WangShuheMaijue(ThePulsediagnosticSongofWangShuhe

)ControversyandtheConstructionofScholarlyMedicalKnowledge
inLateImperialChina

PoHueiHsieh

AbstractTheconstructionofthescholarlymedicalknowledgeinlateimperialChina
isreceivinggrowingattentioninthestudiesofthehistoryofChinesemedicine.
Thispaperistaskedwithprobingintothemedicalknowledgethathaddominatedthe
theoryandpracticeofpulsediagnosticsfromNorthernSongdynastytolateMing
dynasty,andcausedthegroundswellofthereconstructionofmedicalknowledgein
lateimperialChina.ThisknowledgeisreferredasWangShuheMaijue(),
aninstructionthatintroducedpulsediagnosingwithrhymedversesandillustrations.
WangShuheMaijueclassifiedtwentyfourpulsetypes()assevenexteriors(
),eightinteriors(),andnineways().Thistheoreticalframethat
enjoyedthestatusasguidetothepulsediagnosticsfromNorthernSongdynastyon
wasseriouslyfulminatedinthelateMingdynastyandfinallyreplacedbythe
twentysevenpulsetypeframeofLiShizhen( 15181593)sBinhuMaixue(

PoHueiHsieh:Ph.D.Student,TheHongKongInstitutefortheHumanitiesandSocialSciences,The
UniversityofHongKong(mitropoulos1236@gmail.com)

).Whyalongacceptedmedicaltheorycametobethetargetofexcoriationand
repudiationincertainperiod?Whathappenedduringthisperiodthatchangedthe
statusofatimehonoredtheory?Whyit'sWangShuheMaijueratherthanother
medicalknowledgethatbecametheobjectofrejection?
It'sgoingtobedemonstratedinthispaperthatfromthemiddleofMingdynasty
on,therampedupnumberofmedicalpractitionersandthecompetitionensued
drovethescholarlyphysicianstoestablishtheirownorthodoxtraditioninorderto
distinguishthemselvesfromotherpractitionersandcementtheirstatusaswellas
clientele.Withthisbackground,WangShuheMaijuewasculledtobethetargetof
excoriationandrejection,andthenewmedicaltheoriesspawnedbylateMing
orthodoxphysicians1 werebasedontherepudiationofWangShuheMaijue.
1. Introduction
WangShuheMaijuewasthemostinfluentialpulsediagnosticworkinthehistoryof
Chinesemedicine.2ThetheoreticalframeofMaijuehaddominatedthetheoryand
practiceofpulsediagnosingfromNorthernSongdynastytoitsreplacementbyBinhu
MaixueinthelateMingdynasty.3

Becausethedefinitionofthewordscholarlyphysician()isnotveryclear,thescholarly
physiciansinlateimperialChinainthispaperarereferredasorthodoxphysiciansasFrancescaBray
callsthem,whichmeansthatpersonswhosemedicalcompetencewasrecognizedbytheeducated
eliteandwhosharetheirsocialandculturalvalueswiththeelite.SeeFrancescaBray,Technologyand
Gender:FabricsofPowerinLateImperialChina(California:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1997),
p.305.
2
Inordertomakemystatementclear,IrefertoWangShuheMaijueasMaijuehereafter.
3
OntheoriginandthetheoreticalframeofpulsetypesofMaijue,seePoHueiHsieh,Taisumaiand

 inordertounderstandthereasonwhyMaijuewasrejectedintheMing,its
importanttoclarifywhyitcanbesoeminentaftertheNorthernSongdynasty.Infact,
thereiscontroversyovertheactualdateofthecompilationofMaijue.Inadditionto
somedissidentviews,itslongbelievedthatMaijuewasoriginatedinNorthernSong
dynasty.4 Nevertheless,recentarchaeologicaldiscoveriesinDunhuang()
showedthatthecurrentcontentofMaijuewasfoundincertainmedicalbooksthat
canbedatedtotheSixdynasties.5
WhatsworthnotingisthatwhytheMaijuethatwasnamelessintheSui()and
Tang()dynastiescanprocureitspopularityandeminenceaftertheNorthernSong
dynasty?WhathappenedintheNorthernSongdynastythatmadeMaijuestatus
differentfrompreviousdynasties?Itspossiblethatthetechnologyofprintingheld
thekeytotheanswerofthesequestions.IntheperiodofFivedynastiesandten
kingdoms( 907960),printingwasforthefirsttimebeusedtoproduce
standardizedtextbytheauthorities.TheNorthernSongdynastyalsofoundprintinga
powerfultooltoproduceofficiallyauthorizedversionsofbooksandtextstocreate
theunitedideologyandideas.AmongtheNorthernSonggovernmentprinting

WangShuheMaijue:ControversiesandFormationofScholarlyMedicineinLateImperialChina,
Materdiss.,NationalTaiwanNormalUniversity,2009.
4
ForthediscussionsonthecontroversyovertheoriginsofMaijue,seeZhengManqingandLinPinshi,
Zhonghuayiyaoshueshi,pp.198199;YongRonged.,Sikuquanshuzongmutiyao,pp.2124.
5
AmongthediscoveriesexhumedfromDunHuang,thereexisttwo6thcenturymanuscriptson
pulsediagnostics,whicharepartiallyidenticaltothelatterMaijue.SeeFuWeikang,Zhongguo
yishueshi,p.109;LuJiaxied.,Zhongguokeshuejishushi,p.321.

enterprises,medicalbookpublicationwashighlyvaluedbytheofficials.6 Inthearea
ofpulsediagnosing,Maijing()waschosentobetheorthodoxcanon.7 Andits
statuswasputinthesamewavelengthwithNeijing().8 Asamatteroffact,the
standardizedprintedversionofMaijingcreatedtheconditionsthatmakeMaijue
popular.Onlywhentheprintingversionfixed9 thetextofMaijing,canMaijue
becomeapopularandeminentmedicalinstruction10 becausetheeponymous
authorofMaijing,i.e.WangShuhe( 180270),wasupliftedtobethemedical
authorityfortheeminentstatusofhisMaijingconferredbytheNorthernSong
government.TheMaijuethatwasfalselyattributedtoWangShuhe11couldinthis
waygainthereputationfromitsfabricatedauthor.12

ChenYuanpong,LiangSongde"shangyishiren"yu"ruyi":jianlunqizaiJinYuandeliubian(Taipei:
GuoliTaiwandashuechubanshe,1997),pp.6173;YeDehuei,Shulinqinghua(Taipei:Wenshizhe
chubanshe),pp.300301.
7
MototaneTakied.,Zhongguoyijikao(Beijing:Renminweishengchubanshe,1983),pp.188189.
8

TuoTuo,Songshi(Taipei:Dingwenchubanshe,1980),p.3689.

Onthetheoryaboutthefixationeffectofprintonthevolatilewords,seeElisabethEisentein,The
PrintingPressasanAgentofChangeCambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1979,pp.8087.On
thecontroversiesandcriticismsoverthistheory,seeRogerChartier,TheOrderofBooksRevisited,
ModernIntellectualHistory,4.3(2007)5123,5167;AlsoseeKumingChang,ReviewofAndrian
Johns,TheNatureoftheBook:PrintandKnowledgeintheMakinginNewHistory,vol.16,Part
1(2006):183195.
10
BeforethecreationoffixedprintedversionsofMaijingandMaijueinNorthernSongdynasty,there
hadbeennostandardizedversionsofthesetwotexts.AsFanJiaweihaspointedout,many
timehonoredmedicalworksdidactuallyhavemorethanoneversionduringSuiandTangdynasties.
SeeFanJiawei,LiouchaoSuiTangyishuezhichuanchengyuzhenghe(HongKong:Zhongwendaxue
chubanshe,2004),pp.2949.OntheprintedfixedversionofMaijinginNorthernSongdynasty,seeLu
Jiaxied.,Zhongguokeshuejishushi,p.188.AlsoseeZhouFengwu,Zhongguoyishueyuanliu
guaiyao(Taiyuan:Shanxikeshuejishuchubanshe,1995),p.21.
11
TherealauthorofMaijuewasGaoYangsheng()ofSixdynasties.SeeLuJiaxied.,Zhongguo
keshuejishushi,p.324.
12
TheintriguingcaseoftheeponymousandfalselyattributedauthorofMaijingandMaijuecould
justifywhatMichelFoucaultcalledauthorfunctionthatthefunctionofauthoristoclassifydifferent
works.Ontheauthorfunction,seeRogerChartier,TheOrderofBooks:Readers,Authors,and
LibrariesinEuropebetweentheFourteenthandEighteenthCenturies(Stanford:StanfordUniversity
Press),1992,pp.2560.

 WhatsstrangewasthatthefalselyattributedMaijueactuallyappropriatedthe
authority,popularityandeminenceofMaijing,andevendroveittooblivionafter
NorthernSongdynasty.13HowcouldMaijuemakeit?First,althoughthetitleof
Maijingimplicateditsstatusasmedicalcanon(Jing ),itspointedoutthattheword
jingintheHan( 202BCE.220CE)dynastieswhenMaijingwascompileddidnt
necessarilymeancanonizedknowledge.14 Furthermore,thereasonwhyMaijingwas
titledascanonwasnotduetoitsqualityorstatus,butbecausethatitwasderived
fromtheNeijing()tradition.15 However,themostimportantfactorthatMaijue
couldreplaceMaijingastheguideofpulsediagnostictheoryafterNorthernSong
dynastywasduetoitssimplicityandthemnemonicdevicesofrhymedversesof
pulsestyles.16Therefore,Maijuethatcombineditsfamousauthor(thoughfalsely
attributed)withitssimplicity,andcontextualizedinthepublishingboominthe
NorthernSongdynasty17notonlygaineditseminenceandpopularity,butalso
dominatedthepulsediagnostictheorybeforeitsrepudiationinthemiddleandlate
Mingdynasty.

13

Onthedetaileddiscussionoftheissue,seePoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:
ControversiesandFormationofScholarlyMedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.203224,302303.
14
JohnB.Henderson,Scripture,Canon,andCommentary:AComparisonofConfucianandWestern
Exegesis(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1991),p.50.LiJianminalsoindicatesthatthe
socalledcanonssuchasNeijingandNanjing,thoughsmackedofnormalityandstandardization,were
actuallynotyetdeservedtobecalledcanonsduringHandynasty.SeeLiJianmin,Zhongguoyishueshi
yanjioudexinshiye,inNewHistory,vol.15,Part3(2004):210.
15
DonBatesed.,KnowledgeandScholarlyMedicalTradition(CambridgeCambridgeUniversityPress,
1995),p.192.
16
OnthereasonwhyMaijuewassuccessful,seePoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:
ControversiesandFormationofScholarlyMedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.203225.
17
CynthiaBrokaw,BookHistoryinPremodernChina,BookHistory(2007):259262.

2. MaijuecontroversyintheMingdynasty:socialandculturaldistinction
FromthemiddleofMingon,theorthodoxphysicianswereinfluencedbythe
scholarlytrendofevidentialresearch(KaozhengXue )thatledtothe
reorientationofphysicianstoregardNeijing()asthesupremecanonofthe
orthodoxmedicaltraditionandeliminatetheknowledgethatdidntcomplywithits
theory.18 However,againstthewilloforthodoxphysicians,themedicalmarketwas
thendominatedbyMaijueratherthanNeijing.Asthemostpopularmedical
instructionbeforethepopularizationofBinhuMaixue,19 Maijuehadlongprovided
thewayoflearningthepulsediagnostictechniqueforpractitionersofmedicine.Its
becauseMaijueofferedatoolforliteratepractitionerstomakealivingbydiagnosing
pulse,andthusappropriatedtheorthodoxphysicianshallmarkofpulsediagnosing
thatMaijuebecamethetargetoffulminationandelimination.ThefactthatMaijue
wasstifflyrejectedbyorthodoxphysiciansalsoreflectedthepredicamentthese
physiciansweretrapped,wheretheoutputofmedicalbookswasoverwhelming20
andtheofficialrulestoregulatethequalificationofphysiciandidntexist.21 Allthese

18

OntheMingphysicianswhoappliedthemethodsofevidentialresearchtothestudyofmedicine,
seePaulU.Unschuld,MedicineinChina:AHistoryofIdeas(California:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,
1985),pp.195196;WangLunandWangChangdong,Yishiyuwenming(Beijing:Zhongguozhongyiyao
chubanshe,1993),pp.142143.OntheevidentialresearchinMingandQingdynasties,seeBenjamin
A.Elman,ACulturalHistoryofCivilExaminationsinLateImperialChina(UniversityofCaliforniaPress,
California,2001),pp.458459.
19
OnthemedicalinstructionsinlateimperialChina,seeAngelaKiCheLeung,MedicalInstruction
andPopularizationinMingQingChina,LateImperialChina24.1(2003),p.134.
20
LucilleChia,PrintingforProfit:TheCommercialPublishersofJianyang,Fujian.(11th17thCenturies)
(HarvardUniversityAsianCenter,CambridgeandLondon,2002),pp.186,230234
21
ChuPingyi,Yaoyibusibing,foduyouyuanren:Ming,Qingdeyiliaoshichang,yishuezhisheyu

meantthatthecompetitionswereeverywhere.22 Therefore,theorthodoxphysicians
hadtocementtheirstatusanddignity23 bysettinguptheirownrulesandstandards
ofthequalificationoforthodoxphysiciansandthequalificationoflegitimatemedical
knowledge.ItsunderthesecircumstancesthatMaijuewaspickedupasacriterionof
distinction.Notonlythosewhopracticeditweredisdained,butthetimehonored
statusofMaijueasalegitimatemedicalknowledgewasalsorepudiated.24
3. TheMaijuecontroversyandtheestablishmentofthemedicalorthodoxy(Yitong
)andthecommunityoforthodoxphysiciansintheMingdynasty
ItsilluminatingtoconnecttherejectionofMaijueasalegitimatemedicalknowledge
totheestablishmentofthemedicalorthodoxyinthemiddleofMingdynasty.Xu
Chunfu( 15201596)sGujinYitongDaquan(TheCompleteWorksofMedical

yibingguenshiinTheBulletinoftheInstituteofHistoryandPhilology,AcademiaSinica,vol.68(2010):
148;AngelaKiCheLeung,MingdaishehueizhongdeyiyaoinFaguohanshue,vol.6(Beijing:Qinghua
dashuechubanshe),pp.3478.
22
Generallyspeaking,Maijuewaspracticedbythosewhoweretosomeextentliterate.Thereason
whytheseliterate,educatedpersonsplungedthemselvesintopracticingmedicinewasduetothe
harshcompetitionofcivilserviceexaminationinlateimperialtime.SeeBenjaminA.Elman,ACultural
HistoryofCivilExaminationsinLateImperialChina(UniversityofCaliforniaPress,California,2001),pp.
125128.Inthisway,thecompetitionwasnotbetweentheliteratephysiciansandtheilliterate
practitionersofmedicine,fortheilliterateorsemiilliteratecharlatansprovidedtheirservicesforthe
clientelethatwasnotoverlappedwiththeclienteleoforthodoxphysicians.Therefore,thosewho
posedathreattotheorthodoxphysicianswerenottheilliteratecharlatans.SeeYanlingChao,
MedicineandSocietyinLateImperialChina:AStudyofPhysicianinSuzhou,16001850,p.146.Joanna
GranthighlightsthecompetitionbetweenorthodoxphysiciansinherstudyofaMingphysicianWang
Ji.SeeJoannaGrant,MedicalPracticeintheMingDynastyAPractitionersView:Evidencefrom
WangJisShishanyian,ChineseScience15(1998):3780.
23
Onthewaytheorthodoxphysicianscompetedwithhereditaryphysicians,seeChaoYuanling,The
IdealPhysicianinLateImperialChina:TheQuestionofSanshi ,EASTM17(2000)6693.However,
asVolkarScheidpointsout,theboundarybetweentheorthodoxphysiciansandhereditaryphysicians
wasblurringinlateimperialtimesanditsnecessarytofindoutanewbenchmarkofdistinction.See
VolkarScheid,CurrentsofTraditioninChineseMedicine,16262006(Seattle:EastlandPress,2007),p.
46.
24
Onthedetaileddiscussionoftheissue,seePoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:
ControversiesandFormationofScholarlyMedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.225238.

OrthodoxyfromAncienttoModernTimes )wasthefirstMingmedical
workthatexcoriatedMaijueforitstheoreticalblunders.25 Itsworthnotingthatthe
phrasemedicalorthodoxyinthetitleofXusworkindicatedthatthefulmination
focusedonMaijuehadsomethingtodowiththemedicalorthodoxy.Inaword,
medicalorthodoxywasaseriesofmedicalworksthatwererecognizedasbelonging
totheorthodoxNeijingtraditionandcompliedwiththeteachingsoftheFour
MastersofJinandYuandynasties.26 Atfirstblush,themedicalorthodoxypresented
byXuChunfuseemedtobeidentifiedwiththeorthodoxmedicaltraditioninprevious
dynasties.However,whatcountswasnotthemedicalworksincluded,butthatXu
Chunfuculledtobeeliminated.AmongtheworksthatweretobeexcludedfromXus
medicalorthodoxy,Maijuewasspeciallytargetedforexcoriations.27Moreover,the
medicalworksafterthemiddleofMingdynastythatpannedMaijuealsoemphasized
themedicalorthodoxy.28
ItsobviousthatthefulminationandrepudiationfocusedonMaijuebythe
orthodoxphysicianswereinrelationtotheestablishmentofmedicalorthodoxyin
themiddleofMingdynasty.TheprefaceofanotherMingmedicalworktitledYitong

25

XuChunfu,Gujinyitongdaquan(Taipei:Xinwenfongchubanshe,1978),vol.2,pp.509513,579.
OntheFourMastersofJinandYuandynasties(),seeMartaHanson,Speakingof
EpidemicsinChineseMedicine:DiseaseandthegeographicimaginationinlateimperialChina,p.25.
YanlingChao,MedicineandSocietyinLateImperialChina:AStudyofPhysicianinSuzhou,
16001850,pp.4448.
27
OnthemedicalknowledgethatwastargetedforeliminationbyXuChunfu,seePoHueiHsieh,
TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:ControversiesandFormationofScholarlyMedicineinLate
ImperialChina,pp.225229.
28
LiZhongzi,ZhenjiaZhengyeninMaishuemingzhushierzhong,p.81.
26

ZhengmaiQuanshu(TheCompleteWorksoftheLegitimateTraditionofMedical
Orthodoxy )alsoputemphasesonthemedicalorthodoxy29 and,not
surprisingly,excludedMaijuefromtheorthodoxtradition.30 Therefore,itsworth
askingwhytherejectionofMaijuewasconnectedtotheestablishmentofthe
medicalorthodoxy.Theanswertothisquestionhingesontheformationofthe
communityofphysicians.
Ithasbeenindicatedthatthereexistedthecommunityoforthodoxphysiciansin
lateimperialChina.JoannaGrantandMartaHansonbothpointsoutthatsincethe
middleofMingdynasty,theboomofpublishing31 changedthewayoflearningand
transmittingofmedicalknowledge,creatingcommunicationsamongorthodox

29

WangKentang,Yitongzhengmaiquanshu(Taipei:Xinwenfengchubanshe,1997),p.81.
ThecallofYitongzhengmaiquanshufortheestablishmentofthemedicalorthodoxy,which
reflectedthereconstructionofmedicalknowledgetheorthodoxphysicianheldoutfor,wasfarmore
importantintheimplicitprintprotocolthaninthearticulatedargumentation.Byunifyingtheprinted
formatandlayoutofthetitlesincluded,Yitongzhengmaiquanshuinfactgavethesevariousmedical
worksidenticalfeatures,andthusaffordedavisibleparadigmofthemedicalorthodoxy.Gujinyitong
daquanwasalsoworthnoticing.ThoughitsnotacollectionlikeYitongzhengmaiquanshu,itscontent
wasactuallyabridgedandanthologizedfrommanyothermedicalworks(ChuPingyi,2010:18).
Therefore,Gujinyitongdaquansmackedofthesamecharacteristicsthatcontributedtotheconcrete
medicalorthodoxy,whichboreresemblancetothosegivenbyYitongzhengmaiquanshu.AsDavid
ScottKastanhasindicated,theEnglishliteraturewasactuallyinventedthroughthepublishing
formulaofa17thcenturyEnglishbooksellerHumphreyMoseleywhopublishedacollectionof
literaturesofEngland.Moseleyscollectionsofpoemsanddramasgaveidenticalprintedfeaturesto
thevariousliteraturesofEnglandincluded,madetheconceptionofEnglishliteraturepossible.See
DavidScottKastan,HumphreyMoseleyandtheInventionofEnglishLiteratureinSabrinaAlcorn,Eric
N.Lindquist,andEleanorF.Shevlined.,AgentofChange:PrintCultureStudiesafterElisabeth
Eisenstein(AmherstandBoston:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,2007),pp.105124.Thefactthat
theonlytwomedicalworkstitledasmedicalorthodoxy(Yitong)inChinesehistorywereinthevery
formofcollectionandemergedintheveryperiodofthelatterpartofMingdynastyisworthnoting.It
notonlyreifiedtheidealmedicalorthodoxyhelddearbytheorthodoxphysiciansonthepagesof
printedcollections,butalsopinpointedtheveryperiodinwhichmedicalorthodoxybecamevery
important.
31
OnthepublishinginMingdynasty,seeLucilleChia,PrintingforProfitTheCommercialPublishers
ofJianyang,Fujian.(11th17thCenturies)(HarvardUniversityAsianCenter,CambridgeandLondon,
2002).
30

physiciansbymeansofthepublishedmedicalbooks.Inthisway,theorthodox
physicianscouldsharetheirexpertise,knowledgeandvalueswitheachother,and
thegroupconsciousnessthuscametoexistence.32
Theformationofthecommunityoforthodoxphysicianswasobviouslyinrelation
totheestablishmentofthemedicalorthodoxyinviewoftheactofXuChunfuto
organizeacommunityoforthodoxphysicianscalledYititangzhairenYihuei(
)33andhiscompilingofthemedicalworkGujinYitongDaquan.Xus
enterpriseshowedthattheformationofthecommunityoforthodoxphysiciansand
theestablishmentofthemedicalorthodoxyweretwosidesofonecoin,whichwas
thecravingoforthodoxphysicianstocementtheirstatusanddignityinamilieu
wherecompetitionswerefierce.ThiswastheveryreasonwhyMaijuewas
repudiatedinthemiddleofMingdynastyratherthanpreviousperiods.
4. Maijuefulminationandtheinventionofnewtheories
Despitebeingcriticizedinpreviousdynasties,Maijuewasstillpopularandwelcomed
intheMing.FortheorthodoxphysicianswhowantedtoeliminateMaijuefromthe
medicalorthodoxy,thebestwaytoeradicateitslegitimacywastodestroyits
theoreticalrationale.However,Maijuestillenjoyedtimehonoredreputationasthe

32

JoannaGrant,AChinesePhysician(NewYork:Routledge,2003),pp.3339;MartaHanson,Speaking
ofEpidemicsinChineseMedicine:DiseaseandthegeographicimaginationinlateimperialChina(New
York:Routledge,2011),p.21.
33
LiuZuyiandSunGuangronged.,Zhongguolidaimingyimingshu(Beijing:Zhongyigujichubanshe,
2002),p.684.

theoreticalguideofpulsediagnosingintheMingdynasty.34 Therefore,inorderto
successfullypulverizethetheoreticalfoundationofMaijue,theorthodoxphysicians
appealedtoNeijingtocriticizethetheoryofMaijueandthuscreatedthenewtheory
ofpulsediagnosingthatcontributedtothemedicalorthodoxyintheMingdynasty.In
otherwords,themedicalorthodoxyestablishedbyMingorthodoxphysiciansnot
onlyexcludedMaijue,butalsoincludedthenewtheorythatwasinventedonthe
destructionofthetheoreticalrationaleofit.35
ThesignificantstartinggunleveledatMaijuebyorthodoxphysiciansintheMing
dynastywastriggeredbyXuChunfu.ThecontributionsofXutotherepudiationof
Maijuecanbesummarizedintwopoints:
(1) TheMaijuetheorythatwascontradictedwiththeorthodoxNeijing
InordertodestroythepopularityofMaijueandexpresshisdespisetothosewho
practicedit,XuChunfudedicatedhimselftolisttheblundersMaijuehadcommitted.
Amongthem,thedefianceofittothetheoryofNeijingwasunforgivable.Xu
elucidatedthatthetheoryofMaijuefundamentallyconflictedwithNeijinginthe
locationsonwriststofeelthepulses.36 Moreover,whattheissueconcernedwasnot
merelythelocationsonwrists,butalsothespecificvessels(jingmai )and

34

PoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:ControversiesandFormationofScholarly
MedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.203224.
35
Onthedetaileddiscussionofthisissue,seePoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:
ControversiesandFormationofScholarlyMedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.225238.
36
XuChunfu,Gujinyitongdaquan,p.235.

viscera(Zongfu )thatconnectedtothem.
Thelocationstofeelthepulsescanbedividedintoupper(cun ),
middle(guan ),andlower(chi )onbothleftandrightwrists.Thesesix
locations,accordingtoXusexplanationofNeijing,mustconnecttothevisceraofthe
humanbodyintheorderthattheupperconnectedtotheupperandthelower
connectedtothelower.However,onthebasisofMaijuetheory,theupperlocation
onwristsactuallyconnectedtothelowerintestines.37 Maijuethus,asXuChunfu
indicated,conflictedwiththetheoryofvesselsandvisceraofNeijing.Thiswasa
seriousblunderinviewofthetrendtoapplythemethodsofevidentialresearchby
orthodoxphysicianstothestudyofmedicineduringthistime.Neijingwasrespected
astheutmostvaluedcanonthatcouldntbechallengedbyanymedical
theory.38Therefore,theMaijuethatcontradictedNeijingcouldnotescapethefateof
beingrepudiated.ThroughtheexcoriationoftheblundercommittedbyMaijue,new
theorywasensued.TheintestineswerenowclaimedbyXutobeconnectedtothe
lowerlocationsonbothwrists,appositelycompliedwithNeijing.39
ItsworthemphasizingthatXuChunfusrejectionofMaijuewasnotanexception.
ThesametheoreticalsuggestionwasupheldbyotherfamousMingandQing

37

GaoYangsheng,WangshuheMaijueinChenMenglei,Gujintushujicheng:yishudian(Taipei:
Xinwenfongchubanshe,1995),430:56.
38
OntheevidentialresearchandMaijuecritiquesinlateimperialChina,seePoHueiHsieh,Taisumai
andWangShuheMaijue:ControversiesandFormationofScholarlyMedicineinLateImperialChina,
pp.239259.
39
XuChunfu,Gujinyitongdaquan,p.235.

orthodoxphysicianssuchasLiZhongzi,40 SunYikuei( 15221619),41 Zhang

Jiebin( 15631640),42 andYuChang( 15851664).43 Thesharedideaof
thenewtheoryindicatesaconfigurationofthecommunityoforthodoxphysicians.
(2) TheinventionofnewmedicaltheorybasedonthefulminationofMaijue
Itsindicatedthattheneworthodoxtheorythattheintestinesshouldbeconnected
tothelowerlocationsonwristsbasedonNeijingseriouslydamagedthelegitimacy
ofMaijue.However,theorderthattheupperconnectedtotheupperandthelower
connectedtotheloweroftherelationshipbetweenthelocationsofpulse
diagnosingandviscerastillleavessomethingtobeanswered.
TheorthodoxphysicianssuchasXuChunfuandLiZhongzimaintainedthat,
accordingtothisorder,thetwelvevesselsofhumanbodyshouldintheoryconnect
tothesixlocationsonbothwristsandtherelatedviscera.Theoretically,there
shouldbetwelvevisceratoconnecttothetwelvevessels.Nevertheless,basedon
thetimehonoredtheoryofMaijue,therewereonlyelevenviscera.44 Therefore,the

40

LiZhongzi,ZhenjiaZhengyen,pp.99100
SunYikuei,YizhishuyuinChishueixunzhuquanji(Beijing:RenminWeishengchubanshe,1986),
p.1196.
42
ZhangJiebin,LeijinginZhongguoyishuedachengsanbian(Changsha:Yuelushushe,1994),vol.1,
p.64.
43
Yuchang,YimenfaluinZhongguoyishuedachengxuji(Shanghai:Shanghaikexuejishuchubanshe,
2000),vol.23,pp.2527.
44
Infact,thereweretwelvevisceraaccordingtotheoriginalMaijuetheory.Butoneoftheviscera,i.e.
Mingmen(),waseliminatedbyaYuandynastyscholarDaiQizhong()forthereasonthat
suchanorgandidntexistinNeijing.DaisviewpointwasacceptedamongMingorthodoxphysicians.
SeeZhangJiafeng,Shenghuazhiyuanyulimingzhimen:Jin,Yuan,MingyishuezhongdeMingmen
shitan,inNewHistory9.3(1998):147;DaiQizhong,MaijueKanwuinSikuquanshu:zibu(Taipei:
Taiwanshangwuyinshuguan),52:865.
41

theoreticalchallengewastosolvethepuzzlethathowtwelvevesselscouldconnect
toonlyelevenviscera.
TheanswerfirstproposedbyXuChunfuwasfarfromcomplicated.Simplyby
addingoneorgantomakeupthevisceraoftwelveorgans,onecouldsatisfythe
wholenessoftheconnectionbetweenthevesselsandtheviscera.45Thisneworgan
wasTanzhong(),aviscusthatwasthoughttobeclosetotheheart.Most
importantly,theneworganwasbasedonthetheoryofNeijing.46 Therefore,thenew
theoryofthesystemofcorrespondencebetweenthevesselsandviscerafurther
sappedtherationaleofMaijue.
5.ThedemiseofMaijueandtheriseofBinhuMaixue:thechangeofthe
theoreticalframeofpulsetypes
Asmentionedabove,thetheoreticalfoundationofMaijuewasdestroyedbythe
Mingorthodoxphysicians.However,thepopularityofMaijuewasstillprosperous,
andthetheoreticalframeofit,i.e.theclassificationofthetwentyfourpulsetypesas
threecategoriesofsevenexteriors,eightinteriors,andninewayspulsetypes
wasalsoinfluential.
Therefore,inresponsetotheclaimsoftheorthodoxphysiciansthattheinfluence

45

XuChunfu,Gujinyitongdaquan,p.237;LiZhongzi,YizongbiduinZhongguoyishuedachengxuji,
vol.30,pp.148149;ZhangJiebin,LeijinginZhongguoyishuedachengsanbian,vol.1,p.61;FangYizhi,
TongyainFangYizhiquanshu,vol.1,p.1543.
46
ItsindicatedbyLiJianmin()thatTanzhongwasprobablyanorganinventedforthe
symmetryofthevesselsandviscera.SeeLiJianmin,Sizhengzhiyu:Zhou,Qin,Hanmaishuezhi
yuanliou(Taipei:InstituteofHistoryandPhilology,AcademiaSinica,2000),p.222.Ontheissueof
Tanzhong,alsoseePoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:ControversiesandFormationof
ScholarlyMedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.5860,244250.

ofMaijuemustbeeradicated,anewtheoreticalframeofpulsetypeswasproduced.
ItwasproposedintheBinhuMaixueofLiShizhen.Inthework,Liconstructedhis
theoreticalframetobeclassifiedastwentysevenpulsetypes,thusdestructedthe
sevenexteriors,eightinteriors,andninewayspulsetypesclassificationof
Maijue.47
ThisfactisveryimportantbecausethelongacceptedtheoreticalframeofMaijue
wasreplacedbythetwentysevenpulsetypesclassificationofBinhuMaixue,which
hadhereafterbeenthetheoreticalguidetopulsediagnosinguntiltwentiethcentury,
whentheChinesemedicinewaschallengedbyandadaptedtothewestern
medicine.48
Thechangeofthetheoreticalframeoftheclassificationofpulsetypeswasclearly
demonstratedinaMingversionmedicalbookcalledQiTaishangTienbauTaisu
ZhangShenxienMaijueXuanweiGanglingTongzong(TheSupremeEsotericGuideto
theCelestialMasterZhangsMaijue ).
Thisbookwasakindofmedicalknowledgethatcombineddivinationandmedicinein
thetheoryofpulsediagnosticsbasedonMaijue.49 Mostimportantly,thestrange

47

PoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:ControversiesandFormationofScholarly
MedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.283308.
48
PoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:ControversiesandFormationofScholarly
MedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.283308.
49
ThetheoryofTaisumai(ThepulsediagnosticsofTaisu )elucidatedintheisworkwasalsoa
keytounderstandtheconstructionofmedicalknowledgeinthehistoryofChinesemedicine.For
detaileddiscussions,pleaseseePoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:Controversiesand
FormationofScholarlyMedicineinLateImperialChina.

illustrationsofpulsetypesclassificationcontainedinthebookheldthekeytothe
elucidationofthechangeofthetheoreticalframe.Sincethetitleofthiswork
indicatesthatitscontentwasbasedonMaijue,itwouldntbesurprisingthatits
theoreticalframeofpulsetypeswasconstitutedbysevenexteriors,eight
interiors,andnineways.Buttheillustrationsshowedheredemonstratethatsuch
kindofclassificatorytheoreticalframewasundertransforming.

Figure.1istheillustrationofthesevenexteriors,whichwasordinarilymadeup
ofsevenpulsetypes.Atfirstglance,thisillustrationseemstobeasgardenvarietyas
anyothersevenexteriorsillustrationscontainedinmanyMingversionmedical
instructionsonMaijue.However,closerexaminationshowsthatthereareactually

eightpulsetypescontainedinthissevenexteriorsillustration.Theextraordinary
oneisShu()pulsetype,atypethatwasnotincludedintheMaijuepulsetypes
classification.Theeightexteriorsillustrationisordinary,sotheemphasishereis
putonthesevenexteriorsandninewaysillustrations.

Figure.2istheillustrationofninewayspulsetypesalsocontainedinthiswork.
Onscrutinizingthisillustration,onecanfindoutthatthereareactuallytwomore
pulsetypesincluded.ThesetwotypesareSan()andGe().50
Whatsimportantisthatthesethreepulsetypesalongwiththeoriginaltwenty
fourpulsetypesclassifiedassevenexteriors,eightinteriors,andninewaysin

50

PoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:ControversiesandFormationofScholarly
MedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.272283.

theMaijuetheoryconstituteaschemeofpulsetypesoftwentyseven.And,
flabbergastingly,thesetwentysevenpulsetypesarepreciselythosethatconstituted
thetheoreticalframeoftwentysevenpulsetypesproposedbyLiShizheninhisBinhu
Maixue.ItsnothingfortuitousthatthepulsetypesintheQiTaishangTienbauTaisu
ZhangShenxienMaijueXuanweiGanglingTongzongwereidenticalwiththosein
BinhuMaixue.Infact,thestrangeillustrationsaretheincarnationoftheprocessof
changefromthesevenexteriors,eightinteriors,andninewaysclassificatory
frametothetwentysevenpulsetypesclassification,servingastheveryevidence
thatillustratesthegraduallyreplacementofMaijuebyBinhuMaixue.
Thepublicationdatecanfurtherexplainthischangingprocessinthelastquarter
ofMingdynasty.SincethedateofthepublicationofBinhuMaixue(1596)wasearlier
thanthatofQiTaishangTienbauTaisuZhangShenxienMaijueXuanweiGangling
Tongzong(1599),itsreasonabletoinferthatthestrangeillustrationsdiscussedabove
areindicationsoftheoldclassificatoryframeofMaijuerenderedtotteringunderthe
crushofthenewand,moreimportantly,orthodoxclassificatoryframeofBinhu
Maixue.51
6.Theentrenchedconsensusoflegitimateknowledgeinthecommunityof
orthodoxphysiciansintheQingdynasty

51

PoHueiHsieh,TaisumaiandWangShuheMaijue:ControversiesandFormationofScholarly
MedicineinLateImperialChina,pp.272283.

Ithasbeenindicatedabovethatthetheoryofscholarlymedicalknowledge
underwentseriouschangeduringthemiddleandlateMingdynasty.The
longacceptedtheorywasabolished,andthenewonethatreplaceditflourished.
It'sworthnotingthatthoughtheMaijuethatreplacedMaijingintheNorthern
SongdynastywassubstitutedbyBinhuMaixueinthecodaofMingdynasty,the
statusofMaijingwasstillobliviousinthelateMingandQingdynasty.Thereason
whyMaijingneverbecameeminentliesnotonlyintheconditioninthelastquarter
ofMingdynastythattheorthodoxphysicianshadtoproducetheirownlegitimate
knowledgetocementtheirstatusanddefinetheborderofthecommunityof
orthodoxphysicians,butalsointheweaknessofMaijingcompilationandthestatus
ofitsauthorinthelateimperialtimes.
IthadlongbeenpointedoutthatMaijingwasfarfromapageturner.Infact,it's
veryhardtoreadasindicatedbymanyscholarsandphysiciansfromNorthernSong
dynastytotheQing.Thisisalsoafactorthatcontributedtoitsalmostcomplete
substitutionbyitseponymousMaijue.Inadditiontothedifficultyinreading,the
authorofMaijing,i.e.WangShuhe,wascontroversialduetothetruthfulnessofhis
compilationofMaijingandShanghanLun().52
Againstsuchbackground,thestatusofBinhuMaixueaslegitimatemedical

52

BenjaminA.Elman,OnTheirOwnTerms:ScienceinChina,15501900,pp.230236.

knowledgewaswellentrenchedintheQingdynasty.AlthoughBinhuMaixuewas
welcomedamonglowbrowmedicalpractitioners,itnevercausecontroversyinthe
Qingbecausethestatusoforthodoxphysiciansasprofessionalmedicalpractitioner
wascemented,andthelegitimatemedicalknowledgehadbeendefinedbythe
communityoforthodoxphysicians.Therefore,thegroundswellofthereconstruction
ofscholarlymedicalknowledgeinthelatterpartofMingdynastymotivatedbythe
cravingoforthodoxphysicianstocementtheirstatusandclientelechangedthe
scholarlymedicalknowledgeinthelateimperialChinathereafter.