNumericalSchemes.Several
approacheshavebeendevelopedtodealwiththequanticationof
numericaldissipationanddispersion.Thewiderangeofmethodsin
theliteratureisindicativeofthedissatisfactionanddistrustamong
researchersofmoreconventional,existingtechniques.
Thissectiondiscussesanumberofmethodsemployedbytran
sientmodelerstoquantifynumericaldissipationanddispersion.
5.3.1VonNeumannMethod.Traditionally,uidtransientre
searchershavestudiedthedispersionanddissipationcharacteris
ticsofthexedgridmethodofcharacteristicsusingtheVon
Neumann~orFourier!methodofanalysis@63,64#.TheVon
NeumannanalysiswasusedbyO'Brianetal.@79#tostudythe
stabilityofthenumericalsolutionofpartialdifferentialequations.
TheanalysistracksasingleFouriermodewithtimeand
dissipationbydetermininghowthemodedecayswithtime.
Dispersionisevaluatedbyinvestigatingwhetherornotdifferent
Fouriermodestravelwithdifferentspeeds.
ThereareanumberofseriousdrawbackstotheVonNeumann
methodofanalysis.Forexample,itlacksessentialboundaryin
formation,itignorestheinuenceofthewaveproleonthenu
mericalerrors,itassumesconstantcoefcientsandthattheinitial
conditionsareperiodic,anditcanonlybeappliedtolinearnu
mericalmodels@69,7981#.Toillustrate,theworkbyWiggert
andSundquist@63#,GoldbergandWylie@64#,andothers
clearlyshowsthattheattenuationanddispersioncoefcients
obtainedfromtheFourieranalysisdependontheCourantnumber,
theratioofthewavelengthofthekthharmonicLktothereach
lengthDx,andthenumberofreachbacksand/orreachouts,but
doesnotdependontheboundaryconditions.Yet,thesimulation
ofboundaryconditionsandknowledgeofhowtheseboundary
conditionsintroduceandreecterrorstotheinternalpipesections
iscrucialtothestudyofnumericalsolutionsofhydraulic
problems.Inshort,theVonNeumannmethodcannotbeusedas
theonlybenchmarkforselectingthemostappropriatenumerical
schemefornonlinearboundaryvaluehyperbolicproblems.
L1andL2NormsMethod.ChaudhryandHussaini@74#
developed L 1 and L 2 normstoevaluatethenumericalerrors
associatedwiththenumericalsolutionofthewaterhammerequa
tionsbytheMacCormack,Lambda,andGabuttischemes.How
ever,theL1andL2methodastheyapplyitcanonlybeusedfor
problemsthathaveaknown,exactsolution.Inaddition,thesetwo
normsdonotmeasureaphysicalpropertysuchasmassorenergy,
therebymakingtheinterpretationofthenumericalvaluesofthese
normsdifcult.Hence,theL1andL2normscanbeusedtocom
paredifferentschemes,butdonotgiveaclearindicationofhow
wellaparticularschemeperforms.
ThreeParametersApproach.Sibetherosetal.@69#usedthree
dimensionlessparameterstostudyvariousnumericalerrors.A
discussionfollowedbyKarneyandGhidaoui@82#andaclosure
wasprovidedbytheauthors.Salientpointsfromthediscussion
andclosurearesummarizedbelow.
Theattenuationparameterisintendedtomeasurethenumerical
dissipationbydifferentinterpolationschemesbylookingatthe
maximumheadvalueatthevalve.Thisparameter,however,un
derestimatesthenumericalattenuationbecausethecomputationof
headandowatthedownstreamendofthepipeusesonechar
acteristicequationandoneboundaryequation.Thedispersionpa
rameterisintendedtomeasurethenumericaldispersionbydiffer
entinterpolationschemes.Thisparameterisdeterminedby
assertingthatthechangeinthewaveshapeisgovernedbythe
constantdiffusionequationwithinitialconditionsdescribedby
theHeavisidefunction.Althoughthismethodallowsarudimen
tarycomparisonofsimplesystemresponses,generalconclusions
cannotbedrawnforahyperbolicequationbasedonadiffusion
equation.Thelongitudinaldisplacementparameterisintendedto
measuretheextentbywhichdifferentnumericalschemesarti
ciallydisplacethewavefront.However,thisparameteronlysug
geststowhatdegreetheinterpolationmethodusedissymmetri
callydispersiveandsayslittleaboutthemagnitudeofarticial
displacementofthewavebythenumericalscheme.
MassBalanceApproach.Themassbalancemethod
odssincethisapproachcanbeappliedtoanonlineartransient
problemwithrealisticboundaryconditions.Thebasicideaisto
checkhowcloselyaparticularnumericalmethodconservesmass.
Notethatthemassbalanceapproachcanbecomeineffectivein
caseswhereanumericalschemeconservesmassbutnotenergy
andmomentum.
axisymmetricduringatransientevent!.Recentexperimentaland
theoreticalworksindicatethatowinstabilities,intheformofhelical
vortices,candevelopintransientows.Theseinstabilitiesleadtothe
breakdownofowsymmetrywithrespecttothepipeaxis.For
example,DasandArakeri@87#performedunsteadypipeow
experimentswheretheinitialowwaslaminarandthetransientevent
wasgeneratedbyapiston.TheyfoundthatwhentheReynolds
numberandthetransienttimescaleexceedathresholdvalue,theow
becomesunstable.Inaddition,theyobservedthattheowinstability
resultsintheformationofnonsta
EHDEApproach.GhidaouiandKarney@85#developedthe
conceptofanequivalenthyperbolicdifferentialequation~EHDE! to
studyhowdiscretizationerrorsariseinpipelineapplicationsforthe
mostcommoninterpolationtechniquesusedtodealwiththe
discretizationprobleminxedgridMOC.Inparticular,itisshown
thatspacelineinterpolationandtheHollyPreissmannschemeare
equivalenttoawavediffusionmodelwithanadjustedwavespeed,
butthatthelattermethodhasadditionalsourceandsinkterms.
Further,timelineinterpolationisshowntobeequivalenttoa
superpositionoftwowaveswithdifferentwavespeeds.TheEHDE
conceptevaluatestheconsistencyofthenumericalscheme,provides
amathematicaldescriptionofthenumericaldissipationand
dispersion,givesanindependentwayofdeterminingtheCourant
condition,allowsthecomparisonofalternativeapproaches,ndsthe
wavepath,andexplainswhyhigherordermethodsshouldusuallybe
avoided.Thisframeworkclearlypointsoutthatnumerical
approximationofthewaterhammerequationsfundamentallychanges
thephysicalproblemandmustbeviewedasanontrivial
transformationofthegoverningequations.Forexample,implicit
methods,whilenotedfortheirstabilitycharacteristics,transformthe
waterhammerproblemintoasuperpositionofwaveproblems,each
ofwhichhasawavespeeddifferentfromthephysicalwavespeed
andatleastoneofwhichhasaninnitewavespeed.Theinnite
numericalwavespeedassociatedwithimplicitschemesensuresthat
thenumericaldomainofdependenceislargerthanthephysical
domainofdependence,andexplainswhythesearehighlystable.
Whilegoodforstability,thelargediscrepancybetweenthenumerical
andphysicaldomainsofdependencehinderstheaccuracyofthese
schemes.Anotherproblemwithimplicitschemesisthattheyare
oftencomputationallyinefcientbecausetheyrequiretheinversion
oflargematrices.
EnergyApproach.Ghidaouietal.@86#developedanintegrated
energyapproachforthexedgridMOCtostudyhowthe
discretizationerrorsassociatedwithcommoninterpolation
schemesinpipelineapplicationsariseandhowtheseerrorscanbe
controlled.Specically,energyexpressionsdevelopedinthis
workdemonstratethatbothtimelineandspacelineinterpolation
attenuatethetotalenergyinthesystem.Wavespeedadjustment,
ontheotherhand,preservesthetotalenergywhiledistortingthe
partitioningoftheenergybetweenkineticandinternalforms.
Theseanalyticresultsareconrmedwithnumericalstudiesof
severalseriespipesystems.Boththenumericalexperimentsand
theanalyticalenergyexpressionshowthatthediscretization
errorsaresmallandcanbeignoredaslongasthereiscontinuous
workinthesystem.Whentheworkiszero,however,aCrvalue
closetooneisrequiredifnumericaldissipationistobe
minimized.Theenergyapproachisgeneralandcanbeusedto
analyzeotherwaterhammernumericalschemes.
6
FlowStabilityandtheAxisymmetric
Assumption
Existingtransientpipeowmodelsarederivedunderthepremisethat
nohelicaltypevorticesemerge~i.e.,theowremainsstableand
@83,84# isamoregeneraltechniquethantheotherexistingmeth
tionaryhelicalvorticesandthatthebreakdownofthesevortices
intoturbulenceisveryrapid.Thebreakdownofthehelicalvorti
cesintoturbulenceresultedinstrongasymmetryintheowwith
respecttothepipeaxis.Brunoneetal.@31,88#carriedoutmea
surementsofwaterhammervelocityprolesinturbulentows.
Theyalsoobservedstrongowasymmetrywithrespecttothe
pipeaxis.Inparticular,theyfoundthatashorttimeafterthewave
passage,owreversalnolongerappearssimultaneouslyinboth
thetopandthebottomsidesofthepipe.Instead,owreversal
appearstoalternatebetweenthebottomandtopsidesofthepipe.
ThisisconsistentwiththeasymmetryobservedbyDasandArak
eri@87#.Theimpactofinstabilitiesonwallshearstressinun
steadypipeowswasmeasuredbyLodahletal.@89#.They
foundthatinectionalowinstabilitiesinduceuctuationsinthe
wallshearstress,wheretherootmeansquareofthewallshear
stressuctuationinthepipewasfoundtobeashighas45%ofthe
maximumwallshearstress.
DasandArakeri@87#appliedlinearstabilityanalysistoun
steadyplanechannelowtoexplaintheexperimentallyobserved
instabilityinunsteadypipeow.Thelinearstabilityandtheex
perimentalresultsareingoodqualitativeagreement.Ghidaoui
andKolyshkin@90#investigatedthelinearstabilityanalysisof
unsteadyvelocityproleswithreverseowinapipesubjectto
threedimensional~3D!perturbation.Theyusedthestabilityre
sultstoreinterprettheexperimentalresultsofDasandArakeri
@87# andassesstheirplanarowandquasisteadyassumptions.
Comparisonoftheneutralstabilitycurvescomputedwithand
withouttheplanarchannelassumptionshowsthatthisassumption
isaccuratewhentheratiooftheboundarylayerthicknesstothe
piperadiusisbelow20%.Anypointintheneutralstabilitycurve
representstheparameterscombinationsuchthattheperturbations
neithergrownordecay.Criticalvaluesforanyofthese
parameterscanbeobtainedfromtheneutralstabilitycurve.For
unsteadypipeows,theparametersrelatedareReandt.
Therefore,criticalRecanbeobtained.
owasymmetry,andinducesignicantuctuationsinwallshear
stress.Theseeffectsofowinstabilityarenotrepresentedinex
istingwaterhammermodels.
Inanattempttogainanappreciationoftheimportanceofincluding
theeffectsofhelicalvorticesintransientmodels,Ghidaouietal.
@46#appliedcurrenttransientmodelstoowcaseswithandwithout
helicalvortices.Inthecasewherestabilityresultsindicatethatthere
arenohelicalvortices,Ghidaouietal.@46# foundthatthe
differencebetweenwaterhammermodelsand thedataofPezzinga
andScandura@91#increaseswithtimeatamildrate.However,for
thecasewherestabilityresultsandexperimentsindicatethepresence
ofhelicalvortices,itisfoundthatthedifferencebetweenwater
hammermodelsandthedataofBrunoneetal.@31#exhibitsan
exponentiallikegrowth.Infact,thedifferencebetweenmodelsand
thedataofBrunoneetal.@31#reaches100%afteronlysixwave
cycles.Thismarkeddifferencebetweenmodelsanddatasuggeststhat
theinuenceofhelicalvorticesontheoweldissignicantand
cannotbeneglected.
7
QuasiSteadyandFrozenTurbulence
Assumptions
Theconvolutionintegralanalyticalmodelsforwallshearin
unsteadyturbulentowsderivedinVardyetal.@59#andVardy
andBrown@60#assumethateddyviscosityremains``frozen''
~i.e.,timeindependent!duringthetransient.Turbulenceclosure
equationsusedbyVardyandHwang@25#,SilvaArayaand
Chaudhry@37#,andPezzinga @38# assumethattheturbulence
changesina quasisteadymannerandthattheeddyviscosity
expressionsderivedforsteadystatepipeowsremainapplicable
Theremovaloftheplanarassumptionnotonlyimprovesthe
accuracyofstabilitycalculations,butalsoallowsfortheow
stabilityofbothaxisymmetricandnonaxisymmetricmodestobe
investigated,andfortheexperimentalresultstobereinterpreted.
Forexample,boththeworkofGhidaouiandKolyshkin@90#
andtheexperimentsofDasandArakeri@87#showthatthe
nonaxisymmetricmodeistheleaststable~i.e.,thehelicaltype!.
Withtheaimofprovidingatheoreticalbasisfortheemergenceof
helicalinstabilityintransientpipeows,GhidaouiandKolyshkin
@42#performedlinearstabilityanalysisofbaseowvelocity
prolesforlaminarandturbulentwaterhammerows.Thesebase
owvelocityprolesaredeterminedanalytically,wherethetransient
isgeneratedbyaninstantaneousreductioninowrateatthe
downstreamendofasimplepipesystem.Thepresenceofinection
pointsinthebaseowvelocityproleandthelargevelocitygradient
nearthepipewallarethesourcesofowinstability.Themain
parametersgoverningthestabilitybehavioroftransientowsare
Reynoldsnumberanddimensionlesstimescale.Thestabilityofthe
baseowvelocityproleswithrespecttoaxisymmetricand
asymmetricmodesisstudiedandtheresultsareplottedinthe
Reynoldsnumber/timescaleparameterspace.Itisfoundthatthe
asymmetricmodewithazimuthalwavenumberoneistheleaststable.
Inaddition,itisfoundthatthestabilityresultsofthelaminarandthe
turbulentvelocityprolesareconsistentwithpublishedexperimental
data.Theconsistencybetweenthestabilityanalysisandthe
experimentsprovidefurtherconrmation~i!thatwaterhammerows
canbecomeunstable,~ii!thattheinstabilityisasymmetric,~iii!that
instabilitiesdevelopinashort~waterhammer!timescaleand,~iv!
thatReynoldsnumberandthewavetimescaleareimportantinthe
characterizationofthestabilityofwaterhammerows.Physically,
owinstabilitieschangethestructureandstrengthoftheturbulencein
apipe,resultinstrong

forwaterhammerows.Anunderstandingoftheresponseofthe
turbulenceeldtowaterhammerwavesiscentraltojudgingthe
accuracyofusingeitherthefrozenorthequasisteadyturbulence
assumptions.
Thereisatimelagbetweenthepassageofawavefrontata
particularlocationalongthepipeandtheresultingchangeintur
bulentconditionsatthislocation~e.g.,@46,92,93#!.In
particular,attheinstantwhenawaterhammerwavepassesa
positionxalongthepipe,thevelocityeldatxundergoesa
uniformshift~i.e.,theuidexhibitsaslugowlikemotion!.The
uniformshiftinvelocityeldimpliesthatthevelocitygradient
andturbulentconditionsareunalteredattheinstantofthewave
passage.However,thecombinationoftheuniformshiftin
velocitywiththenoslipconditiongeneratesavortexsheetatthe
pipewall.Thesubsequentdiffusionofthisvortexringfromthe
pipewalltothepipecoreisthemechanismresponsiblefor
changingtheturbulenceconditionsinthepipe.
Ashorttimeafterthewavepassage,theextentofvorticitydiffusionis
limitedtoanarrowwallregionandtheturbulenceeldisessentially
frozen.Inthiscase,boththequasisteadyturbulenceand``frozen''
turbulenceassumptionsareequallyapplicable.Asimilarconclusion
wasreachedbyGreenblattandMoss@92# foratemporally
acceleratingow;byTuandRamparian @94#,Breretonetal. @95#,
andAkhavanetal. @96,97# foroscillatoryow;HeandJackson
@93#forramptypetransients;andGhidaouietal.@46#forwater
hammerows.Asthetimeafterthewavepassageincreases,theextent
oftheradialdiffusionofvorticitybecomesmoresignicantand
beginstoinuencethevelocitygradientandturbulencestrengthand
structureinthebufferzone.TheexperimentsofHeandJackson
@93#showthattheaxialturbulentuctuationsaretherstto
respondtothechangesintheradialgradientofthevelocityprole
andthatthereisatimedelaybetweenthechangesintheaxial
turbulentuctuationsanditsredistributionamongtheradialand
azimuthalturbulentcomponents.Theproductionofaxialturbulent
kineticenergyandthetimelagbetweenproductionandredistribution
ofaxialturbulentkineticenergywithinthebufferzonearenot
incorporatedinsteadystatebasedturbulencemodels.The
characteristicsoftheowinthecoreregionwillstarttochangeonly
whenthewaveinducedshearpulseemergesfromthebufferzoneinto
thecoreregion.Onthebasisoftheirunsteadyowexperiments,He
and
Jackson@93#providedanestimateforthetimedelayfromthe
momentthewallvortexringwasgeneratedatthepipewalltothe
momentwhensignicantchangesinthestructureandstrengthof
turbulenceappearednearthepipeaxis.
Ghidaouietal.@46#proposedadimensionlessparameterPfor
assessingtheaccuracyofquasisteadyturbulencemodelinginwa
terhammerproblems.Thisparameterisdenedastheratioofthe
timescaleofradialdiffusionofvorticitytothepipecoretothe
timescaleofwavepropagationfromoneendofthepipetothe
other.Thisparameterprovidesameasureforthenumberoftimes
awavefronttravelsfromoneendofthepipetotheotherbefore
thepreexistingturbulenceconditionsstarttorespondtothetran
sientevent.Itfollowsthatthefrozenandquasisteadyassump
tionsare~i!acceptablewhenP@1,~ii!questionablewhenPis
oforder1,and~iii!applicablewhenP!1.However,thelastcase
doesnotbelongtothewaterhammerregime.Theseconclusions
aresupportedbytheworkofGhidaouietal.@46#,wherethey
comparedtheresultsofquasisteadyturbulencemodelswith
availabledataandbytheworkofGhidaouiandMansour@32#
wheretheycomparedtheresultsoffrozeneddyviscositymodels
withexperimentaldata.
8
TwoDimensionalMassandMomentum
Equations
Quasitwodimensionalwaterhammersimulationusingturbulence
modelscan~i!enhancethecurrentstateofunderstandingofenergy
dissipationintransientpipeow,~ii!providedetailedinformation
abouttransportandturbulentmixing~importantforconducting
transientrelatedwaterqualitymodeling!,and~iii!providedata
neededtoassessthevalidityof1Dwaterhammermodels.Examples
ofturbulencemodelsforwaterhammerproblems,theirapplicability,
andtheirlimitationscanbefoundinVardyandHwang@25#,Silva
ArayaandChaudhry@37,98#,Pezzinga@38,44#,Eichingerand
Lein @45#,Ghidaouietal. @46#,andOhmi etal.@99#.The
governingequationsforquasitwodimensionalmodelingare
discussedinthissection.Turbulencemodelsandnumericalsolutions
arepresentedinsubsequentsections.
Themostwidelyusedquasitwodimensionalgoverningequations
weredevelopedbyVardyandHwang@25#,Ohmietal.@99#,
WoodandFunk@100#,andBratland@101#.Althoughtheseequa
tionsweredevelopedusingdifferentapproachesandarewrittenin
differentforms,theycanbeexpressedasthefollowingpairof
continuityandmomentumequations:
g
]H
]H]u
1 ]r v
1u
1v
52g
1
(43)
1u
]t
]x
]r
1
]x
rr
]r
50
(42)
]t
wherex,t,u,H,raredenedasbefore,v(x,r,t)5local
radialvelocity,andt5shearstress.Inthissetofequations,
compressibilityisonlyconsideredinthecontinuityequation.
Radialmomentumisneglectedbyassumingthat]H/]r50,and
theseequationsare,therefore,onlyquasitwodimensional.The
shearstresstcanbeexpressedas
]x
]u
]x
t5rn ]r 2ru 8v8

(44)
whereu8andv85turbulenceperturbationscorrespondingtolon
gitudinalvelocityuandradialvelocityv,respectively.Turbu
lencemodelsareneededtodescribetheperturbationterm
]r
2ru 8v8 sincemostpracticalwaterhammerowsareturbulent.

Thegoverningequationscanbefurthersimpliedbyneglecting
nonlinearconvectiveterms,asisdoneinthe1Dcasesincethe
wavespeedaisusuallymuchlargerthantheowvelocityuorv.
Thentheequationsbecomethefollowing:
]u
]u
g
]H
]u
]H
1 ]r t
]u
1]rv
]t
1
]x
1
r
]r
50
(45)
2
]u
1g
]H
1
]r t
9.1FiveRegionTurbulenceModel.Themodelusedby
(46)VardyandHwang@25#isadirectextensionofthemodeldevel
]t
]x
rr
]r
opedbyKitaetal.@103#forsteadyow
Thesegoverningequationsareusuallysolvedby
numericalmeans.
Foranadequatelyanchoredorrestrainedpipe,i.e.,
thepipeisrigidandtheradialvelocityatthepipe
walliszero.Fromowsymmetry,theradialvelocity
atthecenterlineisalsozero.IntegratingEq.~45!
acrossthepipesection,theradialvelocityvanishes,
leavingthefollowing:
]r
]r
t5r~ n1e !
]u
5rnT
]u
(50)
wheree5eddyviscosity,nT5totalviscosity,andthe
othertermswerepreviouslydened.Thetotal
viscositydistributioniscompartmentalizedintove
regionsasfollows:
]H
a2
]Q
]t
50
1
gA
]x
1.viscouslayer
]u
]H
2.bufferIlayer
3.bufferIIlayer
1]rt
nT
5C
nT
]t
1g
]x
nT
r r ]r
1
Q~x,t!5
udA
<y *<
5ay *
51
0<y*<
n
n
a
a
(51)
CB
(52)
whereQ5discharge.Theseequationsarethesameas
thosepresentedbyPezzinga@38#.
Incaseswheretheradialvelocitycomponent~mass
ux!isnegligible,Eqs.~47!~49!canbeusefully
applied.However,theinclusionofradialuxesin
Eqs.~45!and~46!removetheinconsistencythat
occursnearboundaryelementsduetothesimulta
neousimpositionofthenoslipconditionandthe
planewaveassumption@24#.Sincenumerical
integrationofEq.~49!isneededtorelatevelocity
distributiontodischarge,evenverysmallerrorsfrom
neglectingradialuxescanproducespurious
oscillationsinpressureheadcalculations.
Ghidaoui@26#derivedquasitwodimensional
equationsfromthecomplete3Dcontinuityequation
andNavierStokesequationsusinganensemble
averagingprocessinwhichtheassumptionsinherent
inthequasitwodimensionalequations~suchasow
axisymmetryandtheplanewaveassumption!are
madeexplicit.Thescalinganalysis@26#showsthat
theviscoustermsassociatedwiththecompressibility
oftheuidaresignicantlysmallerthantheviscous
termassociatedwithangulardeformation.Therefore,
thecompressibilityisneglectedinthemomentum
equationsofboth1Dand2Dmodels.
InSilvaArayaandChaudhry@37,98#and
EichingerandLein@45#,anintegrationofthe
momentumequationisalsocarriedout. Ineachcase,
thesystemreducestoa1Dformulation.Thequasi
twodimensionalmomentumEq.~46!isonlyusedto
provideanunsteadyfrictioncorrectionfor1D
governingequations.Thesecorrectionsinclude:~i!
anenergydissipationfactor,whichistheratioofthe
energydissipationcalculatedfromthecrosssectional
velocitydistributiontothatcalculatedfromthe
DarcyWeisbachformula@37,98#or~ii!direct
calculationofwallshearstress,eitherbyvelocity
gradientatthepipewallorthroughenergydissi
pation@45#.
TurbulenceModels
Turbulencemodelsareneededtoestimatethe
turbulentpertur
bationtermfor2ru8v8.Inthewaterhammer
literature,thewidelyusedturbulencemodelsare
algebraicmodels@25,37,38,98,99# inwhicheddy
viscosityisexpressedassome algebraicfunctionof
themeanoweld.Othersophisticatedmodels
~suchasthek2emodel,whichrequireadditional
differentialequationsforeddyviscosity!havealso
beentried@45#.Similarresultsforthepressurehead
traceshavebeenobtained.
ThealgebraicturbulencemodelsusedbyVardyand
Hwang@25# andPezzinga @38# arediscussed
furthertoillustratesome featuresofalgebraic
turbulencemodels.Thesemodelswerecom
parativelystudiedbyGhidaouietal.@46#.The
comparisonshowsthatverysimilardissipationis
producedbythetwomodels.Otherdifferent
variationsofalgebraicturbulencemodelsare
availableinRodi@102#.
C
B
C
2
1k /4C
m
*
a
<y
<
(53)
B
4.
logarithmic
region
nT
5ky *@1 2~ k/4C m !~ y * / R *!#
1k /4C
m
<y *<
2Cm~11A12Cc/Cm!R*
(54)
nT
<R *
(55)
wherey5R2r,y*5u*y/n,R*5u*R/n,u*5Atw/r,andthe
coefcientsarea50.19,CB50.011,k50.41,Cm50.077,and
5.
coreregion
5C R
2Cm~11A12Cc/Cm!R*<y*
Cc5afunctionofReynoldsnumber~usuallyavalue
of0.06isused!.Thetotalviscositydistribution
dependsonfrictionvelocityu*andpositionyonly.
Thisistrueforsteadyowsinceallinformationat
interiorpointswillultimatelypropagatetothewall
boundary.Givensufcienttime,thevelocityprole
adjustsandnallydependsonwallshearstressonly.
However,thismodelmaybeproblematicfor
unsteadyowsincetheinteriorconditionscannot
solelyberepresentedbywallshearstress.
9.2TwoLayerTurbulenceModel.Inthetwolayer
turbulencemodel,owisdividedintotwolayers:~i!
asmoothpipe,viscoussublayerisassumedtoexist
nearthewall;and~ii!outsidetheviscoussublayer,
thePrandtlmixinglengthhypothesisisused
1.
viscoussublayer
e50
y
<11.63
(56)
2.
turbulentregion
e5l
]u
*
y*>11.63
(57)
R
]r
where
k50.37410.0132ln
83100
11
D
(59)
Re
5k
e 2( y / R )
(58)
lation,butoneshouldnotethattheexpressionfor
mixinglengthandtheempiricalcoefcientkare
basedonsteadyowequivalents.
Ghidaouietal.@46#comparedbothmodels~i.e.,
theveregionandthetwolayermodel!and
obtainedverysimilarresultsforpressurehead
estimates.Thecomparativestudysuggeststhatthe
pressureheadisnotsensitivetoeddyviscosity
distributioninthepipecoreregion.Asthesemodels
arebasedonsteadyowprinciples,theapplicationof
thesemodelstounsteadyowproblemsimplicitly
andinwhichl5mixinglengthandRe5Reynolds
numberforinitialow.Thethicknessoftheviscous
sublayerisdeterminedbythewallshearstress.The
eddyviscosityintheturbulentregionincludessome
informationaboutthevelocityprole.Thetwolayer
modelappearstobemoresuitableforunsteadyow
simu
includesthequasisteadyassumptionsdiscussedin
Section7.
Thesealgebraicturbulencemodelsarewidelyused,
mainlybecauseoftheirsimplicityandrobustness.As
morepowerfulcomputersbecomeavailableand
improvementsaremadetonumericalsolution
techniques,detailedturbulencestructuresmaybe
obtainedusingmoresophisticatedturbulencemodels,
suchasthetwoequationk2emodels,orperhaps
evenReynoldsstressmodels,forwhichnoeddy
viscosityhypothesisisneeded.
Allofthemodelsmentionedabovearebasedonthe
ReynoldsaveragedNavierStokes~RANS!equation.
Theaveragingprocessisclearlyatimeaverageand
validforsteadyows.Forunsteadyows,theuseof
thetimeaverageishighlyquestionableunlessthe
unsteadinesshasamuchlargertimescalethanthe
timescaleofturbulence.Obviously,thisisnotthe
caseforfasttransients.
Asanalternative,largeeddysimulation~LES!has
beendevelopedrecently.InLES,theNavierStokes
equationisltered,largescalemotionisresolved
whilethesmallscalemotionismodeled.Ifresults
fromLESwereavailable,thensomeofthe
assumptionsmentionedpreviouslycould,in
principle,bemorerigorouslyevaluated.
Unfortunately,incarryingoutLES,afull3Dsystem
ofequationsmustbesolvedusingverynegrids
@104#.Forsteadyowsimulations,whenthe
turbulencestatistics reachsteady,theensemble
averagecanbeobtainedoveratimeintervalfroma
singlerun@104#.However,theensembleaverage
cannotbeobtainedfromasinglerunfortransient
ow.Therequirementofmanyrunsmakesthe
resultingcomputationalprocessprohibitivelytime
consuming.Asyet,suchanalyseshavenotbeen
performedinpipetransients.
10
NumericalSolutionfor2DProblems
The2Dgoverningequationsareasystemof
hyperbolicparabolicpartialdifferentialequations.
Thenumericalsolutionof
VardyandHwang@25#solvesthehyperbolicpart
ofgoverningequationsbyMOCandtheparabolic
partusingnitedifference.Thishybridsolution
approachhasseveralmerits.First,thesolution
methodisconsistentwiththephysicsoftheowsince
itusesMOCforthewavepartandcentral
differencingforthediffusionpart.Second,theuseof
MOCallowsmodelerstotakeadvantageofthe
wealthofstrategies,methods,andanalysisdeveloped
inconjunctionwith1DMOCwaterhammermodels.
Forexample,schemesforhandlingcomplex
boundaryelementsandstrategiesdevelopedfor
dealingwiththe1DMOCdiscretizationproblem
~e.g.,wavespeedadjustmentandinterpolation
techniques! canbe adaptedtoquasitwodimensional
MOCmodels.Third,althoughtheradialmassuxis
oftensmall,itsinclusioninthecontinuityequationby
VardyandHwang@25#ismorephysicallycorrect
andaccurate.Amajordrawbackofthenumerical
modelofVardyandHwang@25#,however,isthatit
iscomputationallydemanding.Infact,theCPUtime
3
requiredbytheschemeisoftheorderNr whereNr
5numberofcomputationalreachesintheradialdirec
tion.VardyandHwang'sschemewasmodiedby
ZhaoandGhidaoui@105#toamuchmoreefcient
form.TheCPUtimerequiredisreducedtoorderNr,
makingtheschememoreamenabletoapplicationto
thequasitwodimensionalmodelingofpipenetworks
andforcouplingwithsophisticatedturbulence
models.Severalnumericalschemesforquasitwo
dimensionalmodelingaresummarizedinthe
followingmaterial.
10.1VardyHwangScheme.Thecharacteristic
formof
Eqs.~45!and~46!isasfollows@25#:
dHadu
2
a 1]qa1]~rt!
52
(60)
dt
g
dt
56a
g
r
]r
g
rr
dt
]r
whereq5rv.
ThepipeisdividedintoNrcylindersofvarying
thickness.Atagiventimetandlocationxalongthe
pipe,twoequationsapplytoeachcylinder.Since
thereareNrcylindersintotal,thetotalnumberof
equationsis2Nr.Therefore,thegoverning
equationsforallcylinderscanbewritteninmatrix
formasfollows:Az5b,where A isa2 Nr 32 Nr
matrixwhoseformisasfollows:
along
dx
Fg 1eC
1
a
1
1eC ~ 1 !
g u2
u 2~
eC u 1~ j !
2uC q 1~ j !
1eC u 2~ j !
uC q 2~ j !
2eC u 1~ j !
2uC q 1~ j !
a
uC q 2~ j !
1eC u 2~ j !
uC q 2~ 1 !2eC u 3~ 1 !
2eC u 1~ Nr !
2uC q 1~ Nr !
uC q 2~ 1 !
2eC
eC u 3~ 1 !
~ j !
u3
eC u 3~ j !
g 1eC u 2~ Nr !
Fga 1eC
eC u 1~ Nr !
where
j5indexalongradial
direction;
associatedwithradial
ux
q;
5H i
1
n 11
n 11
n 11
n1 1
n1
, u i ,1 , q i ,1 , , u i , j , q i , j
,,u
62 Vol. 58, JANUARY

2005
2uC q 1~ Nr !
Cu1,Cu2,Cu35coefcients
associatedwithaxialvelocityu;Cq1,Cq25coefcients
and
e
andu
are
weightingcoefcients.Theunknownvectorz
u 2~
Nr !
n11
n11
n11
T
,q
,u
i,Nr21 i,Nr
inwhichi5indexalongaxial
directionandthesuperscriptTde
i,Nr21
notesthetransposeoperatorandb5aknownvectorthatdependsonheadandvelocityattimeleveln.Therefore,thesolutionforhead,
andlongitudinalandradialvelocities,involvestheinversionofa2Nr32Nrmatrix.ThesparsenatureofAisthereasontheschemeis
inefcient.
ImprovingtheefciencyoftheVardyHwangschemeisessentialifquasitwodimensionalmodelsaretobecomewidelyacceptedas
toolsforanalyzingpracticalpipesystemsorforconductingnumericalexperiments.Algebraicmanipulationofthecoefcientmatrix
leadstoahighlyefcientschemeinwhichtheoriginalsystembecomestwosubsystemswithtridiagonalcoefcientmatrices
expressedasthefollowing:Bu5buandCv5bv,whereBisatridiagonalNr3Nrmatrixgivenby
1
a
2eC u 3~ 1 !
1eC u 2~ 1
2eC u 1~ j !
a
2eC u 3~ j !
1eC u 2~ j !
2eC u 1~ Nr !
a
1eC u 2~ Nr !
Theunknownvectoru5$u
11
n 1 1
n 1 1 T
i,1 ,,u i, j ,,u i, Nr % representslongitudinalowvelocity;buisaknownvectorwhose
elementsdependonH,u,andqattimeleveln;andCisatridiagonalNr3Nrmatrixgivenby
1
uC q 2~ 1 !
0
2@uC q 1~ 2 !1uC q 2~ 1 !#
uC q 2~ 2 !
uC q 2~ j !
uC q 1~ j 21 !
2@uC q 1~ j !1uC q 2~ j 21 !#
D
2@uC q 1~ Nr !1uC q 1~ Nr 21 !#
uC q 1~ Nr 21 !
rithm.
n11
n11
n11
T
Lastly,v5$Hi
PezzingaScheme.ThenumericalsolutionbyPezzinga@38#
solvesforpressureheadusingexplicitFDfromthecontinuityEq.
~47!.Oncethepressureheadhasbeenobtained,themomentum
Eq.~48!issolvedbyimplicitFDforvelocityproles.This
velocitydistributionisthenintegratedacrossthepipesectionto
calculatethetotaldischarge.Theschemeisfastduetodecou
plingofthecontinuityandmomentumequationsandtheadoption
ofthetridiagonalcoefcientmatrixforthemomentumequation.
Ithasbeenappliedtonetworksimulations.
headandradialvelocitiesandbv5aknownvectorwhoseele
mentsdependonH,u,qattimeleveln.Inversionoftridiagonal
systemscanbeperformedefcientlybyusingtheThomasalgo
Whiletheschemeisefcient,theauthorshavefoundthatthereis
adifcultyinthenumericalintegrationstep.Sincetheintegra
tioncanonlybeapproximated,someerrorisintroducedinthis
stepthatleadstospuriousoscillationsinthesolutionforpressure.
isanunknownvectorof
,q
i,1
%
, q
i,Nr21
Togetridoftheseoscillations,alargenumberofreachesinthe
radialdirectionmayberequiredoraniterativeproceduremay
needtobeused@37#.
OtherSchemes.InOhmietal.@99#,theaveraged1Dequations
aresolvedtoproducepressureandmeanvelocity.Thepressure
gradientisthenusedtocalculateavelocityproleusingthe
quasitwodimensionalmomentumequation,fromwhichwall
shearstressisdetermined.
AsimilarprocedureisusedinEichingerandLein@45#.One
dimensionalequationsarerstsolvedtoobtainthepressuregra
dient.ThispressuregradientisusedtosolveEq.~46!usinga
nitedifferencemethod.Theeddyviscosityisobtainedfromak
2emodel.Oncethevelocityproleisknown,thefrictionterm
canbecalculatedfromthevelocitygradientatthewall,whichis
thenusedinthe1Dequations.Aniterativeprocedureisemployed
inthiscalculationtoobtaineddyviscosity.Althoughtheremight
besomedifferencebetweenthedischargecalculatedfrom1D
equationsandthatobtainedfromthevelocityproleintegration,
itisneglected,sincethecalculationofthevelocityproleisonly
usedtoestimatethefrictionterm.Thislatterdifferencehasonlya
minorinuenceonthecalculationoftheunsteadyfrictionterm,as
arguedbyEichingerandLein@45#.
SilvaArayaandChaudhry's@37,98#procedureissimilartothe
foregoingmethods.Oncethevelocityisobtained,energydissipa
tionanddischargecanbecalculated.Thedissipationisusedto
estimateanenergydissipationratio,whichprovidesacorrection
factorforthefrictionterminthe1Dequations.Theadjusted1D
equationsarethensolvedtogiveanewdischarge,whichiscom
paredtothatcalculatedfromvelocityproleintegration.Ifthe
differenceissmall~say,lessthan5%!,thecalculationproceedsto
thenexttimestep.Otherwise,thepressuregradientisadjusted,
andtheprocedureisrepeated.Amixinglengthalgebraicturbu
lencemodel~smoothpipe,@37#,roughpipe@98#!isusedin
thecalculationofthevelocityprole.
11
Thenotionofboundaryconditionsasappliedtotheanalysisof
uidtransientproblemsisanalogousto,butslightlydifferent
from,theconventionaluseoftheterminologyinsolvingdifferen
tialequations.Justasa``boundaryvalue''probleminthemath
ematicalsenseimpliesconditionsthatmustbesatisedatthe
edgesofthephysicaldomainoftheproblem,boundaryconditions
inuidtransientsimpliestheneedforadditionalheaddischarge
relationstodescribephysicalsystemcomponentssuchaspumps,
reservoirsandvalves.Thus,oneormoresimpliedauxiliaryre
lationscanbespeciedtosolveforpiezometrichead,owveloc
ity,orothervariablesassociatedwiththephysicaldevicesthem
selves.Examplesofboundaryconditionsinclude,butarenot
limitedto,valves,nozzles,pumps,turbines,surgetanks,air
valves,tanksandreservoirs,heatexchangers,condensersand
manyotherapplicationspecicdevices.
Thissectionofthepaperdiscussesageneralizedapproachto
incorporatingboundaryconditionswithinthemethodofcharac

teristicsframeworkthatpreservesthecomplexphysicalandtopo
logicalcharacterofthecompressibleuidsystem.Theapproach
utilizesunambiguousdenitionsofthenodes,links,andboundary
conditionsthatrepresentthecomponentsofaphysicalpipesystemor
network.Attentionisrestrictedtothemethodofcharacteristics
50
solutionbecauseitisthemostpowerfulandphysicallyconsistent
(61)
methodfordealingwithphysicallyandbehaviorallycomplexdevices
withoutimposingunrealisticordifcultmodicationstothe
]t
numericalscheme.Thediscussionbeginsbyreviewingthegoverning
equationsandtheformofthemethodofcharacteristicssolutionthat
]x
hasbeendevelopedforthispurpose.
11.1GoverningEquationsandTheirSolution.Two
equationsarelationofmassconservationandamomentum
equationaregenerallyusedtomodeltransientowinclosed
conduits~e.g.,@2023#!,whichcanbewrittenfromEqs.~20!,
~21!,and ~28! as
2D
]V
]H
]H
fVuVu
a2
]V
1g
BoundaryConditions
whereB5a/gAand
R5
50
(62)
fDx
(64)
]t
g
]x
2gDA
Tobecompatible,xandVmustbepositiveinthesamedirection.
Equations~61!and~62!arevalidaslongastheowis1D,the
conduitproperties~diameter,wavespeed,temperature,etc!are
constant,the``convective''andslopetermsaresmall,andthe
frictionforcecanbeapproximatedbytheDarcyWeisbachfor
mulaforsteadyow.Inaddition,itisusuallyassumedthatthe
frictionfactorfiseitherconstantorweaklydependentonthe
Reynoldsnumber.Notethat,forsimplicity,theshearmodelinthe
momentumEq.~61!aboveisequivalenttoEq.~41!withoutthe
convolutionterm.Othershearmodelscanbereadilyadaptedfor
useintheboundaryconditionframeworkdescribedherein.
Becausetheequationsgoverningtransientuidowcanseldom
besolvedanalytically,numericalsolutionsareusedtoap
proximatethesolution.Themostwidelyusedprocedureisthe
xedgridmethodofcharacteristics,whichhasthedesirableat
tributesofaccuracy,simplicityandnumericalefciency.The
methodisdescribedinmanystandardreferencesincluding
Chaudhry@20#andWylieetal.@23#.Again,theprocedures
describedherecanbeeasilyadaptedforusewithanyoftheinter
polation,reachback,reachout,andwavespeedorpipelength
adjustmentschemesmentionedpreviously.
Inessence,themethodofcharacteristicscombinesthemomen
tumandcontinuityequationstoformacompatibilityexpression
intermsofdischargeQandheadH,thatis
dH6BdQ6
QuQudx50
(63)
Dx
ThisequationisvalidonlyalongthesocalledC andC char

acteristiccurvesdenedby
dx
(65)
dt 56a
Forthisreason,thextgridinFig.6ischosentoensureDx
56aDt.Then,ifthedependentvariablesareknownat A and B ,
Eq.~63!canbeintegratedalongbothAPandBP.Integrationof
thersttwotermsisstraightforward,whilethethirdrequiresthe
variationofQwithxtobeknown.Althoughthisfunctionis
generallyunknown,thetermcanusuallybeapproximated@23#.
AconvenientlinearizationoftheAtoPintegrationisgivenby
KarneyandMcInnis@106#asfollows:
Fig. 6 Method of characteristics grid
E QuQudx 5@Q
P
1e~ Q
2Q
!#uQ
AuDx
BM5B1eRuQBu
(72)
(66)
Inmorecomplexsystems,asubscripttoindicatethepipenumber
isoftenaddedtotheseequations.AtpointsPinternaltoapipe
line,HPcanbeeliminatedfromEqs.~67!and~68!toobtain
inwhichueu<1.
Thislinearizationofthefrictiontermincludesthe``classical''QAuQ
AuDxapproximation(e50.0)andthe``modied''QPuQAuDx
linearization(e51.0)asspecialcases.Theapproximationassociated
withe50.0hasbeentraditionallyemployed,butistroublesomefor
highfrictioncases;themodiedlinearizationisoftenmoreaccurate
andhasimprovedstabilityproperties@107#,buthasnotyetbeen
universallyadopted.NotonlydoesEq. ~66! allowasingleprogram
tobeusedforbothapproximations, butintermediatevaluesofecan
beusedtooptimizeaccuracyforagivenDt.Preliminaryresults
indicatevaluesnear0.81arewellsuitedtomostapplications.Higher
orderapproximationsoftheenergylosstermcanalsobe
incorporated,butgenerallyrequireiterativesolutionprocedures.The
linearizedrstorderapproachesresultinexplicitformulationsand
provideacceptableresultsovertheinitialwavecycleforsystemsof
lowtomoderatefriction.
QP5
CP2CM
(73)
BP1BM
IfEq.~63!isintegratedasillustratedabove,twoequationscanbe
writtenfortheunknownsatP
HP5CP2BPQP
(67)
and
HP5CM1BMQP
(68)
inwhich
Attheendsofaconduit,however,thesolutionofthecharacter
isticequationsisalgebraicallycomplicatedbyoneormore
``boundaryconditions.''
CP5HA1QA@B2RuQAu~12e!#
(69)
11.2BoundaryConditions.Thesubjectofwhatconstitutesa
boundaryconditioncanbetreatedgenerally.Karney@108#pre
sentsconciseterminologyfordescribingpipenetworksand
boundaryconditions.Hisnomenclatureisfollowedthroughout
thispaperandisbrieyreviewedhere.Oncethetimedomainis
BP5B1eRuQAu
(70)
CM5HB2QB@B2RuQBu~12e!#
(71)

Fig. 7 Generalized node with one external ow
discretizedintoDtsegments,mostconduitsinthenetworkare
dividedintooneormorereachesoflengthDx.Forclarity,the
term``pipe''ishenceforthrestrictedtoconduitscontainingatleast
onecharacteristicreach.Theendofeachreach,whereheadand
owvaluesmustbedetermined,iscalledasection.Atsections
internaltoapipe,thedischargecanbeobtainedfromEq.~73!.
However,ateachendofthepipe,anauxiliaryrelationbetween
headanddischargemustbespecied.Suchaheaddischargere
lationiscalledaboundarycondition.
Theterm``node''isusedhereintoindicatealocationwhereboundary
sectionsmeet.Thedegreeofanodeisthenumberofpipes~i.e.,
characteristicsections!connectedtoit.However,inageneral
network,notonlypipesmaybeconnectedtoanode,butvariousother
elementsaswell.Forexample,anodemayrepresentasuctionor
dischargeangeofapump,thelocationofavalvedischargingfrom
thenetwork,oraconnectionforapressurereliefvalve.Allsuch
nonpipejunctionsarelabeledexternalandthenumberofsuch
connectionsiscalledthecomplexityofthenode.Anodeof
complexityzeroiscalledsimple,anodeofcomplexityoneordinary,
andanodeofcomplexitygreaterthanonecomplex.Inthispaper,
boundaryconditionsassociatedwithcomplexnodesarereferredtoas
boundarysystems.Generally,thedifcultyofsolvinganetwork
increasesasthecomplexityofthenodesinthenetworkincreasesbut,
asthefollowingsectionshows,isindependentofthedegreeofany
nodeinthenetwork.Theterminologyrelatedtonodescanbe
extendedinanaturalwaytonetworksaswellandhasbeenusedby
Karney@109#todevelopageneralapproachforanalyzingcomplex
networks.
proposedbyKarney@108#.Itdiffersfromthelatteronlybythe
inclusionofthevariablefrictiontermlinearization.
ForallpipesbelongingtothesetN1,Eq.~67!holdswhileEq.
~68! appliesformembersof N2 .Theseequationscanberear
rangedtoobtain
QP52
1
11.2.1
SimpleandOrdinaryOneNodeBoundaryConditions.
Junctionsofseveralpipesareusuallymodeledasfrictionlessin
transientowapplications~e.g.,@109,110#!.Complications
arisingbyattemptingtocalculatejunctionlossesatageneral
nodeareconsiderableandarenotdiscussedinthispaper.
Generally,energylossesatjunctionsarerelativelysmalland
neglectingthemdoesnotappeartosignicantlyimpairthe
accuracyofthemethodofcharacteristicssolutionforasimple
pipejunction.
Pi
,
iPN1
(74)
BP
Theassumptionthatlocallossesarenegligibleisequivalentto
representingthehydraulicgradelineelevationatthenodebya
singlenumber,designatedHP.
BP
ConsidernowFig.7,whichdepictsajunctionofanynumberofpipes
atanode.LetN1bethesetofallpipeswhoseassumedowdirection
istowardthenodeinquestionandN2bethesetofpipeswhose
assumedowdirectionisawayfromthenode.Letoneowbe
identiedasexternalandgovernedbyanauxiliaryrelation.Positive
owsareassumedtobefromthejunction.Thefollowingderivationis
similartothatappearinginChapter11ofFluidTransientsbyWylie
andStreeter@22#,butusesthenotation
and
2Q P
52
HP
1
Mj
,
jPN2
(75)
BM
BM
inwhichthesecondsubscriptrepresentsthevariableatthebound
arysectionofaparticularpipeintheset.
Thecontinuityequationforthejunctionrequiresthesumofthe
owsenteringthenodetoequalthesumoftheowsleavingthe
node
(Q
2
(Q
P i
(76)
P j
2Q
ext
50
iPN1
BC5
jPN2
Equations~74!and~75!canbesubstituteddirectlyintoEq.~76!
toproducethefollowingexpressionforHP:
HP5CC2BCQext
(77)
(78)
inwhich
S
BMj
iPN1 Pi
jPN2
(
1
1
1
and
(
S
21
D
CC5BC
Mj
iPN1
jPN2
(
Equation~77!representsasinglerelationshipbetweenjunction
CP
i
CM
j
(79)
headHPandexternalowQextinamultipipefrictionlessjunc
1
tion.TheformofthisequationisequivalenttothesingleC
compatibilityEq.~67!andshowsthatanyonenodeboundary
conditionlocatedinanetworkcanbeevaluatedinexactlythe
samemannerasiftheboundaryconditionoccurredatthedown
streamendofasinglepipe.
Onceafunctionalrelationshiprepresentingaparticularhydraulic
deviceissubstitutedintoEq.~77!,asingleequationandunknown
results.Ifthisrelationshipiseitherlinearorquadratic,anexplicit
formulafortheunknowncanbeobtained.
Forexample,thesimplestboundaryconditionoccurswhenQext
iseitherconstantoraknownfunctionoftime~e.g.,constant
displacementpumpsorxeddemands!.Inthiscase,thevalueof
QextcanbesubstitutedintoEq.~77!toobtainthejunctionhead.
Inparticular,thisequationbecomesHP5CCwhenQextiszero.
ThissolutionforasimplenodeisalgebraicallyequivalenttoEq.
~73!ifthenodehasonlytwopipes.
Comprehensivetreatmentofvariousboundaryconditionssuchas
valves,pumps,turbines,accumulators,airvalvesandmanyothers
canbefoundinWylieetal.@23#,Karney@108#,Chaudhry
@20#,McInnis @111#,KarneyandMcInnis @82#,and
McInnisetal. @112#.Formulationsformanysystemspecic
devicesaboundin theliterature.
12
Pi
WaterHammerSoftware
WiththeadventoftheWindowsoperatingsystem,computer
languagessuchasVisualBasicandVisualC,geographicinforma
tionsystems~GIS!,andtheWorldWideWeb,manywaterham
mermodels,previouslyonlysuitedtoacademicsandexpertengi
neeringpractitioners,arenowaccessibletoeventhemostnovice
analyst.
Inthissection,wedescribeseveralcommerciallyavailablewater
hammersoftwarepackages.Theinformationpresentedhereis
intendedtoaidreadersinlocatingsoftwareappropriatetotheir
waterhammeranalysisneeds.
Itisimportanttonotethattwooftheauthorsofthispaperarealso
authorsofacommerciallyavailablewaterhammersoftware
package.Toavoidanyconictsofinterestandtobefairtoall
waterhammersoftwaredevelopers,acritiqueofeachwaterham
mersoftwarepackageisnotpresentedhere.
Instead,theintentionofthissectionistosummarizethepertinent
featuresofeachcomputermodel.Thesefeaturesinclude,butare
notlimitedto,theavailablehydraulicdevices,selectablesurge
protectionmeasures,inputfacilities,andoutputgraphicalvisual
izationoptions.Alsolistedforeachsoftwarepackageisthenu
mericalmethodusedbythewaterhammermodeltosolvethe
unsteadyowproblem.ThereaderisdirectedtoSec.5forback
groundonthesenumericalmethods.
Eachcomputermodelhasspecialfeaturesthatdistinguishitfrom
theotherreviewedmodels.Thesedifferencesaremostoftenthe
resultofadesiretoserveaspeciccommercialmarket.For
example,somepackagesarebestsuitedtoreprotection
sprinklersystems,fuelingsystems,oroilpipelines,whileothers
areclearlytailoredtolargemunicipalwaterdistributionsystems.
Stillothermodelsspecializeintheanalysisofhydroelectric
systems,sewageforcemains,orindustrialapplicationssuchas
coolingwatersystems.However,despitetheirobviousmarket
focus,itisoftenpossibletoanalyzejustaboutanypipingsystem
witheachofthesemodels.
Thesoftwarepackagesdescribedhereinareinnoparticularorder
andmoreinformationonaproduct~e.g.,uptodatepricing,new
features,computersystemrequirements,etc!canbeobtained
uponbrowsingtheappropriateInternethomepage,whichislisted
attheendofeachreview.Unlessotherwisenoted,thesoftware
packagesreviewedbelowoperatewithinaWindowsbasedenvi
ronment.Pleasealsonotethattheinformationsummarizedbelow
islargelyderivedfromeachwaterhammermodeler'sInternet
homepageandiscurrentatthewritingofthispaper~2003!.
Duetospacelimitations,allofthewaterhammersoftware
packagesnowreadilyavailablecouldnotbeincludedinthissum
mary.Thereaderisencouragedtosearchoutalternativesonthe
Internetpriortoselectingoneofthemodelsdescribedherein.
12.1Pipenet.Thisuidowprogrampredictspressuresurges,
calculateshydraulictransientforces,modelscontrolsystems,and
hasbeencommerciallyavailableforover20years.
Theinterfacedraganddropfacilitiesareusedtobuildasche
maticofthepipelineornetworkandtheassociatedboundaryde
vices.Pipeschedulesaswellastting,lining,pumpandvalve
dataareprovidedonlinefortheuser'sconvenience.Theusercan
specifytheunitsofboththeinputandoutputdata.Fluidproper
tiessuchasviscosityandspecicgravitycanalsobeinputbythe
user.Boundarydevicesincludepumps,airchambers,reservoirs,
tanks,caissons,vacuumreliefvalves,checkvalves,owcontrol
valves,surgereliefvalves,andairreleasevalves.
PIPENETperformsasurgeanalysisusingthemethodofcharac
teristicsandcalculatespressuresandowratesatnodes,pipes,
andboundarydevices,aswellastransientpressureforceson
pipesandbends.Asanoption,theprogramcalculatestheforma
tion,growth,andcollapseofavaporcavityifthepressureinthe
pipesystemdropstovaporpressure.PIPENETalsohasfacilitiesfor
incorporatingcontroltheory~e.g.,proportional,integral,deriva
tiveloops!intheoperationofpumpsandvalves.Notethata
specialmoduleisavailableforanalyzingsprinklersystems.
Outputdatacanbeplottedastimehistoryplots,eachwithuser
denedtitles.Examplesincludepressureandowratetimehis
toryplotsatnodes,pipesections,orboundarydevices.Inaddi
tion,graphsofuidlevelinanairchamberversussimulationtime
maybeplotted~Contact:www.sunrisesys.com!.
HAMMER.WithHAMMER,aschematicofthepipinglayoutfor
bothpipelinesandnetworkscanbedrawnonscreenandgroups
ofhydraulicelementsduplicatedtosavetimeduringtheinput
process.Asaninitialcondition,steadystatedatacanbeimported
fromEPANETandWATERCAD.Someoftheavailableboundary
devicesincludepumps,airvessels,opensurgetanks,reservoirs,
surgecontrolvalves,vacuumreliefandairreleasevalves,and
bypasslineswithcheckvalves.
Commerciallyavailableforover15years,thismethodof
characteristicsbasedmodelcanbeusedtosimulatepumppower
failure,valveclosure,pipebreaks,andpumpstartup.Time
historyanimationsandplotsoftransientpressure,owrate,and
airorvaporvolumeatnodesandalongpipesareavailablefor
bothpipelinesandnetworks.Themodelalsoproducesprole
viewsofnetworkpipelinepaths,showingtheinitialsteadystate
pressureaswellasthemaximumandminimumpressure
envelopes~Contact:www.ehg.dns2go.com!.
HYTRAN.Draganddropfacilitiesenableonscreenconstruction
ordeletionofapipelineornetworkineitherplanorprole
views.Alternatively,node,pipe,andboundarydevicedatacanbe
directlyimportedfromEPANET.Someoftheselectableboundary
devicesincludepumps,turbines,airchambers,vacuumrelief
valves,checkvalves,tanks,reservoirs,pressurereliefvalves,
pressureregulatingvalves,anddemands.Onlinehelp,including
adatabaseofvalvecoefcientsandpipematerialproperties,is
availabletotheuser.
Amethodofcharacteristicsbasedsolvergeneratespressureand
owratehistorytracesatnodesandalongthepipelinefollowing
pumppowerfailureorstartup.Inaddition,thecomputedtransient
hydraulicgradelineatanyinstantinsimulationtimecanbeplot
tedincombinationwiththepipelineprole.Pressuretraces,hy
draulicgradelineplots,andpipeowdirectioncanbeanimated
forrealtimeviewing.Acolumnseparationindicatorwarnsthe
userwhencavitationisdetected~contact:www.hytran.net!.
HYPRESS.Thismodelhasanobjectorientedinterfacethatallows
forexibleinputofpipe,node,andboundarydevicedatafor
pipelinesandnetworks.Someoftheboundarydevicesthatcanbe
representedbythemodelincludepumps,turbines,valves,
reservoirs,surgechambers,andairvessels.
Usingafourthorderimplicitnitedifferencebasednumerical
solver,HYPRESScalculatesthemaximum,minimum,andinstan
taneoustransienthydraulicgradelineforapipelinefollowing
pumppowerfailure.Thehydraulicgradelinesareplottedincom
binationwiththepipelineelevationproleandtheinstantaneous
transienthydraulicgradeline,whichcanbeanimatedinrealtime
~Contact:www.hif.cz!.
IMPULSE.Liquidssuchaswater,petroleum,chemicalproducts,
cryogens,andrefrigerantscanallbemodeledusingtheIMPULSE
waterhammermodel.Apipingschematiciscreatedinthe
workspaceusingdraganddropfacilitiesanddatacanbeinput
directlybytheuserorobtainedfromabuiltindatabasecontain
ingpropertiesfornineuidsandeightpipematerials.Someofthe
hydraulicdevicesthatcanbeincorporatedintothepipenetwork
includepumps,reservoirs,liquidaccumulators,gasaccumulators,
vacuumbreakervalves,demands,reliefvalves,andpressurecon
trolvalves.
IMPULSEwillcalculateasystemsteadystateandtransferittothe
methodofcharacteristicssolver.Pipelengthadjustment,as
opposedtowavespeedadjustment,isusedincombinationwith
thetimesteptospatiallydiscretizethepipingnetwork.Insome
cases,thismeansthatthemodeledpipelengthcanapproximate
thetruelengthofthepipe.Transientevents~e.g.,pumppower
failures,pumpstarts,valveclosures,etc!canbeinitiatedbasedon
timeoradevicesetpoint.Liquidcolumnseparation,vaporcavi
tation,andcavitycollapsecanbemodeled.Thismodelwilliden
tifywhenandwheremaximumpressuresoccurandplotowrate,
pressure,andvelocitytimehistories,whichcanbeformattedby

reectionalongpipelineroutesofanetwork~Contact:
www.wldelft.nl/soft/wanda/!.
theuser.Ateachtimeinterval,output,suchasmaximumand
minimumpressures,aretabulatedforeachnode,pipe,andbound
arydevice~Contact:www.aft.com!.
FLOWMASTER.Thismodelcalculatestransientpressuresandow
ratesinpipingnetworks.Inaddition,calculationofheattransfer
andsimulationofpartlyemptypipesegments~e.g.,sprinkler
WANDA.Bothpressurizedandnonpressurizedbranchedand
systems!ispossible.
loopedpipesystemscanbesimulatedwiththiswaterhammer
model.Freesurfaceow~i.e.,apartlylledpipe!ismodeled
usingaconjugategradientmethodwithanupwindadvection
Pipenetworkscanbedrawnonscreenusingalistofpiping
approximation.Theeffectsofdrainingandllingapipelinecan componentsandsomeoftheboundarydevicesthatcanberepre
besimulatedwiththiscomponent.
sentedincludepumps,reservoirs,weirs,orices,valves,accumu
lators,diaphragms,diffusers,heatexchangersandpipettings.
UserdenedboundarydevicescanbeprogrammedineitherFOR
Aschematicofthepipingsystemcanbecreatedonscreenusinga
paletteofboundarydevices.Auserdenedimage~e.g.,astreet
map!canbeimportedasabackgroundtotheschematicand
propertiesofnodes,pipes,andboundarydevicesareinputusing
dialogboxes.Someoftheavailableboundarydevicesincludepumps,
controlvalves,checkvalves,taps,airvessels,airinletvalves,surge
towers,pressurereliefvalves,weirs,andcondensers.
Themethodofcharacteristicsbasedsolvercanbeinterruptedand
resumedduringasimulation.Cavitationandcontroltheory~e.g.,
proportionalintegralderivativeloops,sensors,etc! modules are
optional.Pressureversustimehistoriescanbeplottedatuser
denedlocationswithinthepipesystem.Inaddition,itis
possibletoviewananimationofpressurewavepropagationand
TRANorC.Operationalissuescanbestudiedusingpredened
controllersoruserdenedcontrollersprogrammedinVisualBa
sicorJava.
Themethodofcharacteristicssolvergeneratesresultsthatcanbe
viewedgraphicallyorintabularformats.Notethatinadditionto
liquids,gasowdynamicscanbesimulated~Contact:www
.owmaster.com!.
SURGE2000.Withthismodel,aschematicofthepipinglayout
canbedrawnonscreenandoveritcanbeplacedanimported
backgroundimage,suchasastreetorelevationcontourmap.
Boundarydevicesincludepumps,valves,reservoirs,tanks,air
vessels,airandvacuumvalves,pressurereliefvalves,surge
anticipatingvalves,andheatexchangers.
Thismodelusesthewaveplanmethodasopposedtothemethod
ofcharacteristicsornitedifferencemethodsemployedbythe
othermodelsreviewedinthispaper.Pumppowerfailure,pump
startup,andvalveoperations~e.g.,closure!arejustsomeofthe
unsteadyuidoweventsthatcanbesimulatedwithSURGE2000.
Output,suchaspressures,canbetabulated,plottedascontours
overthesystemmap,anddisplayedintimehistoryplotsatnodes.
Inaddition,foreachpipelinepath,themaximum,minimum,and
instantaneoustransienthydraulicgradelinescanbeplottedonan
elevationversusdistancegraphic~Contact:www.kypipe.com!.
LIQT.Firstintroducedin1972,LIQTcanmodeluidtransientsin
pipelinesandnetworkssubjecttopumppowerfailureandstartup,
turbineloadloss,andvalveclosure.Someoftheboundary
devicesthatcanbeselectedbytheuserincludepumps,turbines,
checkvalves,airandvacuumvalves,surgetanks,standpipes,
accumulators,andpressurereliefvalves.LIQToperateswithina
DOSenvironmentwindowandusesthemethodofchar
acteristicstocomputepressuresandowratesthatcanbeex
portedtospreadsheets,databases,andgraphicsoftwareforpre
sentation~Contact:www.advanticastoner.com!.
WHAMO.Thismodelusesafourpointimplicitnitedifference
methodtocalculatetimevaryingowandheadinpipelinesand
networks.Theusercanselectboundarydevicessuchaspumps,
turbines,valves,tanks,reservoirs,ventedorunventedair
chambers,pressurecontrolvalves,electricgovernors,and
constantortimevaryingdemands.Aschematicofthepiping
systemcanbedrawnonscreenwiththehelpofapaletteof
boundarydevicesymbols.
Bothsteadystateandtransientconditionsaregeneratedand
simulationsofpumppowerfailure,valveclosure,turbineload
rejection,turbinestartup,andgovernorcontrolledturbineopera
tionarepossible~Contact:www.cecer.army.mil/usmt/whamo/
whamo.htm!.
TRANSAM.Usingthismodel,realtime,3D~i.e.,distance,time,
andpressure!animationsofthetransientpressuresurfacecanbe
viewedalonguserdenednetworkandpipelinepaths.Apiping
layoutmapcanbecreatedinadesignatedworkspaceusingpoint
andclickoptionsandacombinationofpulldownmenusand
dialogboxesareavailablefornode,pipe,andboundarydevice
datainput.AnEPANETtoTRANSAMconversionutilityissupplied.
Someoftheboundarydevicesthatcanberepresentedbythis
modelincludepumps,turbines,airchambers,reservoirs,tanks,
owcontrolvalves,airandvacuumreliefvalves,checkvalves,
pressurereliefvalves,surgeanticipatingvalves,pressure
reducing/sustainingvalves,constantandtimevaryingdemands,
andbypasslineswithcheckvalves.
Pumppowerfailureandstartup,variablespeedpumpandvalve
operations~e.g.,fullandpartialopeningsorclosures!,turbine
loadrejection,andpipebreaksarejustsomeoftheeventortime
initiatedunsteadyowconditionsthatcanbesimulatedusingthis
methodofcharacteristicsbasedmodel.Simulationoftheforma
tion,growth,andcollapseofvaporcavitiesisoptional.Timehis
toryplotsofpressure~andowrateatnodes!canbeproducedat
nodesandalongpipes.Realtimeanimationsoftheinstantaneous
transient,maximum,andminimumhydraulicgradelinescanbe
viewedforpipepaths~Contact:www.hydratek.com!.
13
EmergingApplicationsinWaterHammer
Bynow,thereaderislikelyawarethattheprincipaluseof
transientanalysis,bothhistoricallyandpresentday,isthepredic
tionofpeakpositiveandnegativepressuresinpipesystemstoaid
intheselectionofappropriatestrengthpipematerialsandappur
tenancesandtodesigneffectivetransientpressurecontrolsys
tems.
Twoimportantareasinwhichtransientmodelingisnowtakinga
keyroleareparameterestimationforleakagedetectionandwater
qualitypredictionsinpotablewatersystems.Briefdiscussionsof
thesetwoimportantareasofapplicationareprovidedinthis
section.
13.1ParameterEstimationforLeakageDetectionandIn
verseModels.Inmanypipelinerelatedindustries,suchasa
potablewatersupplyorinoilorgastransmission,ownersknow
thatinformationisthekeytosuccessfulmanagementoftheir
pipelineoperation.Forexample,inthecaseofawatersupply,
physicalsystemcharacteristics,customerdata,productionrates,
maintenancerecords,qualityassays,andsoon,eachprovideman
agement,engineering,operations,andmaintenancestaffwithin
formationtheyneedtokeepthesystemrunningefcientlyand
safely,andatareasonablecosttotheconsumer.Alargebodyof
literatureonthesubjectofinformationrequirementsanddata
managementalreadyexists,andallprivateandpublicpipeline
utilitiesareawareoftheimportanceofcollecting,archiving,and
analyzingdata.Perhapsthemostcostlyandtimeconsumingas
pectofinformationmanagement,however,isthecollectionof
data.Thissectionoutlineshowinversetransientanalysiscanbe
appliedtogathersometypesofphysicalsystemdata.Thetech
nologyhasthepotentialtobebothcostefcientandaccurate.

Usinghighfrequencypressuretransducers,itisnowpossibleto
Leastsquaresdatattingisasimpleexampleofaninverse
safelymeasureinduced,ornaturallyoccurring,pressuresurgeevents.
methodthattriestotthebestmathematicalmodel~i.e.,linear,
Couplingwaterhammermodelstoinversemodelsoffersthe
exponential,polynomial,etc!tosomeobserveddataset.The
possibilityofinexpensivedatacollectionwithawidecoverageofthe
``goodnessoft,''i.e.,howwelltheparticularassumedmath
system.Systemdemands,leakage,pipecondition~roughness!,
ematicalmodelrepresentsthedata,canbemeasuredstatistically
closedorpartiallyclosedvalves,evenpocketsoftrappedgasorair
byananalysisoftheerrorsbetweentheobserveddataandthose
can~intheoryatleast!allbedetectedusingrecordedhighfrequency
predictedbythemodel.Infact,theseerrorsareexplicitlymini
pressuredata.Inadditiontopressuremeasurements,transientow
mizedusingLagrangianoptimizationsuchthattheoptimalparam
datacanalsobeusedintheinverseanalysisprocedures.However,
etersetisdirectlysolvedfor.
owmeterscapableofaccuratelyresolvingthevariationinowrates
thatoccursduringwaterhammereventsarequiteexpensiveandmore
Thesameconceptcanbeappliedtomorecomplexphysical
troublesometoinstall.Highfrequencypressuretransducers,onthe
systemsusingsophisticatedmodels.Inaninverseproblem,output
otherhand,arerelativelyinexpensiveandeasytomountatcommon
accesspoints,suchasvalveandmeterchambers,orevenatre
froma``forward''modelisusedtogenerateanestimateofoneor
hydrants.Todate,hydraulicmodelparameterssuchaspipe
roughnessandwavespeedshavebeensuccessfullycalibratedusing
thesetechniques.
13.1.1InverseAnalysisofTransientData.Whetheratransientis
smallorlarge,accidentalorplanned,pressurewavespropagate
fromtheirrespectivepointsoforigintootherpartsofthesystem.
Theytravelatspeedsrangingfromabout250m/stonearly1500
m/s,dependingonpipematerial,soilandanchoringconditions.
Theshockfrontsinteractwithanypartofthesystemthateither
dissipatesenergyordoesworkinathermodynamicsense.Thus,
theenergycontentofthewaveisdiminishedbyvirtueofits
interactionwiththephysicalsystem,anditsfrequency
components,amplitude,phasing,andattenuationcharacteristics
becomemodiedthroughsuccessiveinteractionwiththesystem.
Ineffect,apressuresignalatagivenlocationconstitutesarecord
ofconditionsinthesystemduringthecourseofagiventransient
event.
Decipheringthisrecordofinteractionandextractingitsinformation
contentispreciselywhataninversetransientmodeldoes.Theinverse
modelevaluatestherecordedpressure~orow!signalanddetermines
whichset~orsets!ofsystemparameters,i.e.,piperoughness,water
consumption~leakage!,wavespeed,etc,bestmatchesthemeasured
data.Inthisway,information~data!ofseveraltypescanbegathered
fromthoseareasofthepipesystemthatthetransientwaveshave
traversed.Forexample,pressuretracesfromtwopumptriptestscan
besufcienttoestimatepiperoughnessvaluesforeverymajorpipe
andconsumptionvaluesateachnodeinasmallcity.Ofcourse,the
accuracyoftheestimatescanbeimprovedbyincreasingthenumber
oftestsperformedorbymonitoringpressures~ows!atmorethan
onelocation.
Thereisextensiveliteratureaboutinverseanalysisinbothsci
enticandengineeringjournals.Thetechniqueshavebeen
appliedformanyyearstostructuralengineeringapplicationse.g.,
systemidenticationanddamagedetection@113#.Sykes
@114#,SunandYeh@115#,andSun@116#haveusedinverse
methodstoidentifyparametersin2Dgroundwaterow.Jarnyet
al.@117#appliedtheadjointtechniquetoheatconduction
problems.Cacucietal.@118#andHall@119#appliedthe
adjointmethodtometeorologyandclimatemodeling.Marchuk
@120#appliedtheadjointtechniquetoairpollutionproblems.
Most,thoughnotall,inversemodelsutilizerealmeasurementsin
a``datatting''exercisethattypicallyprovides``bestt''pa
rametersforthemathematicalmodelpostulatedtotthedata.
moremeasureddatasetsusingsomeassumedsetofsystempa
rameters.Systemparameterscouldbepipewavespeed,friction
factor,waterconsumptionratesandlocations,leakageratesand
locations,andsoon.A``merit''functionisusedtocomparethe
goodnessoftbetweentheobserveddataandthemodeloutput.
Commonmeritfunctionsaretheerrorsumofsquares,sumofthe
absolutevaluesoferrors,etc.Somesortofsearchoroptimization
procedureisemployedtondthesetofparametervaluesthat
minimizesthediscrepancybetweenobserveddatavaluesand
thosepredictedbytheforwardmodel.Itisthenatureofthe
searchtechniqueemployedintheoptimizationstepthat
characterizestheinversemodelingapproach.
]h
13.1.1.1Adjointmodels.AdjointmodelsuseaformofLa
grangianoptimizationcoupledwithagradientsearchtominimize
theerrorsbetweentheobserveddataandtheforwardmodelpre
diction.Intransientowapplications,theproblemstatement
wouldtakethefollowinggeneralform~seealsoLiggettand
Chen@121#!:
50
(82)
c 2
c 2
MinimizeE5 @~h 2h ! 1~q 2q ! # (80)
ququ
1gA
1f
]t
]x
2AD
subjecttothefollowingphysicalconstraints:
]h
a2
]q
whereEistheerrorsumofsquaresandEqs.~81!and~82!are
thecontinuityandmomentumequationsrewrittenintermsofdis
chargeandassumingsteadyDarcyWeisbachfriction.Thesuper
scriptmdenotesmeasureddatavaluesandthesuperscriptcde
notesthevaluescomputedbytheforwardmodel,hispiezometric
pressurehead,qistheowrate,aisthepipelinecelerity,fisthe
DarcyWeisbachfrictionfactor,tistime,xisaspatialcoordinate,
gisgravitationalacceleration,andAandDarethepipelinecross
sectionalareaanddiameter,respectively.
Equation~80!canbecombinedwithEqs.~81!and~82!byusing
Lagrangianmultipliersl1andl2asfollows:
1
E*5
E EF~h 2h ! d~x 2x !d~t 2t !1~q 2q ! d~x

m
xt
50
(81)
]t
gA
]x
]ha
]q
]q
]h
]q
c 2
c 2
2x c !d~ t m 2t c !1l1
tobeconsistentwiththecontinuumformofthemomentumand
continuityequations.TheDiracdeltafunctionsareincludedto
ensurethatmeritfunctiontermsareevaluatedonlyatthoseloca
tionsandtimesforwhichobserveddataexist,i.e.,
1
m
d~ x 2x !5
1
for
D1l S
2
x 5x
1gA
H0
for
]t
x x
gA
]x
]t
]x
1f
ququ
DG
andd~t 2t !5
dxdt
1
m
fort 5t
(84)
0
m
c
fort t
(83)
2AD
TheconventionalapproachtoLagrangianoptimizationistotake
partialderivativesofthemeritfunctionwithrespecttothe
unknownsystemparameters(aorfinthissimpleformulation!
andtheLagrangianmultipliersl1andl2,andequatetheseslope
functionstozero.Thisprovidesfourequationsfromwhichthe
fourunknownvariablesa,f,l1,andl2couldbedetermined.
Themerit~error!functionhasnowbeendesignatedE*to
indicatethatitincludestheLagrangiantermsforthecontinuity
andmomentumequations,andhasbeenexpressedasanintegral
However,astheseequationsarequasilinearhyperbolicpartial
differentialequations,amoreelaborateproceduremustbeused.

Partialderivativesofthemeritfunctionaretakenwithrespecttol1
and l2 andatcriticalpointsofthemeritfunctionmusthavea
slopeofzero.ThetwoderivativefunctionsgiveninEq.~85!
belowareknownastheadjointequations.
50
(85)
]l2
]E * ]h
]t
2
a ]q
]x
2AD
Itsufcestosaythattheadjointmodelissolvediteratively.
Valuesforphysicalsystemparametersaandfareassumed,and
theforwardmodelisruntodeterminethetransientheadandow.
Theadjointequationsaresolvedusingtheknownheadsandows
inabackwardpasstocalculatetheLagrangianparametersl1and
50
l2 .Thesevaluesareusedinagradientsearchstep ~theconjugate
gradienttechniqueisoftenused!toselectnewestimatesofthe
optimalparameters.Thesearchprocedureterminateswhenthe
valueofE*cannotbereducedanyfurther.
Theadvantageoftheadjointmethodisthatitcanbeextremely
efcientforawellconditionedproblem.Themodelcanbefor
mulatedtosolveforotherparametersofinterestbesidewave
speedandfriction.
]l1
]t
gA
]x
]E * ]q
]h
ququ
and
5
1gA
1f
Geneticalgorithms.Geneticalgorithms~GAs!havegained
widespreadpopularityinrecentyears.Therearemanyreasons
forthissuccess:~i!GAscanbeappliedtoawidevarietyof
problems;~ii!GAsdonotrequirethedevelopmentofadditional
codeneededtosolvetheadjointoftheforwardproblem;~iii!a
singleGAcanbeusedwithvariousmodelsthatsolvethesame
forwardproblem;~iv!anymodelparameterscanbespeciedas
theunknownsystemparametersinaGA;~v!GAsarequitesuc
cessfulinproblemscontaininglocalextrema;and~vi!GAscan
ndnotonlytheglobaloptimum,butcanalsodescribeother
suboptimalsolutionsofinterest,particularlyforatmeritfunc
tions.Geneticalgorithmsdonotworkforeveryproblem,how
ever,andonemustbeawareoftheirlimitations.GAsworkbest
forproblemsinwhichgenotypesconsistofasmallnumberof
genesthatcanbeexpressedinshortlengthstrings,i.e.,problems
havingfewdecisionvariables~parameters!thatcanbeidentied
byasmallnumberofbinarydigits.Problemswithlargenumbers
ofrealvaluedparametersoveranextensiveandcontinuousdo
mainaredemandingofcomputerresourceswhensolvedbyge
neticalgorithms.Despitetheselimitations,themethodseemsto
workwellwithpipelineproblems,albeitsolutionproceduresare
slowerthanthoseoftheadjointmethod.
Inthesimplestsense,geneticalgorithmsareanefcientformof
enumeration.Acandidatesetofparametersisassumedorran
domlygeneratedtoformindividualsinapopulation.Subsequent
iterationsuseevolutionary~mutation!andreproductive~cross
over!functionstogeneratefurthergenerationsofsolutions.The
mathematicalprincipleuponwhichgeneticalgorithmsarebased
isintendedforusewithproblemsinwhichthedecisionvariables
arediscrete,andinthesesituationsthemethodcanbeextremely
efcient.Modicationstothemethodhavebeendevelopedto
extenditsapplicationtocontinuousrealvaluedproblems,al
thoughtheproceduresarelessefcientinthesecases.
KarneyandTang@122#havesuccessfullyappliedthegenetic
algorithmmethodtoparameterestimationproblemsinwaterdis
tributionsystemsusingtransientpressurereadings.Usingdata
fromonlytwopumptriptests~oneformodelvalidationandthe
otherfortheparameterestimation!,KarneyandTanghavesuc
cessfullyestimatedpiperoughnessfactorsandwavespeedfor
severallargewaterdistributionsystems.
Pressurewavemethod.Brunone@123#andBrunoneandFerrante
@124#conductednumericalandphysicalexperimentstoinvestigate
thepossibilityofusingtransientdataforleakage
detection.Thetransientresponseofapipelinesystemtoagiven
owdisturbancewithandwithoutleakagepointswasmeasuredas
wellascomputed.Theinuenceofthesizeandshapeofsmall
leaks,alongwithdischargeconditionsandinitialowregime,on
thetransientresponseofapipelinesystemwereanalyzed.Itis
foundthattheinuenceoftheleakontheshapeandamplitudeof
thepressuresignalisquitenoticeable,evenwhentheleakowis
onlyafewpercentofthetotalowinthepipe.Therefore,Brunone
@123#andBrunoneandFerrante@124#formulatedascheme
forleakagedetectiononthebasisofstudyingthedifferencein
transientresponseofapipelinesystemwithandwithoutaleak.It
isobservedthatthemeasuredpressureheadtracesforthepipeline
withaleakisdifferentfromthatforanintactpipe.Whenthe
transientwaveencountersaleak,partofthewaveisreected
back.Theleaklocationisdeterminedfromthetimewhenthe
reectedwavearrivesatthemeasurementstation.Theleakin
ducesadditionaldropinthepressureheadtraces,theamountof
dropdependingonthesizeoftheleak.Thesizeoftheleakis
usingaformalinverseapproach.Theagreementbetweentheac
tualandthecomputedlocationandsizeofleakpointsisgood.
Frequencyresponsemethod.Thefrequencyresponsemethodis
usedbyMpeshaetal.@125,126#.Ahydraulicsystemismadeup
ofseveralcomponents.Eachcomponentcanberepresentedbya
transfermatrix.Transientowiscausedbytheperiodicopening
andclosingofavalve@125#orbythesuddenopeningor
closingofavalve@126#.Afrequencyresponsediagramatthe
valveisdevelopedbasedonthetransformmatrix.Forasystem
withleaks,thisdiagramhasadditionalresonantpressure
amplitudepeaksthatarelowerthantheresonantpressureampli
tudepeaksforthesystemwithnoleaks.Fromthefrequencyof
thepeaks,thelocationoftheleakcanbedetected.Verygood
agreementhavebeenobtainedbetweenthecomputedandthereal
leakcondition.
InFerranteandBrunone@127#,thegoverningequationsfor
transientowinpipesaresolveddirectlyinthefrequencydomain
bymeansoftheimpulseresponsemethod.Therefore,thesolution
oftheresponseofthesystemtomoreattractivetransienteventsis
available.Harmonicanalysisofthetransientpressureisusedto
identifythelocationandthesizeofaleak.
Modedampingmethod.Wangetal.@128#investigatedthe
dampingcharacteristicsofatransientpressurewavebywall
frictionandbysystemleakage.Itisfoundthatwallfrictiondamps
allmodessimilarly,butleakagedampsdifferentFouriermodes
differently.Inaddition,modedampingbyleakageisfoundto
dependonleaklocation.Themarkeddifferenceinmodedamp
ingbetweenwallfrictionandsystemleakagewassuccessfully
usedtoidentifythelocationandsizeofleaks@128#.In
particular,Wangetal.@128#wereabletoaccuratelyidentify
systemleaksbyinvestigatingmodedampingcharacteristicsof
transientpressuredataobtainedfromnumericalaswellas
laboratorystudies.Thedampingcharacteristictechniquewas
successfullyappliedtosingleandmultipleleaks.
Wavelettransformmethod.Frequencyanalysiscanonlydealwitha
stationarysignal~i.e.,thesignalhastobeeitherperiodicor
decomposableintoasetofperiodicsignals!.Wavelettransformcan
beusedtodetectlocalsingularitiesinameasuredsignal.Whenever
thereisasingularityinameasuredsignal,alocalmaximumofthe
transformcoefcientforthemeasuredsignalappears.The
applicationofthetransientwavelettransformtoleakagedetectionina
pipelinewaspioneeredbyFerranteandBrunone@129#.Thewavelet
transformofpressureheadhistoryisperformed.Accordingtothe
transformofthesignal,thediscontinuitiesinpressureheadtracesare
detected.Thesediscontinuitiescorrespondtowavereectionsat
boundaryelementsandatleakpoints.Usingthetimeatwhicha
discontinuityisobserved,the

distancebetweentheleakandthemeasurementstationcanbe
system.''TheproposedGroundWaterRuleisdesignedtoprotect
calculated.Thelocationfoundbywavelettransformagreeswith
againstpathogenicbacteriaandvirusesinsourcewater,against
thereallocationverywell.
growthofopportunisticpathogenicbacteriaingroundwaterdis
tributionsystems,andtomitigateagainstanyfailureintheengi
neeredsystems,suchascrossconnectionsorsewageinltration
Identiabilityanduniquenessrequirements.Inorderforany
intodistributionsystems.
inversemethodtobesuccessfullyapplied,twokeymathematical
propertiesoftheproblemmustbesatised:identiabilityand
uniqueness.Identiabilityreferstothenotionthatasingleset~or
anitenumberofdistinctsets!ofparametervaluesmust
reproduce,withinanestablishedleveloferror,thesameresponse
exhibitedbytheactualsystem.Uniquenessmeansthatthemerit
functionexhibitsasingle,globalminimum.Forcomplex
problems,thereisnorigorousmathematicalprocedurethatcan
assureusthatidentiabilityanduniquenessrequirementsaresat
isedingeneral.However,asimpleexampleisdescribedinthe
followingsectionthatprovidesinsightintothesuitabilityofdif
ferentinversemodelingtechniquesforpipelinetransientprob
lems.
Identiability.LetHm5$H0,H1,H2,...,Hn%denotea
setofmeasuredvalues,e.g.,piezometrichead,attimesteps0ton
correspondingtosomesamplingrate(tn2t0)/(n21).Let
hc5$h0,h1,h2,...,hn%similarlydenotethesetof
computedheadsatthesametimestepsbutforaparticularpairof
unknown,butdesired,parametervaluess1ands2.Then,the
followingcriterionforidentiabilitycanbestated:
Identiabilitycriterion:Asetofparametervaluess1ands2are
identiableifandonlyifHm[hc6e,whereerepresentstheab
solutevalueofdata,measurement,andmodelerror.Theidenti
abilitycriterioncanbevisualizedbyplottingthedifferencebe
tweenHmandhcforeachpairoffeasiblevaluesofparameterss1
ands2inthedomainandselectingthezerocontourofthediffer
ences.IdentiableparameterpairsforwhichHm[hcwouldap
pearasintersections~lociofintersectinglines!ofallsuchcon
tours.
Uniqueness:Thesecondconditionthatneedstobemetifadjoint
methodsaretobeusedwithareasonableexpectationofsuccessis
uniqueness,i.e.,thereshouldideallybeonlyasinglecriticalpoint
ofthemeritfunctionwithinthefeasiblesearchdomain.
Theadjointtechniquecanstillbeusefulifthefeasiblesearchdomain
canberestrictedtoasmallerregioncontainingtheglobalminimum.
Tothisend,amorerobustoptimizationschemeisoftenemployedto
locatetheprobableregionoftheglobalminimum.Followingthis
initialscreening,theadjointschemecanthenbeappliedtorenethe
solution.Thistwophaseoptimizationapproachisonlyworthwhileif
thetimerequiredtondaglobalminimumbyothermethodsistoo
costly.Comparedtotheadjointtechnique,geneticalgorithmsare
bettersuitedtosolvingproblemswithmultiplecriticalpointsand
thosethatappeartogivegoodresultsforinversemodelinginpipeline
transientapplications.
13.2PathogenIntrusioninWaterSupplySystems.Intherst
sentenceofitsproposedGroundWaterRule:PublicHealth
Concernsdocument,theU.S.EPAOfceofWaterstatesthat,
`Àssurancethatthedrinkingwaterisnotcontaminatedbyhuman
oranimalfecalwasteisthekeyissueforanydrinkingwater
Thereisconsiderableevidenceintheliteraturethatthenumberof
diseaseoutbreaks~includingalargenumberthatareunreported
@www.epa.gov/orgwdw000/standard/phs.html#! duetofecalcon
taminationofdistributionsystemsisalreadylargeandmightbe
growing.From19711994,50of356reportedwaterbornedisease
outbreaksoccurredasaresultofpathogenentryintodistribution
systems.MorerecentstatisticsfromtheU.S.CenterforDisease
Controlputtheratioofdistributionsystemintrusionsto
othersourcesofdrinkingwatercontaminationashighas1:1.Studies
byPayment@130#suggestthatonethirdofthe99million
gastroenteritiscasesintheU.S.eachyearmightinvolveexposureto
waterbornepathogensinthedistributionsystem.Conservatively
estimatingthat20%ofthesecasesresultfrompathogenintrusioninto
waterpipes,then,inAmericaalone,asmanyas20millioncasesof
gastroenteritisannuallymightbedirectlycausedbycontaminationof
drinkingwaterdistributionsystems.
Recentresearchintotheproblemisnowattemptingtoaddress
fourcriticalquestionsthatnaturallyariseinresponsetothese
alarmingstatistics.~i!Whatisthenatureofthepathogen
intrusionmechanism~s!?~ii!Whydon'troutinewatersampling
andlaboratorytestingdetectintrusionevents?~iii!Isthehealth
ofwaterconsumersinaparticularsystematrisk?~iv!Canthe
riskofdistributionsystemintrusionsbereduced~andbyhow
much!oreliminatedaltogether?Answerstothesefourquestions
dependentirelyondevelopingaclearunderstandingofthe
complexinteractionswithhydraulictransientsinpipesystems.
13.2.1DistributionSystemIntrusionPathways.Thereareseveral
potentialintrusionpathwayswherebybacterial,protozoan,and
viralpathogenscanenterawatersupply,transmission,or
distributionpipeline:~i!atthesource;~ii!duringlossofpressure
andsubsequentexposureofthepipeinteriortotheexternalair,
soilorgroundwater~suchasmayhappenduringamainbreak
repair!;~iii!viacrossconnectionsonaconsumer'sproperty;and
~iv! viacrossconnectionsinthedistributionsystem.
Thersttwointrusionmechanismsare``controlled''situations
insofarasthequalityofnishedwateriscarefullymonitoredand
treatedtoensurecompliancewithdrinkingwaterstandards,while
thelattertwopathwaysarelargely`ùncontrolled.''Cross
connectionscanarisewheneverapossiblesourceofcontaminated
waterorotherliquidcanbeintroducedintothepotablewater
systembyvirtueofbackpressure~anexcessofpressurecausing
owtooccurinadirectionoppositetoitsnormalintendedow
direction!orsiphonage~suctionor``negative''pressureinducing
owfromacontaminationsourceintothedistributionsystem!.
Whilebackpressureandnegativepressuresareusuallyeliminated
throughproperhydraulicdesign,thereisonemajorsourceof
negativepressuresthatisnotnormallyaccountedforindistribu
tionsystemdesignhydraulictransients.
Waterhammeroccursregularlyinsomesystemsandperiodically
inotherswheneverowconditionsarechangedrapidly.Whether
thesechangesinowaretheresultofplannedoperationslike
pumpstartsandstops,orareunplannedeventsinitiatedbypower
outages,accidentalvalveclosures,orrupturingofapipe,the
ensuingepisodesofnegativepressurecanintroducecontami
nateduidsintothepipeline.Contaminationcanoccuronacus
tomer'spropertyorontheutilitysideofaserviceconnection.
Contaminateduidsintroducedatacrossconnectionwouldbe
largelytransportedintheprevailingdirectionofowinthepipe
afterenteringthesystem.
Pressuredependentleakageiscommonlyknowntooccurfromthe
potablesystemtothesurrounding~soil!environmentthrough
pipejoints,cracks,pinholes,andlargeroricelikeopenings.
Funketal.@131#developedanalytichydraulicparameterstoas
sessthepotentialfortransientintrusioninawaterdistribution
system.Theirintrusionmodelwasbasedonthepercentageof
waterlostthroughleakagelumpedatsystemnodesandan
`èquivalentorice''neededtopassthediscreteleakageowat
theprevailingsystempressure.
ApaperbyMcInnis~inprogress!extendstheworkofFunketal.to
incorporatealternativeintrusionowmodelsbasedonlaminarow,
turbulentoriceow,oramixtureofthetwoowtypes.Workdone
byGermanopoulosandJowitt@132#onpressuredependentleakage
suggeststhatmostdistributedleakageisprobablylaminarinnature,
occurringthroughlargernumbersofsmallopenings.The2Dwater
hammerequationswithturbulencemodelsdevelopedbyVardyand
Hwang@25#,Pezzinga@38#,andSilvaArayaandChaudhry
@37,98#willbeusefulingenerating

modelsforpredictingintrusionvolumes,initialdistributionof
transientowmodels.Futureresearchisrequiredtoaccomplish
contaminantconcentrationsinthepipes,andtheultimatefateof
thefollowing:
contaminantswithinthedistributionsystem.
McInnis@133#expandstheconsiderationoftransientintrusion
eventsfrompurelyuidmechanicsaspectsbydevelopingarisk
basedframeworkforcomparingtheactualhumanhealthrisksand
relativeriskreductionachievedbyalternativetransientintrusion
mitigationstrategies.McInnis@133#appliestransientmodeling
withsomeassumedreferencegroundwatercontaminationlevel
andcomputeshypotheticalintrusionvolumesforagiventransient
eventtopredictthetransitoryimpactoftheeventonsystemwater
quality.Hehasalsoproposedmeaningfulriskbasedmeasuresto
providequantitativecomparisonsoftherelativereductioninthe
riskofreceptorinfectionachievedbyalternativemitigationstrat
egies.
14
PracticalandResearchNeedsinWater
Hammer
Boththeoryandexperimentsconrmtheexistenceofhelical
typevorticesintransientpipeows.Theconditionsunderwhich
helicalvorticesemergeintransientowsandtheinuenceofthese
vorticesonthevelocity,pressure,andshearstresseldsare
currentlynotwellunderstoodand,thus,arenotincorporatedin
1!understandthephysicalmechanismsresponsiblefortheemer
genceofhelicaltypevorticesintransientpipeows
2!determinetherangeintheparameterspace,denedbyRey
noldsnumberanddimensionlesstransienttimescaleoverwhich
helicalvorticesdevelop
3!investigateowstructuretogetherwithpressure,velocity,and
shearstresseldsatsubcritical,critical,andsupercriticalvalues
ofReynoldsnumberanddimensionlesstimescale
Theaccomplishmentofthestatedobjectiveswouldbesought
throughtheuseoflinearandnonlinearanalysis.Understanding
thecauses,emergentconditions,andbehaviorofhelicalvortices
intransientpipeowsaswellastheirinuenceonthevelocity,
pressure,andshearstresseldarefundamentalproblemsinuid
mechanicsandhydraulics.Understandingthesephenomenawould
constituteanessentialsteptowardincorporatingthisnewphe
nomenainpracticalunsteadyowmodelsandreducingsigni
cantdiscrepanciesintheobservedandpredictedbehaviorofen
ergydissipationbeyondtherstwavecycle.
Currentphysicallybased1Dand2Dwaterhammermodels
assumethat~i!turbulenceinapipeiseitherquasisteady,frozen
orquasilaminar;and~ii!theturbulentrelationsthathavebeen
derivedandtestedinsteadyowsremainvalidinunsteadypipe
ows.Theseassumptionshavenotreceivedmuchattentioninthe
waterhammerliterature.Understandingthelimitationsandaccu
racyofassumptions~i!and~ii!isessentialforestablishingthe
domainofapplicabilityofmodelsthatutilizetheseassumptions
andforseekingappropriatemodelstobeusedinproblemswhere
existingmodelsfail.PreliminarystudiesbyGhidaouietal.@46#
showthatagreementbetweenphysicallybased1Dand2Dwater
hammermodelsandexperimentsishighlydependentontheRey
noldsnumberandontheratioofthewavetoturbulentdiffusion
timescales.However,thelackofindepthunderstandingofthe
changesinturbulenceduringtransientowconditionsisasigni
cantobstacletoachievingconclusiveresultsregardingthelimita
tionofexistingmodelsandthederivationofmoreappropriate
models.Therefore,aresearchprogramwhosemainobjectiveisto
developanunderstandingoftheturbulencebehaviorandenergy
dissipationinunsteadypipeowsisneeded.Thisresearchpro
gramneedstoaccomplishthefollowing:
1!improveunderstandingofandtheabilitytoquantifychangesin
turbulentstrengthandstructureintransienteventsatdifferent
Reynoldsnumbersandtimescales
2!usetheunderstandinggainedinitem1todeterminetherange
ofapplicabilityofexistingmodelsandtoseekmoreappropriate
modelsforproblemswherecurrentmodelsareknowntofail
Thedevelopmentofinversewaterhammertechniquesisanother
importantfutureresearcharea.Anumberofverypromising
inversewaterhammertechniqueshavebeendevelopedinthelast
decade.Futureworkinthisareaneedstoaccomplishthefollow
ing:
1!furtherinvestigatetheissuesofefciency,reliability,andiden
tiabilityofinversewaterhammertechniques
2!developmorerealisticlaboratoryandeldprogramsinorderto
furthertestexistinginversetechniquesaswellasdevelopnew
ones
3!developsystematicapproaches~e.g.,usingstochasticmethods!
thatcanincorporatetheinuenceofmodelingandmeasurement
errorsonthereliabilityofinversemethods
4!developidentiabilitybasedmethodstodeterminethequantity
andqualityofdatanecessarytocarryoutasuccessfulinverse
program
Thepracticalsignicanceoftheresearchgoalsstatedaboveis
considerable.Animprovedunderstandingoftransientowbehav
iorgainedfromsuchresearchwouldpermitdevelopmentoftran
sientmodelsabletoaccuratelypredictowsandpressuresbeyond
therstwavecycle.Oneimportantconsequenceofthisisthatthe
behavioralaspectsofcontroldevicesactivated~orreactivated!by
localoworpressureiscorrectlymodeled.Mostimportantly,
however,reducingthemodelingerrorsbeyondtherstwave
cycle,alongwithbetterinversetechniques,willgreatlyimprove
theaccuracyandreliabilityofinversetransientmodels.Thisis
importantbecauseinversemodelshavethepotentialtoutilize
eldmeasurementsoftransienteventstoaccuratelyandinexpen
sivelycalibrateawiderangeofhydraulicparameters,including
pipefrictionfactors,systemdemands,andleakage.Atthistime,
suchinformationcanonlybeobtainedthroughcostlyeldmea
surementsofowsandpressuresconductedonafewindividually
sampledpipesinthesystem.Transients,ontheotherhand,
traversetheentiresystem,interactingwitheachpipeordevicein
thesystem.Thus,theycontainlargeamountsofinformationre
gardingthephysicalcharacteristicsofthesystem.Inversetran
sientanalysistechniquesarenowbeingdevelopedtodecodethis
informationforhydraulicmodelcalibrationaswellastoidentify
andlocatesystemleakage,closedorpartiallyclosedvalves,and
damagedpipes.Thepotentialannualsavingsinroutinedatacol
lectioncostsforwatersupplyutilitiesworldwideissignicant.
Equallyimportant,animprovedunderstandingofthetruenature
ofturbulenceintransientowswillbeagroundbreakingstep
towardmodelingtransientinducedwaterqualityproblems.Nega
tivepressurewavescancauseintrusionofcontaminantsfromthe
pipesurroundingsthroughcracks,pinholes,joints,andrupturesin
thepipes.Inaddition,waterhammereventscausebiolmslough
ingandresuspensionofparticulateswithinthepipe,potentially
leadingtounsafeorunpleasantdrinkingwater.Withoutabetter
understandingoftransientowbehavior,theriskanddegreeof
contaminationofwatersupplysystemsduringtransientevents
cannotbequantitativelyassessed.
15
Summary
Thescienticstudyoftransientuidowhasbeenundertaken
sincethemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.Asistrueofevery
otherareaofengineeringresearch,agreatmanyadvanceshave
beenmadeintheaccuracyofanalysisandtherangeofapplica
tionssincethen.Althoughonlyafewsimpleproblemswereap
proachablebyearlieranalyticalmethodsandnumericaltech
studied.Thispaperprovidesbothahistoricalperspectiveandre
viewofwaterhammertheoryandanoverviewofrecentdevelop
mentsinthiseldofuidmechanics.
Specically,advancesinthelastoneortwodecadesdealingwith
someofthemorecomplexandfundamentaluidmechanics
issueshavebeendiscussed:
1!Therelationbetweenstateequationsandwavespeedsinsingle
aswellasmultiphaseandmulticomponenttransientowsare
illustratedanddiscussed.
2!Variousformsof1Dand2Dwaterhammerequations,suchas
theJoukowskymodel,classical1Dwaterhammerequations,the
2Dplanewaveequations,andthequasitwodimensionalplane
waveequationsarederived.
3!Governingequationsofturbulentwaterhammerowsareob
tainedbyensembleaveragingofthequasitwodimensionalplane
waveequations.
4!Orderofmagnitudeanalysisisusedthroughoutthepaperto
evaluatetheaccuracyoftheassumptionsinthevariousformsof
waterhammergoverningequations.
Waterhammermodelsarebecomingmorewidelyused~i!forthe
design,analysis,andsafeoperationofcomplexpipelinesystems
andtheirprotectivedevices;~ii!fortheassessmentandmiti
gationoftransientinducedwaterqualityproblems;and~iii!for
theidenticationofsystemleakage,closedorpartiallyclosed
valves,andhydraulicparameterssuchasfrictionfactorsand
wavespeeds.Inaddition,turbulencemodelshavebeendeveloped
andusedtoperformnumericalexperimentsinturbulentwater
hammerowsforamultitudeofresearchpurposessuchasthe
computationofinstantaneousvelocityprolesandshearstress
elds,thecalibrationandvericationof1Dwaterhammer
models,theevaluationoftheparametersof1Dunsteadyfriction
models,andthecomparisonofvarious1Dunsteadyfriction
models.Understandingthegoverningequationsthatareinusein
waterhammerresearchandpracticeandtheirlimitationsis
essentialforinterpretingtheresultsofthenumericalmodelsthat
arebasedontheseequations,forjudgingthereliabilityofthedata
obtainedfromthesemodels,andforminimizingmisuseofwater
hammermodels.
Acknowledgments
ThewriterswishtothanktheResearchGrantsCouncilofHong
KongfornancialsupportunderProjectNo.HKUST6179/02E.
Nomenclature
Asystemmatrix
crosssectionalareaofpipeawaterhammerwavespeed
niques,amuchbroaderspectrumoftransientproblemscouldbe
solvedoncegraphicalmethodsweredeveloped.Morerecently,
theapplicationofdigitalcomputingtechniqueshasresultedina
rapidincreaseintherangeandcomplexityofproblemsbeing
a echaracteristicsusedfor1DMOCsolution
coef bknownvectorforsystem
cient b knownvectorforsubsystemoflongitudinalvelocity
u
for component
ve
region
turbul bvknownvectorforsubsystemofheadandradial
ence component
model
matrixforsubsystemofheadandradialvelocity
component
matrix CBcoefcientforveregionturbulencemodel
for
C lumpedquantityforcharacteristicssolutionforpipe
subsys C
temof network
longit Cccoefcientforveregionturbulencemodel
udinal
velocit
y
compo
nent
B
coef
cient
for
MOC C
formul
ation Cu1,C
BC
lumpe CM
d
quantitquantityfornegativecharacteristicsusedfor
yfor
charac
teristic
1DMOCsolution
s
solutio Cm
nfor pipe coefcientforveregionturbulencemodel
networC
P
k
quantityforpositivecharacteristicsusedfor
BM
quantit
yfor 1DMOCsolution
negati , C
q1 q2
ve
charac coefcientsbeforeq
teristic
sused Cr
for1D courantnumber
MOC u2,Cu3
solutio n
coefcientsbeforeu
parameterassociatedwithpipeanchorcondition
BP
quantitsuperscriptdenotingvaluespredictedbyforwardmodel
yfor c2
positiv -
coefcientusedinDailyetal.@39#
cs
controlsurface
cv
controlvolume
diameterofpipe
Young'smodulusofelasticityofpipematerial
errors
E*merit~error!function
e
thicknessofpipewall
Fwallresistanceforce
F
ext
externalforces
f
DarcyWeisbachfrictionfactor
ggravitationalacceleration
Hm
setofmeasuredpiezometrichead
Hpiezometrichead
H
piezometricheadatpointA
HB
piezometricheadatpointB
HP
piezometricheadatpointP
hc
setofcomputedpiezometrichead
i
indexforpipes
Js
steadyfrictionterm
j
indexforpipes
Kunsteadyresistancecoefcient
length
effecti mixinglengthMMachnumber
ve
superscriptdenotingmeasureddatavalues
bulk timelevelindex
modul
usof
elastic N1setofallpipeswithowtowardconjuctionnode
ity
Kf
N2setofallpipeswithowawayfromconjuctionnode
bulk
modul Nrnumberofcomputationalreachesinradialdirection
usof
elastic nunitoutwardnormalvectortocontrolsurfacenindex
ityof ofmeasuredseries
the
uid
nexponentialforpowerlawofvelocityprolenc
Ks
numberofcompletewaterhammerwave
cycles
steady parameterforquasisteadyassumption
state piezometricpressure
resista discharge
nce
coef QA
cient dischargeatpointA
Ku
B
unstea
dischargeatpointB
dy
Q
resista ext
nce coef dischargeofexternalow
cient QP
and mome dischargeatpointP
ntum q
radialux
q
uxof
absolu
owrate
te
local R,R*velocit radiusofpipe,dimensionlessdistancefrom
y
k
unstea pipewall
Rdy
frictio coefcientforMOCformulation
Re
n
factor Reynoldsnumber
Lpipe Transactions of the ASME
timescale
Td
f
t
ws wu
r
radialcoordinate
T-
timescaleforradialdiffusionofvorticity
t
time
t8
timeusedforconvolutionintegral
U
longitudinalvelocityscale
uunknownvectorforsubsystemoflongitudinal
uiddensity
r0
uiddensityatundisturbedstate
re
velocitycomponent
u
locallongitudinalvelocity
u*
frictionalvelocity
u8
turbulenceperturbationcorrespondingtou
crosssectionalaveragevelocity
velocityvector
unknownvectorforsubsystemofheadandradialvelocity
component
effectivedensity
s1 , s2
unknownbutdesiredparameters
xaxialstress
uhoopstress
t shearstress
wallshearstress
quasisteadycontributionofwallshearstressdiscrepancy
betweenunsteadyandquasi
steadywallshearstress
coefcientinunsteadyfrictionformula.
localradialvelocity
8 turbulenceperturbationcorrespondingto v Wweighting
function
Xlongitudinallengthscale
distancealongthepipe
y,y*distancefrompipewall,dimensionlessdistancefrompipewall
elevationofpipecenterlinefromagivendatum
zunknownvectorforsystem
anglebetweenpipeandhorizontaldirection
coefcientinweightingfunction
momentumcorrectioncoefcient
coefcientinweightingfunctiong unitgravityforce
e distancefromthewaterhammerfront e eddyviscosity
e implicitparameterforshearstress e implicitparameterfor
friction
e measuredandmodeleddataerror z apositiverealparameter
h differencefromunityofCorioliscorrection h constantfor
weightingfunction
u implicitparameterforradialux k coefcientforweighting
function
k coefcientforveregionturbulencemodel k coefcient
fortwolayerturbulencemodel
1Lagrangianmultiplier
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@133# McInnis,D.A.,2003,`ÀRelativeRiskAssessmentFramework
for EvaluatingPathogenIntrusionDuringTransientEventsinWater
Pipelines,''UrbanWaterJ.~SpecialIssueonTransients,GuestEditor:B.
W.Karney!,1~2!,pp.113127.
MohamedGhidaouireceivedhisB.A.Sc.,M.A.Sc.andPh.D.allinCivilEngineeringfromthe
UniversityofToronto,Canada,in1989,1991,and1993,respectively.SinceJuly1993,hehas
beenwiththeDepartmentofCivilEngineeringattheHongKongUniversityofScienceand
Technology(HKUST)whereheisanAssociateProfessor.Hisresearchinterestsinclude
modelingofsurfacewaterowsandwaterhammer:unsteadyfrictioninconduits,turbulence
modelingoffasttransients,owstabilityoftimedependentowsandturbulentshallowshear
ow,numericalmodelingofsurfaceandclosedconduitows,andapplicationofBolzmanntheory
inhydraulics.HeisamemberoftheInternationalAssociationofHydraulicResearch(IAHR)
andtheAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers(ASCE).HeisafoundingmemberofIAHRHong
Kongandcurrentlyservesasitspresident.HeisanAssociateEditoroftheJournalofHydraulic
ResearchandanadvisoryboardmemberoftheJournalofHydroinformatics.Hisawardsinclude
theAlbertBerryMemorialAward,AmericanWaterWorksAssociation;runnerupforthe
HilgardAwardforbestpaper,JournalofHydraulicEngineering;andTeachingExcellence
Awards,SchoolofEngineering,HKUST.
MingZhaoobtainedhisPh.D.inApril2004fromtheDepartmentofCivilEngineering,at
HongKongUniversityofScienceandTechnolgy.HeobtainedbothhisB.A.Eng.in
hydraulicengineeringandB.A.Sc.ineneterprisemanagementin1999fromTsinghua
University.Hisresearchinterestsincludenumericalsimulationofunsteadypipeows,open
channelows,turbulencemodelinginhydraulics,andstabilityanalysisforuidows.
DavidH.Axworthyisaregisteredprofessionalengineerwithaconsultingengineeringrm
inLosAngeles,California.HeobtainedhisB.A.Sc.(1991),M.A.Sc.(1993)andPh.D.
(1997)incivilengineeringfromtheUniversityofToronto.Axworthyhasanalyzedpressure
transientscreatedbytheoperationofpumpstationsandvalvesanddesignedsurge
protectionforwatersupply,wastewater,reprotection,deicing,diesel,andjetfuel
systems.AmemberoftheASCEandAWWA,Axworthyiscoauthorofawaterhammer
analysismodel(TransAM),servesasareviewerfortheASMEJournalofFluids
Engineering,andhaspublishedscienticpapersintheareaofpipenetworktransients.
DuncanA.McInnis(Ph.D.,P.Eng.,MHKIE)hasdegreesinenvironmentalbiologyand
civilengineering.Hehas20yearsofscienticandprofessionalengineeringexperiencein
computationalhydraulics,simulation,andcomputermodelingofsurfacewaterand
pipelinesystems.McInnishasbeenaLecturerofCivilEngineeringandSeniorProject
ManagerattheHongKongUniversityofScienceandTechnology.Heiscurrentlythe
ManagerofWaterResourceswithKomexInternationalLtd.,aninternationalenvironmental
consultingrm.

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A Review of Water Hammer

University of Science and Technology,

Theory and Practice

Applied Mechanics Reviews

50 Vol. 58, JANUARY 2005

Fig. 1 Control volume diagram used for continuity equation

Fig. 2 Control volume diagram used for momentum equation

horizontaldirection,b5*Au dA/V 5momentumcorrection

Weisbachfrictionfactor T d 5radialdiffusiontimescale. The

Applied Mechanics Reviews

~25!,whichleadsto a 5AdP / rdA .

510,000m, D 50.2m, f 50.01,

50.01thecondition G!1isvalidwhen z!4.Thatis,forthecase

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Fig. 3 Velocity proles for steady-state and after wave passages

tw~ t !5tws~ t !1twu~ t !

Fig. 4 Pressure head traces obtained from models and experiment

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@55#.AlthoughthechartsofPezzinga @44# andtheformulaof

W~ t !5e 226.3744~ nt / R !1e 270.8493~ nt / R !1e 2135.0198~ nt / R

F1 1sign~ V !aU]]VxUY ]]Vt G

Fig. 5 Weighting function for different Reynolds numbers

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t5rn ]r 2ru 8v8

2ru 8v8 sincemostpracticalwaterhammerowsareturbulent.

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ThisequationisvalidonlyalongthesocalledC andC char

Fig. 6 Method of characteristics grid

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MinimizeE5 @~h 2h ! 1~q 2q ! # (80)

E EF~h 2h ! d~x 2x !d~t 2t !1~q 2q ! d~x

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@36# Streeter,V.L.andWylie,E.B.,1985, FluidMechanics ~8th

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@76# Toro,E.F.,2001, ShockCapturingMethodsforFreeSurfaceShal

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