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A CASE STUDY OF FURNACE EXPLOSION IN A CIRCULATING FLUIDISED BED

BOILER
By K.K.Parthiban, B.Tech ( IIT) , M.E, boiler specialist, Venus energy audit system
Introduction
PF boilers have furnace safeguard supervisory system in which flame sensing devices are used to
check the presence of flame continually. Other combustion technologies such as grate combustion,
Fluidised bed combustion, do not have flame combustion and hence operators are dependent on
temperature sensors and to some extent on oxygen sensors. Temperature sensors and oxygen sensors
are practically slow sensors as compared to flame sensors which are positive in saying flame is there
or not and instantaneously.
Explosion in CFBC Boilers
Explosions faced in CFBC boilers are dust explosions caused by small particles of coal in the bed
and in the free board kept under suspension by fluidizing air fans. The explosion results in distortion
of waterwall panel. The photos at the end show the damage caused by an explosion in the case study
presented.
Definition of an Explosion
A dust explosion is the rapid combustion of a dust cloud. In a confined or nearly confined space, the
explosion is characterized by relatively rapid development of pressure with flame propagation and
the evolution of large quantities of heat and reaction products. The required oxygen for this
combustion is supplied by the combustion air. The condition necessary for a dust explosion is a
simultaneous presence of a dust cloud of proper concentration in air that will support combustion and
a suitable ignition source. Explosions are either deflagrations or detonations. The difference depends
on the speed of the shock wave emanating from the explosion. If the pressure wave moves at a speed
less than or equal to the speed of sound in the unreacted medium, it is a deflagration; if it moves
faster than the speed of sound, the explosion is a detonation. The term dust is used if the maximum
particle size of the solids mixture is below 840 m. Minor flue gas explosions are called puffs or
blow backs. In a PF boiler, the particle size is around 85 m. In a BFBC boiler only 30% of the
particles are below 30%.
Fire Triangle and Explosion Pentagon
There are three necessary elements which must occur simultaneously to cause a fire: fuel, heat, and
oxygen. These elements form the three legs of the fire triangle. By removing Fuel any one of these
elements, a fire becomes impossible. For Fire Triangle example, if there were very little or no
oxygen present, a fire could not occur regardless of the quantities of fuel and heat that were present.

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Likewise, if insufficient heat were available, no concentrations of fuel and oxygen could result in a
fire.
On the other hand, for an explosion to occur, there are five Suspension necessary elements which
must occur simultaneously: fuel, heat, oxygen, suspension, and confinement. These form the five
sides of the explosion pentagon. Like the fire triangle, removing any Ignition Source one of these
requirements would prevent an explosion from Confinement
propagating. For example, if fuel, heat, oxygen, and confinement
occurred together in proper quantities, an explosion would still not
be possible without the suspension of the fuel. However, in Fuel
this case, a fire could occur. If the burning fuel were then placed in
suspension by a sudden blast of air, all five sides of Explosion
Pentagon the explosion pentagon would be satisfied and an
explosion would be imminent. Remembering the three sides of the
fire triangle (fuel, heat, oxygen) and the five sides of the explosion
pentagon (fuel, heat, oxygen, suspension, confinement) is
important in preventing fires and explosions at any facility. By eliminating the possibility of either
suspension or confinement, an explosion cannot occur, but a fire may occur. By eliminating the fuel,
the heat, or the oxygen requirements, neither a fire nor an explosion can occur.
Explosiveness of Coal
Coal, as a primary fuel, must meet several requirements in order to be explosive. These requirements
are:
Volatile ratio
The volatile ratio is defined as the volatile matter divided by the summation of volatile matter and
fixed carbon of the coal. It has been determined that coals with a volatile ratio exceeding 0.12
present a dust explosion hazard. All bituminous coals fall into this category.
Particle size
The particle sizes that can contribute to an explosion are 840 microns (0.84 mm) and below. Lesser
the particle size more severe would be the explosion. Hence PF boilers are more susceptible to
explosions.
Quantity
The minimum concentration of dust in suspension that will propagate a coal dust explosion is called
Minimum Explosive Concentration (MEC). The MEC for bituminous coal is approximately 100
grams per cubic meter. The upper explosive limit of coal dust concentration is 380 grams per
cubic meter that would propagate a low-velocity explosion.

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Heat
Furnace explosions in CFBC boilers are rare when both bed and free board temperatures are above
760 deg C. Chances of explosions are very high when these temperatures are below 540 deg C.
Though not fully established, yet chances of explosions cannot be ruled out when bed temperature
remains between 540 deg C and 760 deg C.
Causes of Furnace Explosion

Pushing the fuel (coal or oil) into the boiler when there is loss of ignition known as Delayed
operation of Fuel Trip Relay. Loss of ignition in a boiler causes explosive mixture to form. Such
mixture must be purged out before initiating firing.
Sudden firing after a boiler is banked or stopped for a short period without proper purging.
Insufficient purging of the furnace.
Unbalanced fuel air ratio to allow the fuel concentration to fall within explosive range.
Leaking fuel supply system

Basic Philosophy of Explosion Prevention

The basic principles of avoidance of explosion are:

Fuel should never be fed into the furnace continuously for more than 12 seconds when there is no
fire.
Furnace is completely purged of the explosive mixture and then fired.
Fuel supply is stopped immediately if fire / flame is not established and re-purging is surely done
before restart.
Correct air fuel ratio is maintained so that dust concentration within explosive limits is never
achieved.

Comparison between a PF Boiler and a CFBC Boiler

Following aspects need to be considered before sequencing the operation of a CFBC Boiler:

Tripping of PF boiler with fuel supply shut off would result in complete flame failure (barring
slag burning). This may not be true in case of a CFBC boiler where coal on bed may continue to
smoulder.
Failure of flame or complete loss of ignition in PF boiler immediately gives the indication that
any fuel supply under such condition would form explosive mixture. Since loss of complete/
partial ignition cannot be ascertained in CFBC boiler (due to non- availability of flame sensing
device), it becomes extremely difficult to judge whether such mixture is being formed or not.
Incorporation of furnace safe guard systems in PF boiler which completely shuts off the fuel
supply when actuated by flame sensing device greatly helps operation staff in preventing
explosions. CFBC boilers are not fortunate in this regard. In this boiler, even after stopping the

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fuel supply, coal on the bed continues to remain present in the furnace unless boiler is cooled and
those materials are taken out.
The only parameter that would indicate whether combustion is being established in a CFBC
boiler is the reducing oxygen / increasing CO2 % in flue gas at furnace outlet.

Operation to Prevent Explosion in CFBC Boilers

The explosions mostly occur when during start up or during a hot restart. During this period air / fuel
controls are not proper. Even draft control is kept on manual mode. Hence operators who do not have
a feel for the air / fuel ratio control land the boiler for an explosion.
Protection of Boiler against Explosion
Explosion doors/ vents of adequate sizes and at suitable locations must be provided in any type of
boiler to mitigate the impact of explosion. Boiler manufacturers may please be asked to provide the
same.
Case study
This is a case study of a boiler explosion in a 85 TPH CFBC boiler fired with South African coal.
The boiler had a furnace explosion after 12 hrs after a fresh start up. There were extensive damages
to buckstay, boiler waterwall and economiser casing. The incident took place a week before our visit
was made. The boiler was offered for inspection after cleaning. The boiler insulation was removed
almost fully so that the waterwall rectification wok can be commenced.
The CFBC boiler log parameters were made available for review at the time of visit. Subsequent to
this, few important trends were also taken for review. The findings are summarised below.
Chronology of events

Boiler was started on 1.30 AM on first day.

Boiler was connected to main steam header at 6.30 AM on the first day.
Boiler was running at a load of 43 TPH till 23.30 PM on the first day.
Coal was not feeding to furnace at 00.10 hrs on second day.
There was an incident of furnace high pressure trip prior to incident of explosion. PA fan and
SA fan got tripped. Fans were restarted at 00.35 hrs. Coal feed was initiated at 0.38 hrs. Just
after 00.40 hrs furnace explosion took place.

Review of log sheet and trend

The log data was made available for duration from 23.31 pm on the first day to 00.38 am of next day.
Following were the observations of undersigned.
Duration between 11.31 of first day to 00.11 of second day
1. Bed temperature was at 830 deg C average.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The furnace pressure was hunting between -20 mmWC and -50 mmWC.
PA air flow had been 80-84 TPH, which is almost the full load air flow.
SA flow was in between 131 to 137 TPH though the load was 73 TPH.
Air box pressure had been +1200 mmWC to +1275 mmWC.
Main steam flow had been 43-44 TPH.
Oxygen went up from 10.14 % to 13.18% at 00.13 hrs.

Duration between 00.11 of second day to 00.20 of second day

1.
2.
3.
4.

Bed temperature came down to 636 deg C.

As the oxygen went up to 18%, it was clear that there was no coal flow to the furnace.
Coal feeder rpm was raised from 6.5 -12.5-14.5-20.
PA air flow had been 80-84 TPH, which is almost the full load air flow. However PA fan
VFD was brought down from 85 to 74.
5. ID VFD remained at 81.
6. Air box pressure had come down from 1200 mmWC to 1000 mmWC.
7. Main steam flow came down to 21 TPH.
8. SA flow remained at 134 TPH and SA pressure was at 640 mmWC.
9. Furnace draft increased from -40 mmWC to -90 mmWC.
10. PA fan, SA fan and fuel feeder, DCF tripped at 00.20 hrs.
11. In the one minute interval data, there is no record of furnace pressure going high. However on
furnace pressure high activation only the feeders, PA and SA got tripped.
Duration between 00.20 of second day to 00.40 of second day
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The PA fan and SA fan were brought in service.

PA pressure went up to 1096 mmWC.
The coal feeder rpm was at 15 for three minutes. Then it was reduced to 8.
SA discharge pressure was at 433 mmWC.
The PA fan VFD was at increased up to 78%.
Suddenly the ID fan VFD input was changed from 75% to 20% by operator.

Just at this point the furnace pressure had gone high and resulted in explosion. The reduction of ID
fan VFD made the furnace pressure to + ve. Yet there must be fuel rich situation for the incident to
occur. There were two possibilities of fuel accumulation.

Theory 1: Actually coal flow was there from feeder and it might have accumulated in the fuel
feed pipe without entering in to furnace. At one point the fuel could have come in to furnace. For
a steam load of 45 TPH the feeder speed was 6.5. Approximately the coal feed rate had been 10
TPH. In a minute the feeder can feed 167 kg for 1% rpm. Cumulatively there must have been
coal feed to an extent of 3384 kg of coal for the period of coal flow problem. Out of this the coal
must have burnt to an extent of 50% since the steaming was at a rate of 20 TPH. There can be a
balance of coal to about 1700 kg inside the coal pipe which got fed suddenly. The bed inventory
can be about 7740 kg for a bed height of 600 mm. This will leave a coal percent of 18% in the
bed. But the VM was about 40%, which got used up in explosion. The remaining coal in bed
should have been 10.8%. Under normal condition the carbon percent in a fluidised bed does not
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exceed 1.5%. This proves there was coal accumulation.

Theory 2: Coal burning needs adequate air flow for combustion. In case of excess air flow, coal
will accumulate without combustion. When there is PA flow / SA flow reduction, the
accumulated coal could burn rapidly. The first trip which occurred was at 00.20 hrs. This time
the furnace was dilute. There was no coal flow for a period. As the furnace was with excess air,
the coal stopped burning. As fuel flow was raised and air flow was brought down, the furnace
pressure went high due to sudden burning of high VM fresh coal. The same situation was
occurred during the explosion. The fuel flow was increased and ID fan rpm & damper was
reduced drastically. On pressurisation of furnace, the accumulated coal had burnt rapidly. This
had resulted in explosion. In this explanation, there would be a quite a high fuel accumulation.

It was informed that when the LOI of bed material was analysed to be 12%. It meant that there was
sufficient accumulation of fuel without burning.
RECOMMENDATIONS

The loading of the boiler has to be done with regulated air flow, fuel flow and bed material flow.
Without bed material addition, the load rise will take time in a CFBC boiler. With less bed
material, the rise and fall of bed temperature will be abrupt during feeder rpm change. The
combustion is in the form of suspension firing rather than a fluidised bed firing.
In this plant, the fuel spreader air was taken from SA. Initially the SA flow would be less and
thus the SA pressure would be less. With less SA pressure fuel spreading would not be proper.
The fuel spreading air shall be tapped from windbox itself, where the PA pressure is always in
the range of 1000 mmWC to 1200 mmWC.
An explosion door can be added to upper furnace. Rupture disc can also be another choice.
In the present design, the fuel port is made of refractory. Refractory surface not being smooth can
accumulate fuel. Air cooled plate formed chutes are recommended.

EXTENT OF DAMAGE
On inspection of the furnace, it was clear that the waterwall got opened due to improper closure of
the buckstay at corners. If the buckstays were closed properly, the waterwall would not have got
distorted. Instead some other weak point such as APH hopper could open up. The economiser casing
got opened up since casing stiffeners were not closed at all. Stiffening is incomplete, if the corners
were not closed. The photos explain the designers and erectors mistakes that led to more damage to
the combustor panels.
CONCLUSION
Knowledge of minimum fluidisation air flow is very essential during start up. With less air flow and
with less fuel, the continuous combustion has to be established. High SA flow during start up, results
in quenching of the fire. This explosion is a result of confused state of the operation team during start
up. The boiler manufacturer did not consider explosion doors which are essential these days wherein
high VM coals are used. Once we know that there is excess fuel inside the furnace, the ID draft alone
has to be increased to avoid a mishap.

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Photo 1 & 2: The buckstays got distorted at several levels. The corner plate weldment broke away
since the weld was incomplete. Otherwise waterwall might have been spared. Other vulnerable areas
would have given way under pressure.

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Photo 4: The scalloped plate welding was not

sufficient. The weld length was not sufficient
for the pressure, the furnace underwent.

Photo 3: The economiser casing stiffeners are not

closed at corners.

Photo 5: A corner without a weld at bottom of corner plate. The incomplete job during construction
is also a cause for extensive damage to waterwall.

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Photo 6: A seismic guide for second pass. Second pass should be guided at casing stiffener. This is a
designers mistake.

Photo 7: Boiler guide shall be at buckstay and not at waterwall plain area. This is again a designers
fault to have improperly located the buckstay guide.

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Photo 8: The economiser casing hangs from Steam cooled wall panel bottom header. The weld is
incomplete. During the explosion, the improperly fused weld joint had given way.

Photo 9: A view of the economiser casing which is not welded.

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Photo 10: Just before boiler explosion, the PA rpm was being raised till the explosion occurrence.

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Photo 11: Prior to explosion incident, it is seen that the ID fan current came down and then the
furnace explosion took place. The damper % and VFD percent both were reduced with no reduction
in PA damper & SA damper setting. The furnace got exploded due to fuel accumulation present &
simultaneously as the ID draft was reduced.

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Photo 12: As the damper closure and VFD rpm reduction took place simultaneously, the furnace
pressure went up. As there was fuel accumulation earlier, the furnace got exploded.

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Photo 13: Typical explosion doors in a CFBC boiler by another manufacturer.

Figure 1: The above sketch shows a typical explosion door arrangement suggested to suit the site condition.
Hinged door / rupture discs can be the alternate arrangement.

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A FREAK INCIDENT OF A BED SUPERHEATER FAILURE
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

Case studies are interesting. This case is very interesting one. The customer had a bed SH failure. At
the time of the visit, the failed bed SH tube was not available at the plant. It was sent to boiler
manufacturer for their analysis. However the photograph was available to see the nature of failures.
A BRIEF ON THE BOILER
This is a 100 TPH, 105 kg/cm2, 520 deg C coal fired AFBC boiler. The unit has been in operation for
more than 3 years. The boiler is equipped with under bed feeding arrangement. The boiler has 5
compartments.
OCCURRENCE OF FAILURE
It was informed that there had been coal flow problems in the bunker & fuel line choking problems.
This had led to the frequent non availability of the compartments. The turbine had come to base load
often and at times the turbine had to be tripped. During the turbine trip, the MSSV was closed after
slumping of the boiler. As the lines were being cleared, the compartment no. 3 was activated and at
this moment the bed SH had bursted. The bed SH tubes are located in 3rd, 4th & 5th compartments. The
failure had occurred just above the fuel feed point.
ANALYSIS OF THE APPEARANCE OF THE FAILED PORTION
As the failed bed SH tube edge appeared sharp ( see photo 1) and there was no long term swelling of
the tubes, it was concluded that the tube had failed due to sudden & localized overheating (no
indication of starvation). Other bed tubes did not indicate any burning appearance nor did the tubes
show up any swelling in OD.
SUGGESTED FAILURE MECHANISM
Localized overheating failure takes place when the metal is insulated from steam cooling by the
presence of a dirt / deposit. The dirt gets transported from the steam drum to the failure spot. Above
the fuel feed point the heat flux being high, the tube can fail. The combustion can take place when the
coal is available from the fuel line or when the coal is spilled from the adjacent compartments.
DIAGNOSIS OF THE FAILURE
Up to this point summarizing the cause was easy for me.
mechanism. I requested for the inspection of steam drum.

I had to now prove the carryover

1. The steam drum was opened and checked for possible carryover. The evidence of foaming &
carryover was seen inside the drum.
2. The foaming had occurred due to high phosphate chemical dosage in the slumped boiler. In the
discussion, it came out that the HP dosing pump used to be in operation during the when the boiler
was hot slumped for attending coal jamming in fuel lines. On restart of the boiler, water being hot
and concentrated with phosphate, foaming had taken place. The presence of foams could be seen

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up to the secondary drier. See photographs 2 to 7. At two or three places the whitish powder
accumulations were seen.
3. For the last three months prior to failure, the boiler had been on high pH (values seen up to 9.8)
and phosphate level was seen up to 15 ppm. Though this is not a direct cause for this failure, but
the boiler had been corroding and the drum water is seen to be dirty. The drum surface up to NWL
is seen to be brownish indicating there had been corrosion at times. The corroded iron particulate
remains could be seen in the surfaces of drum internals.
4. It was learnt that the boiler was filled always through the economiser for hydrotest purpose. This
can transport any dirt from the boiler water to SH circuit. At some point of the time the dirt can get
inside the tube and lead to localized overheating failure.
I SUGGESTED FOLLOWING REMEDIAL ACTIONS TO AVOID FUTURE FAILURE
1. The HP dosing pump start / stop shall be interlocked with the boiler feed pump.
2. The chemical dosing shall be regulated with respect to steam flow. For this purpose VFD is
required at HP dosing pump. There can be additional control loop.
3. Always the SH should be filled first and the water should spill in to the steam drum and then
filling can be continued through the economiser. A 65 nb filling line can be connected to SH drain
header with suitable valves for isolation.
4. I advised customer not to operate the bed SH compartment unless the compartments with
evaporator tubes are in operation.
I SUGGESTED THE FOLLOWING PERMANENT REMEDIAL ACTIONS TO AVOID BOILER
OPERATIONAL DISTURBANCES
1. The root cause of the problem is basically from the coal handling plant. The vibratory screen
blinding seemed to have caused all the troubles. Screen blinding is a serious problem during
monsoon in the conventional vibratory screen. Flip flop screen is the right choice to handle high
moisture coals.
2. The present coal feed arrangement above the drag chain feeder is not OK. The load of coal in the
bunker allows compacting of coal. This sort of defect is seen in several installations. The feeder
chute should be designed in such a way, that the pressure from the coal column is used for
loosening the coal.
3. When the coal has more powder content and water content, the lumps form in the bunker.
Rectangular shaped bunkers have sharp corners where the hopper walls join. Circular bunker with
conical hoppers avoid this problem. A static bar screen above the feed hopper was recommended
so that lumps could get filtered. This will prevent the lumps going to feeder & fuel feed line. This
will avoid the PA line choking.
LESSON LEARNT
For every problem the diagnosis must be completed before simply putting back the boiler in operation.
I liked the customer approach that he did not give up after the manufacturer failed to identify the
cause. At least the future failure can now be avoided. I was very happy to talk in the group discussion
arranged for the entire operating team.

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Photo 1: This is the bed SH tube failure experienced. The failed portion is in the 3rd compartment.
The edge of the failed portion of the tube is thin in nature. This indicates there has been sudden
overheating situation.

Photo 2: The drum is with the mark of excess of phosphate in the drier area.

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Photo 3: Presence of whitish deposit in the second stage drier.

Photo 4: The presence of whitish marks along the edge of the primary drier in the steam space.

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Photo 5: The whitish sparkling particles seen above the normal water level in the drum. This must
be due to foaming created by excess phosphate chemical dosing in the drum. The dosing had
been on when the boiler was under slumped condition.

Photo 6: The whitish deposit seen at the weldment. The sparkling particles are seen above the
normal water level. The dark colored water indicates that there had been high pH in the boiler
water corroding the boiler.

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Photo 7: The boiler water chemistry had not been alright. The boiler water regime had been
outside the even the coordinated phosphate control curve.

Photo 10: Presence of mud in the boiler water. The back filling of SH to be practiced to avoid
carryover of dirt to SH sections.

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Photo 11: This is a boiler wherein the drum internal surface & turbo separators indicate the
perfect boiler water chemistry.

Photo 12: The fuel feeding on the left side is what is in this plant. The weight of the coal acts on
the feeder. It makes cakes of coal. The one on the right is what is in another plant. The coal
slides through by virtue of the hydrostatic head of coal. The lump formation will be avoided.

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Figure 1: This is an illustration of the bunker outlet chute in which the hydrostatic pressure does not act
on the feeder. At the same time the pressure helps in loosening the coal avoiding the coal flow problems
and caking of coal powder during monsoon times.

Figure 2: The flip flop screen is designed to work on high moisture.

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Innovative Solutions for Controlling Slagging

and Fouling in Coal Fired BFBC and CFBC
Boilers
K.K.Parthiban
Venus energy audit system
India

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SYNOPSIS
Coal is widely used fuel in a thermal power plant / process steam boilers. Coal has combustibles
and non combustibles. Non combustible is moisture and mineral matter. The mineral matter after
combustion is termed as ash. This ash can slag and / or foul over the heat transfer surfaces affecting
the heat transfer to tubes and sometimes lead to corrosion as well. Slagging of ash means sticking
of ash in the molten form over the furnace wall tubes and in some cases, on the superheaters located
in the high temperature zone. Fouling occurs on low temperature zones, where some minerals
which get vaporized at furnace condense at temperatures below 750 deg C.
Since the mineral fractions of coal ash varies, not all the coals behave in the same manner in a
boiler. Again depending on the combustion technology adopted, the ash behaves in a different
manner from one boiler to another boiler.
CASE STUDY 1
This plant has 3 x 95 TPH BFBC boilers with under bed feeding arrangement. The boilers are used
for captive power requirement of the cement plant. The coal used was an E grade Indian coal with
40% ash. The loss on ignition of fly ash used to be 5.5% to 6%. In order to reduce the LOI to less
than 2%, one of the boilers was converted from BFBC to CFBC in the year 2009. The conversion
resulted in following problems.
The problems
1. The steam temperature was reduced to 450 deg C as against rated temperature of 490 deg C.
2. Less steam generation as limited by ID fan draft. The steam flow was about 80 TPH as against
the earlier design of 95 TPH.
3. The gas temperature at ID inlet touched 195 deg C as against 140 deg C at lesser load itself.
First visit
The first visit was made when the boiler was in operation. The second visit was made when the
boiler was in shut down.
DESIGN REVIEW
A new external CFB combustor with three hot refractory cyclones was provided. See figure 1.1.
The external combustor was with In-bed & free board coils. The dip legs of three hot cyclones were
connected back to combustor. There was no SH coil addition. The flue gas from the cyclone outlet
was connected to the old boiler bottom where earlier BFB combustor was there. Basically the CFB
combustor was found to be a BFB combustor with ash recycling facility. A complete review of
design was done. The following were the summary of findings.
1. The new furnace was with a bed area of 67.67 m2. With 20% excess air & with a bed
temperature of 900 deg C, the fluidization velocity worked out to be 1.85 m/s. The new furnace
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was provided with over bed feeding.
2. The bed coil length required to restrict the combustion temperature to 900 deg C was 908 m.
The equivalent available length of bed coil was 940 m.
3. The bed coil was laid out at 550 mm above bed bottom and ended at 1515 mm. This meant that
the bed height inside had to be at 750 mmWC. The DP drop was expected to be of the order of
1040 mmWC. That meant for full load the air box pressure should be at 1790 mmWC for MCR
steam generation. The new FD fans were selected considering this high head pressure drop.
4. The over bed coils could pick up radiation heat transfer and compensate for the waterwall
pickup which was available prior to conversion.
5. Assuming 10 % over fire air port velocity worked out to be 60 m/s.
6. The new bed coils were with independent downcomers & independent risers. The outlet of bed
coils (both inbed & over bed) were not connected to old waterwall section. The heat pick up by
the old boiler would be less and hence its circulation would not be as good as before. Poor
circulation could give deposit induced corrosion occasionally.
7. The new combustor was provided 4.5 meter free board height above the bed coil top. Since the
new combustor was provided with over bed feed system, the finer particles would first travel to
cyclone and return via dip leg. Yet the cyclones do have a cut off particle size, which may be
135 microns as indicated by ash particle analysis. That meant the carbon particles of size less
than 135 microns could leave the furnace and reach the SH without much time for combustion.
In traditional CBFC boiler, the intense mixing available in the lower and upper furnace helps in
better carbon burn up. The turbulence was absent in this furnace.
8. The furnace volume above the lower bed coil was found to be 360 m3 including the gas pipes to
cyclones. The residence time was calculated to be to be 3 seconds.
9. No compartments were envisaged and hence the turndown had to be done using the entire bed.
The startup would consume huge amount of oil when the entire bed has to be heated for coal
feeding. The new hot air generator was feeding hot gas to the entire bed. In the earlier BFB
combustor, the hot gas generator was connected to start up compartment which was only onefourth of the total bed.
10. The refractory lining adopted for the combustor was 300 mm only. The skin temperature ranged
from 85 to 125 deg C when measured by an IR Camera.
11. The superheater now did not receive the direct radiation component from bed. Direct radiation
would add a steam temperature raise of 25 deg C. Hence the superheater surface should have
been increased. It was checked that the other boilers were capable of achieving steam

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temperature with 20% excess air and with a bed temperature of even 850 deg C even at a load
of 70 TPH.
12. The ID fans were connected in series to make up for draft loss across the cyclone & connecting
gas ducts to old boiler. The interconnection gas duct between two ID fans was found to be with
abrupt bends instead of with smooth curved inlet & outlet. In addition the gas duct had two
successive 90 deg duct bends very close by. This could cause high draft loss. See photo 1.10.
OPERATIONAL INSPECTION
1. The boiler load was about 75 TPH at the time of visit. The O2 level in APH inlet was
maintained at 4.5%. CO ppm at APH inlet & economiser outlet was about 2400 ppm.
2. The ID fans were found to run at full damper open position. The exit gas temperature touched
198 deg C. The ID fans were designed for 140 deg C gas temperature. Prior to conversion, the
boiler draft loss was only 95 mmWC. Now the both ID fans are found to do a duty of 110
mmWC each. The ESP outlet draft is measured to be -185 mmWC. The ID fan design head was
180 mmWC at 140 deg C. The ID fan head would be less due to high gas temperature.
3. The SA air was full open. The FD fan dampers were open to 50% & 30%. The limitation was
by ID fan at this high gas temperature. Further air pumping was not possible and hence the
boiler got stuck at about 75 TPH load.
4. It was seen that the cross over duct gas temperature was more than the bed temperature &
cyclone outlet temperature. This implied the combustion was not complete in the furnace.
Combustion was extending beyond the combustor. This resulted in high LOI. In ideal condition,
the volatile / powder combustion should have been completed in the furnace itself. The finer
particle or volatile matter should not burn in the cross over duct.
5. The LOI of fly ash was around 2.5% to 3.0%.
6. SH & Economiser thermal performance of CFBC boiler was compared AFBC boiler. It proved
that there had been fouling of ash. See fig 1.3 & 1.4.
7. There was good response in steam generation to coal feed in last compartment. The bed
temperature was running higher in first compartment though one feeder was down. The air
distribution arrangement was checked. See figure .The air duct tapping from the HAG (hot air
generator) to windbox was from a manifold in which the air velocity was calculated to be 19
m/s. The air velocity in compartment opening is 17.3 m/s for an air temperature of 190 deg C.
The first air box should be getting a disturbed air supply because its tapping was at the bend
itself. The last compartment was getting more air.
From the study, conclusion could not be drawn as to whether the tubes were coated with soot or fly
ash. Hence a shut down inspection was requested. Four interim suggestions were given. They were,
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ID duct layout modification was suggested to minimize draft loss. See figure 1.2.

Refractory lining over the waterwall portion below the final SH in old furnace.

SA pipe size of 100 mm with tips of 50 mm dia was recommended, in order to make more
SA available.

Extra air ducts between the main duct to the air plenum to reduce the flow unbalance
between windbox chambers.

THE SHUT DOWN INSPECTION

The boiler heating surfaces were inspected before any cleaning was done. Ash was scraped and no
soot was seen anywhere in SH coils and economiser coils. APH showed ash mounts over the tube
sheet. It became clear that the fly ash had fouling constituents. See photo 1.1 to 1.4. It was
important to note that the same coal was being fired for several years before conversion and in the
other two boilers and there was no such fouling problems reported in the BFBC boilers.
Reasoning of Fly ash depositions over the convection pass tubes
The coal was the same in all the three boilers. The fly ash is formed by fragmentation of ash
particles and also due to condensation of vaporized alkalis in coal. In BFBC all the ash constituents
leave the bed simultaneously without any enrichment of alkalis. In CFBC the particles are recycled
in to the furnace and the major ash removal is from the furnace, in the case of high ash coals (here
40% ash). The fineness of fly ash coupled with condensation of volatilized alkalis is the cause for
the increased fouling as compared to BFBC. In BFBC the relatively coarse ash particles leaving
with flue gas clean up the convective heating surfaces and there is no enrichment of fly ash by
volatile species. In fact, there were no soot blowers in BFBC boilers.
SOLUTIONS TO REMOVE THE DEPOSITS
The following four solutions are well known among the boiler designers and users.

Use of fireside additive

Use of sonic horns

Steam operated soot blower

Use of air blaster

Sonic horns / air blasters could be fitted in the inspection doors in I pass and II pass. Since the ash
was little softer, these were recommended. Incorporating steam operated soot blowers needed lot of
change in boiler pressure parts.
We recommended another solution which was little innovative.

We suggested that the bed ash cooler outlet ash could be injected in to the flue path of the old
boiler at the ash hopper below the old furnace. The idea was simply to simulate the condition as

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before.
FURTHER FINDINGS ON SHUT DOWN INSPECTION- RELATED TO ID DRAFT
1. ID fan duct system

The ID duct system was modified as per the recommendations given in first visit.

2. APH leaks& blockage

There were tube failures in APH upper block. The leakages could be seen by the shining wall
plates. See photo 1.5. Air leak test was done by closing the furnace side dampers and
pressurizing the APH with only FD fan. It revealed the extent of leakage.

The ash accumulated inside the APH increase the pressure drop. See photo 1.7. Subsequent to
modification to CFBC, the air side pressure had nearly doubled. This should have led to further
tube failures, since the tubes must have worn out already. The APH was never re-tubed in the
past. It was advised to replace the APH cold block tubes in full at the earliest.

3. gas side baffles in APH to ESP inlet duct

The gas side baffles were eroded badly. See photograph 1.8. The baffles were removed as the
eroded baffles create unnecessary pressure drop otherwise.

4. Roof air ingress

The seal box inside the boiler roof had developed leaks. See photo 1.6. This was arrested in the
shut down.

5. Leakage around the SH tubes of Sealbox of SH header

There was air ingress through the annular gap around the SH tubes that penetrate through the
waterwall. This could lead to leakage of SH tubes over a period. This was attended in the shut
down.

6. Gas side velocity check at cyclone

The gas inlet arrangement to cyclone was with an opening of 2056 x 700. The gas velocity
worked out to be 27.9 m/s. This could result in very finer fly ash.

The cyclone configuration is a standard Stairmand cyclone. It did not have a volute inlet.

The gas outlet velocity was worked out to be 20.4 m/s.

FEED BACK AFTER MODIFICATIONS & THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WILD SOLUTION

There was improvement in ID draft and steam generation after the duct modification & after
arresting air ingress. The high back end temperature and low main steam temperature problems
remained. The plant engineers wanted our concurrence to implement the innovative suggestion.
This was nothing but injecting the bed ash from bed ash coolers directly in to the flue path of old
boiler. The call came in a morning from the plant manager that all their problems were solved in a

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matter of 2 hrs after the bed ash cooler ash was injected in to the ash hopper below final
superheater. The boiler is in operation till date with the above solution.

CASE STUDY 2
This is a cement manufacturing unit having captive power plants. The plant has 4 x 85 TPH AFBC
boiler and 3 x 85 TPH CFBC boilers- see figure 2.1. The plant had been in operation with petcoke.
When the petcoke price & availability scenario change, coal is selected. Recently the plant had to
change over to firing South African coal in AFBC and CFBC boilers. It coincided with the lean
period for cement production and power export. One AFBC boiler & one CFBC boiler were in
operation. The following problems were reported from plant.
1. The boiler exit temperature went up by 15 deg C at AFBC boiler. The AFBC boilers were not
provided with any Soot blower system.
2. The CFBC boiler no 3 was alone in operation due to lesser power demand. In this boiler also,
the ESP inlet gas temperature went up by 20 deg C. The fouling of pressure parts was sensed
and the soot blowers were put to operation at least two times in a shift.
3. In CFBC boiler, another strange phenomenon started occurring. The combustor pressure ( lower
) at times gone up from + 80 mmWC to + 125 mmWC in few seconds and returned normal after
some time without any reason. The boiler started tripping 5 to 7 times in a day due the high
furnace pressure. At times the tripping occurred during steam blowing cycle as well.
In a nut shell, two problems were experienced. One was the fouling and the other was sudden boiler
pressurization in gas side.
DURING THE VISIT
Furnace pressurization
The furnace pressurization was analyzed through the DCS trend profile. See figure 2.2. It could be
identified that some blockage was occurring downstream of economiser. It was also seen that the
economiser inlet gas temperature was alarmingly high. See figure 2.3. It was clear that there was
ash fouling in superheater area.
Fouling in general
Fouling of the boiler heat transfer surfaces in convective sections are due to chemistry of ash. The
Na2O and K2O (alkalis) present in fuel ash vaporize at furnace and condense at flue path at
temperatures ranging from 750 to 650 deg C. Some coals do have high alkalis and hence pose
problems by way of decreasing steam generation, decreasing main steam temperature and

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increasing the boiler exit gas temperature. Ashes have been characterized and fouling potential is
predicted by empirical relations. A good input is covered in the book- B&W Steam generation &
use.
Coal ash analysis of South African coal
To confirm that the ash is fouling, coal ash analysis was carried out. See analysis attached, in which
the South African Coal ash, ash deposit collected from Final superheater, Limestone and Petcoke
ash were compared. When petcoke was used, it was always mixed with limestone and
predominantly the ash was created from limestone. Since SA coal was being used without any other
inert material, then the ash characteristics remained as that of Coal ash itself. By analysing the ash
nature by empirical relations, it was confirmed that the south african ash coal ash was fouling
nature. Interestingly the sodium content was more in the deposits confirming the deposits were
caused by sodium.
Severity of fouling / rate of fouling
The rate at which fouling occurred was dependent on how much Na2O+K2O passed through the
furnace and second pass. CFBC handled additional Na2O due to AFBC ash being fired additionally.
Hence the fouling rate was high. More the ash was refired in CFBC; faster would be the fouling
rate. The soot blowing cycles had to be more for refiring AFBC ash.

Yet fouling cannot be avoided as the coal ash can foul due to higher sodium content. Sodium +
Potassium less than 1% would pose less fouling.

A material balance was worked out on sodium loading in flue gas for the case of Petcoke firing
and South African coal firing. It was estimated that the Alkali content in fly ash during South
African coal firing could be 5 times than that of Petcoke firing case.

Particle size & cyclone cut off- difference between BFBC & CFBC
CFBC produces ash of very fine particles. This causes to form deposits
by particle adhesion. CFBC cyclone design will decide the particle
size. The same coal used in BFBC did lead to higher exhaust

Table 1: Fly ash particle

distribution at silo ash
+850 m

% Nil

+500 m

% 0.34

+180 m

% 1.68

90% of the particles were less than 75 microns. Average particles

+ 90 m

% 3.58

could be around 50 microns, which is very fine cut off. See table 1 &

+75 m

% 2.54

2. The difference between the CFBC and the BFBC is the difference in

+45 m

% 12.52

fineness of ash.

- 45 m

% 79.34

temperature. In BFBC there were no soot blowers.

An earlier data on CFBC particle analysis report indicated that the
CFBC was filtering a very high percentage of finer particles. Almost

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Table 2: Fly ash particle distribution in CFBC boilers
Boiler no

CFBC boiler no 1

CFBC boiler 2

ESP field no

ESP

ESP

field 1

field 2 field 3 field 1 field 2 field 3 field 1 field 2 field 3

+500 m

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

+180 m

2.8

Nil

Nil

2.2

Nil

2.6

3.5

Nil

1.2

+90 m

1.6

2.8

2.2

3.8

2.2

4.2

4.4

2.6

2.3

+75 m

2.1

4.2

3.5

2.7

4.6

10.2

7.6

2.1

9.5

+45 m

36.1

38.5

42.1

30.2

70.8

43.4

18.2

6.9

35.1

-45 m

57.4

54.5

52.2

61.1

22.4

39.6

66.3

88.4

51.9

ESP

ESP

ESP

CFBC boiler 3
ESP

ESP

ESP

ESP

Sudden pressurization & boiler tripping

It was suggested to start the second boiler in order to find where exactly the choking was occurring.
After the boiler was cooled, the boiler was inspected physically. The ash deposits over superheater,
economiser and airpreheater blocks were to an alarming level. See photographs 2.1 to 2.4. The
fouled ash from SH & Eco could suddenly fall on the APH block and might act as block for the flue
path. There was no soot blower system provided for APH. In BFBC air preheater, the gas flow was
through the tubes of dia 63.5 mm. In BFBC the particles leaving the furnace are coarser as
compared to CFBC. In CFBC boiler, APH was designed for the flue gas flow over the tubes. The
APH tube OD was 60. 3 and the tubes were pitched at 80 mm. The tube to tube clearance was 20
mm only. This was the main reason for furnace tripping.
Actions to counter sudden pressurization & boiler tripping
We had given three suggestions for countering the superheater fouling and blocking of airpreheater
block.

Addition of air blasters for APH cleaning

It was advised to fit air blasters below & in between APH blocks. Since the ash was of severely
fouling characteristics this would help. The fineness of coal ash could cause plugging.

ECO / APH hopper modifications

It was advised to modify the gas side interconnecting duct between the APH hoppers as it was a 3
meter long horizontal duct. Horizontal ducts always trap ash. Bottom plates of the ducts were to be
provided with inclined plates directing the ash flow towards the hopper. This would avoid the

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temporary plugging of interconnection duct. The ash released from the soot blowing operation /
sudden self dislodging would not block the gas path.

Refiring of ash

It was advised to stop re-firing at CFBC. Few days of operation in petcoke or any non fouling fuel
could clean up the boiler. This was the simplest solution for cleaning the boiler. But there was no
alternate fuel available at plant.

Injection of bed ash in to second pass

In CFBC boiler all the Na2O+K2O would leave the furnace by volatilization. Remaining ash at
furnace / or the bed ash would be containing less Na2O + K2O. The bed ash should be injected
through the manhole available above the superheater. This was advised based on experience in case
study 1. It was advised to add sand / low grade limestone for generation of more bed ash. The dense
phase line going to bed ash silo was to be provided with a Y diverter.

Feed back after the incorporation of recommendations

The tripping continued even after addition of large size air blasters on both sides of APH blocks.
When the bed ash was injected in second pass, the problem vanished. The unit was inspected nearly
after a year to check whether there was any erosion or not. The boiler did not show any sign of
erosion. Since the average particle size in bed ash was about 600 microns, there was no problem
with respect to erosion.

CASE STUDY 3
This captive power plant had a 38 TPH BFBC boiler. The boiler was designed for lignite available
from nearby mines. The boiler was commissioned about 3 months back. The boiler could not run
for more than a week with the available lignite, called Barmer lignite. The boiler had been
clinkering heavily. The photographs 3.1 to 3.4 exhibit the extent of clinkering & slagging.
SOLVING THE PROBLEM
Barmer lignite fuel & ash analysis
As it could be seen that the bed ash was clinkering, the fuel & ash were analyzed immediately. See
table 3.1. One would say there is no problem with the coal as the ash fusion temperature is well
above 1200 deg C, whereas in FBC, the combustion temperature is only 900 deg C maximum.

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Ratio of magnetic content versus non magnetic content
The percent of iron oxides present in bed was found to exceed more that 50%. See photo 3.5. There
was a mechanism of iron concentration in the bed. For start up of the bed, the bed material chosen
was crushed refractory grog. The iron content in the startup bed material was less than 1%. The ash
content in barmer lignite being 23%, the bed ash inventory keeps increasing. As the bed height
increases, the ash is drained out maintaining a windbox pressure of 550 mmWC. As days go by, the
bed material becomes replaced with ash from lignite. The particles which contain iron being high in
density do not break down much, and do not leave the bed as well. Sooner the bed becomes
heavier. The bulk density goes up as high as 1300 kg/m3. The increase in amount iron oxide
increases the slagging potential. See photo 3.6, a case with high iron Indonesian coal in BFBC.
DILUTION WITH BED MATERIAL / SAND
While we looked in to the possibility of dilution of iron with alternate bed material, we had the
choice of limestone, crushed refractory and fine sand. The limestone available at the industry was
very pure and was being used to make white cement. Crushed refractory pricing was higher than
the fuel cost. The only alternate material was sand, which was available at an affordable price. An
estimate on quantity of fresh bed material for dilution purpose was worked out. See table 3.2. The
plant went on to consume all the Barmer lignite that was purchased for next six months. Now the
plant found that petcoke is the better fuel as its ash with high unburnt (4000 kcal/kg) is usable as a
supplement fuel in the cement kiln.

FINAL WORD
Boilers with BFBC are quite large in population in India. There had not been a case of heavy
fouling of flue path. This must have been due to self cleaning effect by the coarse ash. Slagging of
bed was also not experienced and the case referred here was a typical one. Indonesian coals of
some mines had posed problem in bed ash chemistry control in few other boilers. Such boilers had
to use more of fresh bed material to prevent the bed from clinkering.

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Figure 1.1: General arrangement of the new CFBC combustor and hook-up to existing
combustor.

Photo 1.1: On shut down inspection the bed coils were found to be clear of ash deposits.
The coal was good with respect to slagging characteristics.

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Photo1.2: The ash deposition in FSH area. The ash was found to bridge between the SH
coils.

Photo 1.3: Ash Deposits over the Primary SH tubes.

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Photo 1.4: Ash fouling at economiser area.

Photo 1.5: The difference on color of APH tubes confirmed the extent of air leaks /
blocks. The polishing mark on the casing confirmed the APH tubes had failed.

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Photo 1.6: Air ingress through seal box.

Photo 1.7: APH choking and ash build up.

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Photo 1.8: Eroded gas baffles at APH inlet. This can cause higher pressure drop. It was
removed during the shutdown.

Photo 1.9: Inside view of the cyclone confirms that the ash was not slagging type but only
fouling type. Iron containing ash would slag in the furnace itself.

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Photo 1.10: Air manifold modification done.

Photo 1.11: The 2 x 100% ID fans were put in series to handle the additional draft loss.
Improper ducting engineered during the conversion. 2 no 90 deg bends were seen very
closely placed. Abrupt 90 deg bend was seen. Multilouver damper was used for isolation
purpose, which would practically have higher leakage level.

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Figure 1.2: The modification included straightening the duct as shown with smooth bends.

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Figure 1.3: During the first visit, the thermal performance of secondary SH was checked. It
was clear that there was abnormal fouling in secondary SH.

Figure 1.4: In order to ascertain whether there was fouling of economiser, thermal
performance analysis was done. The fouling factor had to be increased from 0.002 to
0.013, which is about 6.5 times the normal value. Since the boiler no 2 was running around
the same load, its thermal performance was analysed. The performance was as per general
design practice. Based on the above, it was clear that the boiler had fouled by soot / ash.

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Figure 2.1: General arrangement of the CFBC boiler with FSH, LTSH, Economiser and
APH hot blocks in the second pass. The fouling was extensive at FSH and LTSH. The
ash which got dislodged during soot blowing plugged APH block. This led to tripping of
the boiler. Steam operated soot blowers were available at second pass for Superheater
and economiser and not for APH blocks.

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Combustor pressures

Gas pr at eco outlet

Gas pr at eco inlet

Gas pr after APH

Figure 2.2: A screen shot on gas side draft profile at the time of draft upset. At times the
combustor pressures went highly positive and the boiler got tripped.

Eco inlet flue gas

temperature

Figure 2.3: The trend on various flue gas temperatures. Gas temperature at economiser
inlet showed that three was fouling of superheater coils above. In fact the secondary SH
was in the furnace and only FSH and LTSH were in the second pass.

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Photo 2.1: Fouling of final superheater at second pass.

Photo 2.2: Fouling of LTSH superheater and second pass.

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Photo 2.3: Fouling of economiser at second pass.

Photo 2.4: Fouling of airpreheater at second pass.

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Photo 2.5: Since the APH block did not have a soot blowing arrangement, air blasters
were installed. It could not stop the tripping of the boiler.

Photo 2.6: Installation of bed ash injection at superheater. This resolved the problem of
gas temperature profile and plugging of air preheater.

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Ash classification & fouling index as per B&W steam generation & use
When Fe2O3 > CaO + MgO, the ash is termed as bituminous. Otherwise it is called lignitic
Fouling index for bituminous ash,
Fouling index, Rf is calculated from an expression B/A * Na2O, where,
B = CaO+MgO+Fe2O3+Na2O+K2O
A=SiO2+Al2O3+TiO2
Na2O = weight % from ash analysis
For Rf < 0.2, fouling potential is low,
For 0.2< Rf < 0.5, fouling potential is medium,
For 0.5< Rf < 1.0, fouling potential is high,
For 1.0 < Rf, fouling potential is severe,
Fouling index for lignitic ash
When CaO+MgO+Fe2O3 < 20% by wt,
When CaO+MgO+Fe2O3 > 20% by wt,
For Na2O < 3, fouling potential is low to
For Na2O < 1.2, fouling potential is low to
medium,
medium,
For 3.0 < Na2O < 6, fouling potential is high, For 1.2 < Na2O < 3, fouling potential is high,
For Na2O > 6, fouling potential is severe,
For Na2O > 3, fouling potential is severe,
CASE STUDY 2
Fouling Index calculation - based on B&W steam generation & use
Coal ash chemical constituents
SA coal Fouled
SiO2
Silica
54.46
42.25
TiO2
Titanium oxide
1.3
1.52
Al2O3
Alumina
34.13
28.04
Fe2O3
Iron oxide
2.23
3.57
Calcium oxide
CaO
3.36
0.72
Magnesium oxide
MgO
0.46
4.14
Na2O
Sodium oxide
3.56
17.33
K2O
Pottasium oxide
0.5
2.43
Total
100
100
Type of ash- Lignitic / Bituminous
Fe2O3 / CaO+MgO
0.58
0.73
Lignitic / Bituminous
Lignitic Lignitic
Fouling Index for bituminous ash
B, Base CaO+MgO+Fe2O3+Na2O+K2O
A, Acid SiO2+Al2O3+TiO2
B/A ratio
B/A ratio x Na2O
Fouling potential is
Fouling index for lignitic ash
CaO+MgO+Fe2O3
6.05
8.43
Na2O
3.56
17.33
Fouling potential is
Severe
Severe

Lime
15.86
1.62
9.53
3.23
67.6
1.79
0.24
0.13
100

Petcoke
33.87
1.8
1.08
48.86
8.91
2.9
1.69
0.89
100

0.05
Lignitic

4.14
Bitumin
63.25
36.75
1.72
0.03
Low

72.62
0.24
low
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CASE STUDY 2
Alkali loading in CFBC boiler during petcoke firing & South African coal firing
Alkali loading in CFBC boiler during petcoke firing
Petcoke firing in CFBC
Petcoke fired
TPD
Ash percent in petcoke %
Ash from petcoke
TPD
Alkali percent in ash
%
Total alkali input to boilerTPD

Fly ash alkali in AFBC boilers

Petcoke fired
TPD
Ash percent in petcoke %
Ash from petcoke
TPD
Alkali percent in ash
%
Total alkali input to boiler TPD

166.630
1.000
1.666
2.580
0.043

Limestone addition
Ratio of LS to petcoke no
Limestone added
TPD
Alkali percent in LS
%
Total alkali input to boilerTPD

0.250
41.658
0.230
0.096

Ash fed from AFBC

Alkali load from AFBC
Combined effect
Total alkali input to CFBC
Total fly ash produced
% Alkali in fly ash

1.000
1.000
0.010
2.580
0.000

Limestone addition in AFBC boiler

Ratio of LS to petcoke
no
0.250
Limestone added
TPD
0.250
Alkali percent in LS
%
0.230
Total alkali input to boiler TPD
0.001
Alklai percent after firing %
0.320
TPD
51.01
TPD 0.163428
TPD
TPD
%

0.302
38.38
0.8

SA coal fired
Ash percent in SA coal
Ash from coal
Alkali percent in ash
Total alkali input to boiler

TPD
%
TPD
%
TPD

204.880
14.000
28.683
4.060
1.165

Fly ash from AFBC boilers

Ash added
Alkali percent
Alkali input from AFBC
Total alkali input
Total ash produced
Alkali percent in fly ash

TPD
%
TPD
TPD
TPD
%

93.570
4.060
3.799
5.0
122.3
4.1

South African coal firing in CFBC

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Photo 3.1: Fused ash coating over the bed Superheater coils.

Photo 3.2: Fused clinkers of the entire bed.

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Photo 3.3: Fused ash capping the air nozzles. The blockage would the air flow and bed
temperature would shoot up.

Photo 3.4: The fused layers of fly ash over the radiant SH placed above the furnace.

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Photo 3.5: Ratio of magnetic to non-magnetic material in bed ash. It was over 50%.

Table 3.1: Barmer fuel & ash chemical analysis & prediction of slagging, fouling nature.

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Table 3.2: Calculation for dilution of iron in bed ash by fresh iron-free bed material.

Photo 3.6: Slagging nature of high iron Indonesian coal in another BFBC boiler.

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A TIP FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION

Recently we had an opportunity to be in a paper mill on a proposal for a new Captive power plant. The
customer had explained his difficulties that due to recession the project is shelved. The subject of
discussions had drifted to the excess power consumption in their boiler house. The customer said that
their power consumption is more than that of a similar capacity plant elsewhere. The boiler is a Husk
fired fluidized bed combustion boiler with underbed firing system supplied by a south based boiler
manufacturer. The boiler specifications are 12 TPH, 10.5 Kg/Cm2, saturated steam.
When asked about the steam demand of the plant, the plant manager informed that the a maximum of
5 TPH would be the steam demand.. We reacted immediately that the oversized equipment would
draw more power as the dampers kill the energy. The customer discussed about the means of reducing
the power consumption.
We studied the draft equipment layout. We had proposed to install a smaller FD fan and Primary air
fan. The customer did not want to take a risk. The customer desired that any modification shall be
done without disturbing the existing draft equipment. Then it was decided to add the right size FD and
PA fans. The locations of the fans were finalized in such a way that with minimum down time, the
new Fans could be connected to the existing system. The ID fan was left as it is. We suggested that a
variable frequency drive is installed for ID fan. Incidentally by the reduction of speed of the impeller,
the life of the fan impeller would also increase. The power consumption figures were calculated to be
half of the present load. The payback was very attractive. The customer went ahead with the proposal
for new draft equipment and variable speed drive.
The following are the facts and figures of energy saved:
BEFORE MODIFICATION
AFTER MODIFICATION
Total Installed Power
Total Installed Power
73.0 KW
42.2 KW
( KW )
( KW )
Total power consumed
Total Power consumed
1,752 KW
1,012.8 KW
/Day
/Day
Total power consumed
Total power consumed
5,60,640 KW
3,24,096 KW
/Year
/Year
Total Power Cost per Year 5,60,640 X 4.00 Total Power Cost per Year 3,24,096 X 4.00
RS.
RS.
12,96,384.00
22,42.560.00
Net Saving per Year
RS. 22,42,560.00 - RS. 12,96,384.00 = RS. 9,46,176.00
NET
SAVING
PER RS. 9,46,176.00 DIVIDED BY 12 MONTH
= RS.
MONTH
78,848.00
MODIFICATION COST
FD Fan with Motor
PA Fan with Motor
AC Variable Speed Drive for ID
Fan
Ducting for FD and PA Fan
Erection cost for above Works
Total
18% Interest for Investment
Total Expenditure
Therefore Feed Back Period

:
:
:

Rs. 1,65,500.00
Rs. 90,000.00
Rs. 2,30,000.00

:
:
:
:
:
:

Rs. 65,000.00
Rs. 15,000.00
Rs. 5,65,500.00
Rs. 1,01,790.00
Rs. 6,67,290.00
Rs. 6,67,290.00 / Rs. 78,848.00 = 8.46 Months
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If you are interested to do similar modification in your boiler to save energy, please do not hesitate to
write to us for permanent solution & suggestions. Fill in the enclosed data sheet if you need our
assistance.
BOILER ENERGY SAVING DATA SHEET
ANNEXURE - I
Company
Contact
Name and
Persons
Address

Make of Boiler
Design
Boiler
Capacity
Design
boiler
Pressure
No of compartments design
Fuel Fired
Fuel Firing rate
Cost of fuel per ton
Cost of power / unit
Type of furnace
FAN PARAMETERS
ID FAN
Flow
Pressure
Temp.
Motor
Speed
Orientatio
n
Drive
Arrgt.

FD FAN
Flow
Pressure
Temp.
Motor
Speed
Orientatio
n
Drive
Arrgt.

TEMPERATURE PROFILE
Furnace Temperature
Shell Outlet Temp.
Air
Heater
inlet
Temp.
Air Heater Outlet
Temp.
MDC outlet Temp.

Phone Nos.

Design steam Temp.

Deg C

Kg/Hr

Present Steam Capacity

Kg/Hr

Kg/Cm2

Present Steam Pressure

Kg/Cm2

No of Compartments in operation

PA FAN
Flow
Pressure
Temp.
Motor
Speed

SA FAN
Flow
Pressure
Temp.
Motor
Speed
Orientatio
Orientation
n
Drive
Drive
Arrgt.
Arrgt.
BOILER ACCESSORIES (TICK IN THE
BOX)
Steam Drum
Bank Tubes
Mud Drum
Air Heater
Shell

MDC

Bed Coils

Economiser

Water wall

Under
Bed
Feeding System

Over bed Feeding

System
PRESENT MOTOR POWER CONSUMPTION
Installed
Consumed
Installed
KW/HP
KW/HP
KW/HP
ID Fan
SA Fan

Consumed
KW/HP
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FD Fan
PA Fan

Feed Pump

Enclose a copy of General Arrangement drawing of the boiler.

SECOND HAND BOILER DATA SHEET ANNEXURE - II
As part of our business, we are dealing second hand boilers also. At present, we need a boiler capacity
6 TPH, 10.54 kg/cm2 pressure of any fuel firing system. If you have any boilers to sale, please furnish
the details of the boiler and send this date sheet to us to do interact regarding this
Phone Nos.
Company
Name and
Address

Contact
Persons

Make of Boiler
Design
Boiler
Capacity
Design
boiler
Pressure
No of compartments design

Design steam Temp.

Deg C

Kg/Hr

Present Steam Capacity

Kg/Hr

Kg/Cm2

Present Steam Pressure

Kg/Cm2

No of Compartments in operation

Fuel Fired
Type of furnace
HEATING SURFACE AREA
Total area
Economiser
Bank

Super heater

Water wall

PRESENT MOTOR POWER CONSUMPTION

Installed
Consumed
Installed
KW/HP
KW/HP
KW/HP
ID Fan
SA Fan
FD Fan
Feed Pump
PA Fan
ITEM FOR SALE (TICK IN THE BOXES)
PHS Systems
FH system
Main Oil tank
Basic boiler
Chimney
Control panel
Dust
Collect
Ducting
Bunker
system
Feed water tank
Fans & Motors
Ash feeder
Fuel feeder
Valves
Water level gauge
All gauges

Cables

Burners

Air heater

Consumed
KW/HP

Day Oil tank

Supp. Structure
Refractory
Pumps
LLG
Blowdown
system

PURPOSE OF SELLING
Expected
scope
Enclosures

Price

for

the
Latest
IBR
Certificate

Inspection

Boiler GA Drawing
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AGRO FUELS & BOILER AVAILABILITY

The use of Agro fuels for steam generation is increasing day by day. Some agro fuels are waste
products after we recover the useful grains / oil. Some agro fuels are biomass such as firewood which
has no other use except for steam generation. Some times it could be a byproduct fuel such as plywood
waste or saw dust. Many of the boiler users have had the bitter experience with firing agro fuels as it
reduced boiler availability. In this paper, the fuel characteristics are discussed. The care to be taken for
boiler design / operation is discussed. Measures to be taken to increase the boiler availability /
efficiency are discussed.
Following Are The Partial List Of Agro Fuels Used In Boilers.
Fire wood, Saw dust, Coffee husk, Cashew shell, Palm bunch, Wood shavings, De oiled bran, Rice
husk, Wheat straw, Cotton stalk, corn cobs, Coconut shell, Bagasse, Eucalyptus leaves, Groundnut
shell, Cane trash, Bamboo dust, Julia flora and Coconut coir pith are some of the fuels
CHOICE OF COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY
The choice of combustion technologies had been based on several factors, major of which is the
seasonal availability of fuels. Other criteria had always been the steaming capacity of the boiler and
the process application. Power production does not tolerate pressure swings due to inconsistent fuel
quality. Some plants required constant steam pressure for the process.
Available combustion technologies use of fuels
Hand firing on fixed grate
Used for firewood, plywood waste
Hand firing on dumping grate
For fibrous fuel where air can diffuse
easily even if the fuel is dumped. -Used
for bagasse & saw dust firing.
Dumped firing on horse shoe furnace
only for bagasse firing since fuel is
fibrous
Suspension firing on fixed grate
Bagasse, saw dust
Suspension firing on dumping grate
Bagasse, saw dust
Suspension firing on traveling grate
Rice husk, bagasse, sawdust, GN shell
Mass firing on a traveling grate
Odd sized fuels
Over-bed firing in Fluidized bed Rice husk, GN shell, Coffee husk, wood
combustor- open bottom
chips
Under-bed firing in fluidized bed Rice husk, GN shell
combustor
Circulating fluidized bed combustor
Ideal for rice husk, sized fuels with ash
fusion temperature above 900 deg C
Mass firing on inclined grate
All kind of odd sized fuels
Mass firing on pusher grate
All kind of odd sized fuels
Underfeed stoker firing
Used for rice husk , GN shell, saw dust
CHOICE OF BOILER CONFIGURATION
External Refractory furnace with shell Boiler
Internal furnace shell boiler
Waterwall furnace chamber with shell boiler
Waterwall furnace chamber with water tube
boiler
Waterwall furnace chamber with radiant

Not suitable for slagging fuels

Firewood , rice husk
Firewood, rice husk, GN shell
Wood chips, rice husk, GN shell,

Non slagging / fouling fuels

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Superheater
Waterwall furnace chamber with convection superheater
Waterwall furnace with tail end superheater
-

Slagging fuels
Ideal for Slagging fuels

Following are the some properties of fuels that affect the efficiency & availability of the boiler.

Moisture content
Ash fusion temperature
Alkali content
Chlorine content
Fuel size
Flow property
Decay property

MOISTURE CONTENT EFFECT ON BOILER EFFICIENCY & AVAILABILITY

This brings down the boiler efficiency more fuel has to be burnt to account for evaporation of
fuel moisture which leaves the boiler as a waste.
We can choose to dry the fuel in sun light. But long term storage brings down the calorific value of
the fuel. Part of the volatile matter leaves the fuel over a period.
We can choose to stock the fuel in a well ventilated covered storage yard.
Room heating is an option. Steam coil heaters can be used to bring down and maintain consistent
moisture. Many small boiler users do this trick by stacking the wood logs in the boiler room.
The fuel moisture creates flow problems in bunker. This leads to difficulty in maintaining an
interrupted fuel feed to furnace. Fuel feed interruptions increases the fuel consumption.
Fuel moisture leads to fungus growth and leads to lump formation. Calls for manpower to dislodge
the fuel.
The fuel moisture adds to flue gas moisture which condenses inside air preheater tubes and acts as
nuclei for ash build up. Subsequently the tubes choke up calling for use of tube scale cutters. In
case of gas over tubes, the gas flow path may be blocked.
The fuel moisture adding to flue moisture condenses in pollution control equipment such as bag
house / Electrostatic precipitator. The steel casing corrodes away in ESP.
The fuel moisture adding to flue gas moisture condenses in chimney & idle gas ducting sharing the
chimney. This corrodes the chimney and leads to sudden collapse of chimney. RCC chimney is
preferred for agro fuels. Self supported steel chimneys are to be avoided.
When the flue gas moisture leads to choking of the APH tubes, the furnace draft is affected. The
required combustion air can not be given. Thus blue smoke is seen in chimney.
Reduction in draft also leads to soot formation in furnace / duct / chimney and leads to black
particulate emission.
Reduction in draft leads to reduction in FD fan air flow and leads to grate bar burning.
Moisture leads to APH tube failure at leads to direct passage of air in to the ID system. The
furnace starves for air. The boiler capacity comes down. Many boiler users wonder how this could
have such a pronounced effect.
Increased moisture content disturbs the furnace condition. Higher moisture content will need more
drying time. This will cause shifting of combustion zone to Superheater leading to high Steam
temperature. In case of slagging fuels, the deposits accumulate and block the flue path. Boiler has
to be taken for cleaning.
Decreased moisture than design also disturbs the furnace in case of slagging fuel. The deposits
build up in refractory walls of the furnace.
Moisture pick up is faster in case the biomass gets trenched in rain.
When the biomass is stored in pyramidal form, the pick up is less as the water runs down easily.
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DEPOSITS IN BOILER HEATING SURFACE
Deposit formation on heating surfaces is the biggest problem in biomass firing. Its effect is to lead to
shut down of boiler due to draft problem (depending on boiler configuration) and the loss of steam
generation. Damages may occur in some cases due to increased gas velocity when fouling takes place.
Every fuel has a non-combustible mineral fraction which is converted to ash on combustion.
Formations of deposits are due to fuel quality, boiler-design, boiler-operation and boiler-maintenance.
SLAGGING & FOULING
Deposits can be classified as slagging & fouling. Slagging occurs in the boiler sections that are
directly exposed to flame. Slagging is a mechanism of stickiness of ash, ash melting & sintering.
Fouling is due condensation of volatile compounds in fuel over tubes in convective path. Fouling
deposit is porous and easily removable. Combustor design and furnace design have to be based on
feedback on operating experiences. Inspection windows are to be strategically located for physical
observation of deposition while the boiler is running. Based on actual deposition pattern & operating
conditions, design of future boilers must be done.
SLAGGING IN FURNACE
Slagging is due to ash fusion. Stickiness begins with initial deformation temperature of ash. The ash
fusion in furnace is controlled by disposition of waterwall tubes, furnace plan dimensions, furnace
volume, fuel distribution inside furnace, fuel size, excess air, combustion technology and the way in
which the air is thoroughly mixed with fuel while spreading the fuel inside the furnace.

The fuel moisture also decides slagging to a large extent. Part of the furnace volume is used up for
drying itself. The furnace outlet temperature shoots up and thus leading to slagging at superheater /
boiler bank. Hence it is necessary to maintain fairly constant moisture content in fuel.
Slagging occurs over convective tubes when the furnace exit temperatures are higher. Superheater
tubes would be fouled with harder deposits which are not easily removed.
When the ash melting temperatures are lower, parallel flow superheater is adopted. This ensures
the superheater is not coated with ash.
Un-cooled Superheater spacer clamps offer sites for ash. The design should avoid such details.
Radiant superheater is susceptible for ash slagging, particularly when the furnace volume is
inadequate. The furnace gas residence time of 2.5 second is adopted. In addition the waterwall
heating surface should be adequate to cool the gas to a temperature decided by the slagging
tendency.
When the air flow through furnace gets reduced due to wrong operation of boiler / leakages in
boiler roof / leakages in Airpreheater would lead to high combustion temperature and leads to ash
slagging in furnace. There are many cases where the furnace behavior has been returned to original
design condition only by attending the leakages.
In general the ash fusion temperature of the biomass is low. The low ash fusion temperature is due
to low melting alkali compounds with Potassium & Sodium radicals. This leads to sticky deposits
on Superheater tubes and refractory furnace walls & uncooled metal spacers / alignment bands
used in convection coils. The deposits are not easily removed. The best way to avoid is to place the
convection heating surfaces after the flue gas is cooled below 650-700 deg C. However this is not
being done by any manufacturer as the boiler cost goes up. A typical boiler configuration has at
least three passes made out of waterwall, before the gas enters convection Superheater.
The ash melting tendencies of ash is modifiable by using fire side additives. A separate feeding
system is used to add the chemicals. This keeps the superheater cleaner as compared to a case
without any fire side additive.

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Co-firing of agro fuels with coal or a combination of agro fuels is found to modify the
characteristics of deposition of sticky fuels. For example it has been possible to use cotton stalk
along with rice husk.
Many boiler users have arrived at the optimum combination of fuels which would extend the
periods between cleaning. Yet the best is possible if only boiler design is modified.
Fly ash from coal fired units may help in modifying ash fouling pattern.

FOULING ON CONVECTIVE SURFACES

Fouling occurs due to condensation of volatile species. It is removed by a mechanism of rapping or
blowing. If not done, the fouling keeps on building up until a maximum thickness is achieved. Fouling
can be seen in the rear portion of Superheater tubes.

Fouling is not seen in boiler bank tubes / Economiser tubes as the deposits get cooled to powdery
nature and flue gas velocity is generally sufficient for a self cleaning action.
Locating Superheater in low temperature region avoids the build of fouled deposits. Self cleaning
action ensures the Superheater is free.
High temperature superheater at furnace exit gets fouled first. Then the ash builds up over the
fouled ash and offers still hotter surface. Dripping molten ash is seen in some Superheater.
Soot blower positioning & sequencing are important for removing the fouling.
Furnaces which have good temperature control will avoid the fouling of convective surfaces.
AFBC & CFBC technologies have good furnace temperature control compared to others. Grate
firing technologies do not have accurate control over furnace temperature. The only way to control
furnace outlet temperature would be furnace dilution by cold secondary air.

FOULING ON AIRPREHEATER SURFACES

Fouling on air preheater surface occurs with a different phenomenon. As the flue gas moisture
condenses, the ash gets cemented over the tube surface in cold sections of Airpreheater. When the gas
flows over the tubes, the flue path may not be obstructed provided pitch is in excess of a minimum
value. When the gas flows over the tube, the ash is able to plug the tubes easily. Many Airpreheater
tubes are cleaned annually by high pressure water jets. Sometimes the ash will have to be drilled
through. Excessive fuel moisture leads to quicker choking in Airpreheater. When the flue gas contains
sulfur dioxide, tube gets eaten away faster. Otherwise the Oxygen and water condensation together
leads to tube puncture by pitting corrosion.

When the gas flow is over tubes, the choking of flue path can be prevented.
By adopting air operated soot blower system / acoustic cleaning system, flue path choking can be
prevented.
Use of steam coil air preheater would delay the tube failures due to flue gas moisture
condensation.
Use of steam coil air preheater would also delay the ash plug formation inside the tubes.

CHLORINE CORROSION

This is a very serious matter in case of Boilers with high temperature Superheater. All green leafy
biomass would have what is known as Chlorophyll. The chlorine is found to corrode the
Superheater sections. The Chorine converts the ferrous ions to ferrous chloride. There is no way
combat this except we locate the Superheater coils with inlet gas at less than 650 deg C. sulfur
injection is found to be a solution. Injection of sulfur to maintain S/Cl ratio at a value between 2 to
4 have been proved to reduce the corrosion effect. But the boiler tail end heating surface such as
economizer & air preheater and flue gas cleaning equipments have to be designed for this.
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The main steam pressure should be limited to 460 deg C, if chlorine is found to be present in agro
fuel. Cotton stalk, sugar cane thrash, bamboo trees are known for their chlorine content.
It is necessary to analyze any new biomass to be fired. Once the damage is done it does not reverse
unless the deposits are removed in dry form.
Injection of fly ash from coal may modify the deposition of ash over superheater, but the same
should have been commenced even before the Superheater is coated with potassium, sodium &
chlorine containing biomass.
In view of the above fact black recovery boilers are designed for Steam temperature of 485 deg C.
Similarly Municipal waste fired boilers are designed for 450 deg C steam temperature with a
pressure of 45 kg/cm2g. The boiler is not provided with Airpreheater.
Chlorine is present in three forms, namely molecular chlorine, Hydrogen Chloride and alkali
chloride. Corrosion by HCl is seen in reducing atmosphere in furnaces. Alkali chlorides have
lower fusion temperature and thus after deposition in superheater, they dissolve the metal as
chloride. It has been proved that FeCl2 again oxidizes and releases chlorine. Part of the chlorine
releases goes back to metal to cause continuous corrosion.

SIZING OF FUELS FOR BETTER AVAILABILITY OF BOILERS

Depending upon the combustion technology adopted the fuel needs to be sized. Handling the
different fuels require different kind of equipments. For example tractor with grab buckets are used
for picking and dropping the cotton stalk / wheat straw.
Husk / GN shell / coffee husk / Saw dust / De-oiled bran is pushed in to hoppers by tractors
equipped with pusher plate.
Oversized fuels have been notorious for tripping the fuel feeders. Secondary sizing equipment
would be necessary.
When the fuel is made uniformly small the handling becomes simpler. Yet many manufacturers
ignore this.
Oversized fuels reduce the availability of the boiler due to disturbances in fuel feeding. Steam
pressure and steam temperature fluctuation and loss of steam generation have been seen in
Industry. Silos and drum feeders adopted for bagasse can be used for other fuels if the secondary
size reduction is addressed with respect to biomass.
Foreign material such as stone had been of great problem with rice husk / Groundnut shell.
Screening is a must to remove oversized stones.
Iron piece coming with fuel trip / damage the fuel feeding system. Long wires, nails have been
notorious in causing damage to traveling grate components. Magnetic separator is to be installed in
feeding conveyor.
Fuels that need sizing must be done when it is green. This is important to save chipping power.
Processing after drying would call for more power.

FLOW PROPERTY DISTURBING THE BOILER OPERATION

Of all the biomass fuels, rice husk has the best flowability. Thus the boiler with this fuel is
provided with bunker. It is a practice to blend some fuels like saw dust, Ground nut shell with rice
husk.
Other fuels can also be stored & fired in system such as silo & drum feeders. But uniformity in
size is important.
Smaller hoppers must be used at boiler end to minimize the troubles due to fuel flow problems.

DECAY PROPERTY CAUSING MORE FUEL CONSUMPTION

Being organic fuel, presence of moisture can lead to decay of the biomass fuels. It is important to
avoid dead storage. The fuels should be consumed as much as possible from bottom. We may
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implement expiry date system to avoid unnecessary decaying of biomass. As the decay takes place
the hydro carbons leave in the gaseous form. The useful calorific value is lost.
Ventilated but covered storage is required during rainy season. Closed room drying is preferred to
bring down the fuel moisture.

CARRYOVER OF WATER TO SUPERHEATER

When the fuel feed can not be properly regulated the steam generation is reduced. As the steam
drawal continues, it leads to water level fluctuation leading to carryover. It is not possible to
maintain drum level with erratic fuel feed.
Fuel silos system is required to avoid this.
When the carryover is present, the high TDS water gets carried to Superheater. As the dissolved
solids get deposited, the Superheater gets heated locally, leading to long term / short term
overheating failure.

SHELL TUBE CHOKING

Shell tube boiler is not a right choice for fuels which have low ash fusion temperature. The First
pass tubes often get choked and cleaning is resorted to. This is a great disturbance for plants.
Water tube configuration is the right choice.
Again adequate radiant furnace area must be provided before a convection bank is arranged. The
deposits over the tubes do not lead to boiler stoppage.
Sonic soot blowers or steam operated soot blowers can be used when the gas flows over tubes. But
when gas flows inside tubes only sonic systems are usable.

CONCLUSION
There is a need to review the boiler design for improved boiler availability. Boiler outages on account
of ash slagging & fouling must be avoided. An update of boiler design in Europe needs to be
understood.

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Photo 1: Ash deposition over tubes

Photo 2: Flue gas moisture condensation

inside duct

Photo 3: Ash build up due to moisture

condensation inside APH tubes

Photo 4: APH metal loss due to moisture

condensation

Photo 5: Fire side additive feed arrangement.

Photo 6: Ash build up over superheater due

to inadequate furnace volume / water wall.

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Photo 7: Ash deposition over tubes

Photo 9: Furnace ash slagging since the

waterwall surface is in adequate.

Photo 11: Ash builds up on convective Surface

inadequate furnace volume

Photo 8: Fouling & corrosion over

superheater

Photo 10: frequent shell tube cleaning

calls for disturbance in plant.

Photo 12: Superheater tube corrosion due to

alkaline chloride corrosion.

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Photo 13: oversized wood chips cause

interruption in fuel feeding

Photo 14: A clean furnace with bagasse as

fuel.

Photo 15: Corn cobs cause fouling in

furnace. Furnace must have water wall
without refractory.

Photo 16: Ash molten in furnace due in

adequate furnace size & waterwall surface.

Photo 17: Poor fluidization in furnace mal-operation

Photo 18: Air ingress from roof in a boiler

designed for paper mill.

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AIRHEATER FOR INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

Airheater is a heat recovery equipment, which improves the efficiency of the boiler. The fuel
consumption is reduced to an extent of 5 %, depending on the duty.
In Airheater the combustion air is preheated before admitting the air to combustion zone. The air
preheating can be heated up to 200 deg C max, depending on the type of Combustion equipment. In
FBC boilers preheating up to 150 deg C is normal. With use of SS air nozzles, air can be preheated up
to 200 deg C. With grate bars as in stationary or traveling grate, the temperature is limited to 150 deg
C.
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF AIRHEATER
The air can be made to pass either through the tubes or outside the tubes. Each arrangement has its
merit and demerit.
With gas flowing over the tubes steam soot blowers can be arranged for on line cleaning of Airheater.
The tubes would be in line in this case. The Airheater calls for more space as compared to gas inside
tubes. Usually the tubes have to be held horizontally as shown in figure. This leads to sagging of the
tubes, in case they are longer.
With gas flowing through the tubes, the plugging of the tubes with ash is very common. Only if the
gas is clean smaller tubes can be used. Generally the tubes are positioned vertically. This avoids the
tube sagging. Acoustic soot blowers can be used in this case.
The Airheater is made as multipass design in order to recover the heat with less heating surface.
Several arrangements are possible as shown in figures.

Tube Size

The tube size is usually 63.5 mm OD x 2.01 mm thk and of non IBR quality. Tube material
specification can be IS 3601 or BS 1774. Corten steel tubes are used for improving the tube life
against cold end corrosion. Tube size smaller than 63.5 mm can pose problems such as choking with
fuel ash. Smaller tubes also increase the pressure drop across the Airheater on the tube side.

Tube Length

The tube length is usually limited depending on the access available below or above the Airheater for
tube replacement. Long tubes are certainly vulnerable for vibration. Also the longer tube lengths need
expansion joint at Airheater casing to account for differential expansion between the casing and the
tubes.

Tube Pitch

Tube pitch is so selected to have a minimum ligament of 15 mm. This is necessary for expansion of
tubes to the tube sheet.

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Tube Length

The tube length per pass is usually limited to 3-m. Proper deflectors or guide vanes have to be
provided to ensure the flow across the Airheater is properly distributed.

Tube Arrangement

Tube can be arranged in line or staggered. However when the gas is dust laden and when the passes
outside the tubes, the tubes have to be in line.

Tube Fit Up

The tubes are expanded in to the tube sheet. Some tubes are welded in addition to expansion for
structural stability of the Airheater. The expansion of the tubes also facilitates easy removal of tubes
by collapsing of tube ends.

Air Side Velocity.

The air side velocity is usually around 5 to 6 m/s in order the have an optimum draft loss. Airheaters
are usually designed for an air side pressure drop of 50 to 100 mmWC.

Gas Side Velocity

The gas side velocity is limited to 18 m/sec. Higher gas side velocities could lead to erosion of tubes.
Further the draft loss is usually limited to 75 to 100 mmWC.
AIR HEATER CORROSION
There are two modes by which the corrosion failures are initiated. The flue gas contains water vapor,
which is due to moisture and hydrogen in fuel and moisture in air. This water vapor condenses on the
cool surfaces of Airheater. The temperature of the Airheater tubes will be closer to ambient
temperature at air inlet section. This is where the water droplets form. The sweating of the tubes here
promotes corrosion spots. The ash in flue gas also deposit at this point and leads to choking of the
tubes.
With fuels containing sulfur, the acid formation takes place and the corrosion is accelerated. The
Airheater failure in oil fired boilers would be faster as compared to coal fired boilers. With high
moisture fuels such as lignite, wood, bagasse the tube failures are common.
It is better to design the Airheater with multiple blocks so that the cold end block can be replaced
when necessary. If the Airheater is of a single block, the replacement cost and down time cost for
replacement of tubes will be high.
CONTROL OF COLD END CORROSION
The following methods are used in controlling the cold end corrosion.

Bypassing a portion or all of the cold air to increase the metal temperature. This is used when the
boiler operates at low loads, when the condensation of the gases is unavoidable.
Increase the spacing of the first few rows of the tubes at the air inlet side to decrease the cooling
effect. The heat exchange will be less in this section, thus preventing the condensation.

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Recirculate a portion of the hot air back to the cold end, so that the air inlet temperature is more.
This improves the metal temperature thus avoiding condensation.
Use parallel flow Airheater to improve the metal temperature.
Use steam coil air preheater to preheat the air before admitting into the Airheater.
Use tubes made of corten steel to extend the life of the tubes.

AIRHEATER EROSION
The Airheater tubes are subject to vortex erosion when flue gas passes through the tubes. This happens
only in ash containing fuels such as coal & rice husk, and with flue gas flowing through the tubes.
The failure takes place at the inlet end of the tubes within a distance of 125 mm. To prevent tube
failures, concreting is done at gas inlet end to a height of 125 mm. Alternately, ferrules are used,
which can be replaced on failure.
EFFECTS OF AIRHEATER FAILURE
In the event of tube failure, the heat gain from Airheater will not be available for furnace heat transfer.
In order to compensate for this heat loss the fuel consumption would go up. As the failures increase,
beyond a limit the combustion airflow to the furnace would start coming down, as the combustion
airflow goes to chimney directly. This leads to poor combustion of fuel. The unburnt in ash and flue
gas will go up. The furnace draft can not be maintained. Further the steam generation would come
down. Generally at this stage only, the failure is realized by many.
HOW TO DETECT THE FAILURE
Draft loss and temperature drop can be checked with performance parameters of the installation when
it was new. In the absence of proper instrumentation / log procedures, only physical checking can
help.
Inspection doors are required at inlet and outlet of Airheater both on air side and gas side. Without
which one can not confirm the failure. With boilers operating on low load, the failure happens but
does not surface up with problems. Hence periodical check up alone can be the solution.
AIRHEATER TUBE / CASING VIBRATION
Vibration could be experienced due to air column inside the Airheater. For this, it is necessary to
adjust the width / height of airflow passage. This can be done by introducing baffles / tube sheet.
In some cases, the tubes may vibrate due to air flowing air around tubes. Bypassing some airflow
would solve the problem. Sometimes the tube thickness may have to be changed.
The above solutions can be best given by the designers only.
CONCLUSION
It has been seen that many boiler users are unaware of the mechanism of Airheater failures. For the
general knowledge of the boiler users, the above information is shared. Feedback is welcome.

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Figure 1

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Figure 2

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AN ACCIDENT WITH BRITTLE FRACTURE DURING HYDROTEST
K.K.Parthiban, Venus Energy Audit System
A Case was referred to us, regarding a LPG storage vessel burst in a plant during hydrotest. The
photographs of the failed vessel and the observations by the investigating team were sent to us for
an opinion on the cause of failure. Very we get a chance for real life examples to understand the
material science. This is a case which will help us to understand the brittle failures in service.
Vessel history

The burst of a LPG storage tank on hydrotest

The pressure vessel was fabricated in the year

1994. The vessel was in service from 1996.
Annual inspections were being done as per
government regulations. A competent certified
agency is authorized to perform the hydrotest.
The vessel had burst out at the time of hydrotest.
The energy stored was so high that there was a
loss of life, while inspection of flange leaks.
Normally the pressure gets released instantly on
beginning of crack. Here the stored energy was
sufficient to cause a fracture to a high
magnitude.

Findings
1. The cracked edge of the shell indicated brittle failure.
2. The stub in the failed area was seen to have swollen. This is an indication that the vessel was
over- pressurized. See photo 2 & 4.
3. Pressure gauges are to be mounted only after seeing the free issue of water. At times dirt can
enter in to the pressure gauge and indicated pressure can go wrong. This is a possibility for
over-pressurization. We had come across a package boiler yielding under over pressurization
during a shop hydrotest about 20 years back, on this cause.
4. The hydrotest procedure adopted was wrong. The vessel volume is 100000 liters. There were no
vents envisaged during hydrotest. It could be possible that blanking of flanges was done first.
The air must have been released via the pressure gauge stub at dished end only. This vent would
not have been sufficient. When water was filled and overflowed through the pressure gauge
stub, the pressure gauge would have been fitted. The remaining air that got trapped above must
have undergone compression during hydrotest. The energy absorbed for compressing air is
much more than water, since water is not compressible ( as compared to air). The energy would
go for temperature rise at the top of the vessel, where the air was trapped. Even water
temperature rises considerably during hydro when the air is trapped. The energy transferred
must have led to weakening of the vessel at the top by heating & by molecular activity. Possibly,
this led to the vessel burst at the top section. Moreover lifting lug location could be the place of
crack initiation.
5. Hydrotest procedure should have been done as per the written procedure. The procedure
outlined in drawing no BCL/DPE/01 is right.

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6. There is no thinning of the metal anywhere along the failed edge. It is not a ductile failure. This
means the vessel had turned brittle already. This would happen at LPG tanks area subject to low
temperature (particularly during winter) as the vessel would turn cold during the gas withdrawal
process.
7. It is possible that the vessel was cold at the time of test / water filled was cold.
8. Checking thickness cannot identify whether the shell plate has turned brittle or not. Ultrasonic
flaw detection was required. The crack seemed to have been present near the lifting lug area.
The lifting lug seemed so small, that even while handling at shop, crack would have developed
at HAZ of the weld.
9. SA 516 Gr 70 in normalized condition has better strength on low temperature. It was possible
that the material was not normalized. Its impact strength might not have been proven at the
lowest possible service temperature. The IS 2825 code may not address special requirement for
low temperature service. It is possible that the shell plate is not normalized.
10. There are specific code requirements for low temperature service. ASME section VIII calls for
impact test requirements. These might not have been demanded as per IS 2825 code. At the
time of fabrication, the code regulations might not have been sufficient to address low
temperature service requirements.
What we need to learn from this incident?
1. Cold water cannot be used for hydrotest. In winter times, the hydrotest must be done in day
time itself. Water temperature must be above 30 deg C.
2. Air venting arrangement is a must.
3. Pressure gauges must be calibrated before use. Standard test gauges are to be used. At least two
pressure gauges are required.
4. Hydrotest should be done under supervision. The personnel are not to be allowed during
hydrotest. At many construction sites, we see this is not followed.
5. Relief valve is required at the discharge of the pump itself, so the pressure can be reduced
immediately.
Brittle failure
phenomenon

theory

&

auto

refrigeration

Out of this incident, I had to review the brittle behavior

of the steel and the disasters that had occurred. I
remembered the cooling of LPG cylinders, when used
for gas cutting at construction sites. I found good
literatures / write ups are available in the internet. I have
included them in this article for readers benefit.

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the

Photo 1: It appears that the air was trapped here. There is a water mark at the level shown. There
is a step by step water marks seen below.

Photo 2: The stub in the failed area is seen swollen. There is over pressurization coupled with
heat, perhaps.

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Photo 3: Along the failed edge no lamellar kind of defect is seen. No thinning is seen. This is a
brittle failure. A section of plate from other place should be tested for impact test.

Photo 4: Swelling of stubs seen. The edge shows the thick brittle fracture.

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Photo 5: This arrangement did not envisage proper air release during hydrotest. The pressure
relief valve was not seen in the rig.

Photo 6: This is the right procedure for safety as well. The SRV, top most vent are essentials.

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Photo 7: The hydrotest set up does not have relief valve.

Photo 8: Failure seemed to have started at lifting lug zone and travelled on either side. The edge
of failed section is thick. Hence this is a brittle fracture. The vessel must have turned brittle in
service.

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An article from website of The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors
http://www.nationalboard.org
Auto refrigeration
By Francis Brown, P.E.
Auto-refrigeration is a phenomenon common to liquefied compressed gases. Liquefied compressed
gases exist in both the liquid and gaseous phases at ambient temperatures with pressures ranging
from 2 psig up to 2,500 psig. That is, there is a gaseous layer over the liquefied gas within the
pressure vessel. Some common liquefied gases are shown in the following table:
Ammonia
Hydrogen chloride
Methyl chloride
Sulfur dioxide

Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen sulfide
Monomethylamine
Sulfur hexafluoride

Chlorine
Liquefied petroleum gases
Nitrous oxide
Tungsten hexafluoride

An example of auto-refrigeration can often be seen when using an LPG (Liquid Propane Gas) grill.
On a warm, humid day, moisture in the air condenses on the lower part of the propane tank when
the burners are in operation. The withdrawal of propane gas from the tank reduces the temperature
of the liquid propane and the tank itself below the dew point temperature, causing the moisture in
the air to condense on the surface of the tank. Cooling occurs at very modest rates of gas
withdrawal, with the temperature decreasing more as the gas withdrawal rate increases.
Withdrawing gas from the pressure vessel reduces the pressure as well as the temperature within
the vessel. The gas that is withdrawn is replaced as the liquid vaporizes by absorbing heat from the
remaining liquid and the vessel itself. Auto-refrigeration occurs when the gas is withdrawn at a rate
so that cooling exceeds the heat available from ambient sources.
The cooling, if excessive, may lower the vessel metal temperature to the point where failure from
brittle fracture is possible. Flaws (cracks) in the welds or the pressure boundary materials, that are
located in areas of high stress are subject to rapid crack growth when vessel temperatures reach the
Nil Ductility Temperature (NDT). The NDT is that temperature at which the behaviour of the
vessel material (steel) changes from ductile to brittle. Fortunately, pressure decreases as
temperature decreases. For example, for a vessel containing liquefied carbon dioxide, a decrease in
vessel temperature from 20F to -20F (-7C to -29C) decreases the pressure from 400 psig to 200
psig. The decrease in pressure associated with the decrease in vessel temperature reduces the
stresses from pressure in the vessel material, thus reducing the energy available to produce crack
growth. Cracks will not propagate if the total stresses are sufficiently small, even though the vessel
material is at or below the NDT.
Total stresses include residual stresses, pressure stresses, and thermal stresses. Residual stresses
are the stresses remaining in the vessel from the manufacturing process, and are constant. Pressure
stresses decrease with decreasing temperatures, but the thermal stresses induced by the rapid
cooling may be increasing. Rapid cooling causes the thermal stresses. It is very difficult to
determine the total stress in a vessel during auto-refrigeration.
With the possibility of vessel failure by brittle fracture, appropriate measures should be taken to

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prevent auto-refrigeration of vessels that were not designed for low operating temperatures.
However, vessels that were not designed for low operating temperatures may be cooled to a
temperature below the NDT with no apparent damage. Damage will not occur until the total
stresses increase to a critical value. To minimize the possibility of damage, the vessel should be
very slowly warmed to ambient temperatures in the non-pressurized condition. This will keep the
thermal and pressure stresses low, thus minimizing the total stresses in the vessel. Vessels not
designed for low operating temperatures, but which have been subjected to auto refrigeration
should be thoroughly inspected for cracks before the vessel is returned to service.
This inspection should include a thorough examination of all nozzles (especially the outlet nozzle)
and the major weld joints, including the heat-affected zone, of the vessel. A visual inspection of the
vessel is inadequate because small cracks may not be detected. The vessel should be inspected by
the magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, or ultrasonic method, whichever is most appropriate and
compatible with vessel contents and materials.
Compliance with all OSHA requirements for safety of personnel, including entry into a confined
space, is essential. Also, knowledge of the vessel contents is required because many of the gases are
combustible and may explode when exposed to an ignition source. The vessel interior must be well
ventilated and caution exercised when using sources of electrical energy where these gases may be
found.
In summary, auto-refrigeration of a pressure vessel not designed for low-temperature operation
places the safety of the vessel in question. During auto-refrigeration, a pressure vessel may be
cooled to temperatures at which vessel failure by brittle fracture may occur. The thorough
inspection required to ensure the vessel can be safely returned to service is both time consuming
and costly. Therefore, auto-refrigeration of pressure vessels not designed for low temperature
operation should be avoided.
Editor's note: Some ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code requirements may have changed
because of advances in material technology and/or actual experience. The reader is cautioned to
refer to the latest edition and addenda of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for current
requirements.
BRITTLE FRACTURE MECHANISM - An extract from DOE handbook on material science
Metals can fail by ductile or brittle fracture. Metals that can
sustain substantial plastic strain or deformation before
fracturing exhibit ductile fracture. Usually a large part of the
plastic flow is concentrated near the fracture faces.
Metals that fracture with a relatively small or negligible amount
of plastic strain exhibit brittle fracture. Cracks propagate
rapidly. Brittle failure results from cleavage (splitting along
definite planes). Ductile fracture is better than brittle fracture,
because ductile fracture occurs over a period of time, whereas
brittle fracture is fast, and can occur (with flaws) at lower stress

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levels than a ductile fracture. Figure 1 shows the basic types of fracture.
Brittle cleavage fracture occurs in materials with a high strain-hardening rate and relatively low
cleavage strength or great sensitivity to multi-axial stress. Many metals that are ductile under some
conditions become brittle if the conditions are altered. The effect of temperature on the nature of
the fracture is of considerable importance. Many steels exhibit ductile fracture at elevated
temperatures and brittle fracture at
low temperatures. The temperature
above which a material is ductile and
below which it is brittle is known as
the Nil-Ductility Transition (NDT)
temperature. This temperature is not
precise, but varies according to prior
mechanical and heat treatment and
the nature and amounts of impurity
elements. It is determined by some
form of drop-weight test (for
example, the Izod or Charpy tests).
Ductility is an essential requirement

for steels used in the construction of reactor vessels; therefore, the NDT temperature is of
significance in the operation of these vessels. Small grain size tends to increase ductility and results
in a decrease in NDT temperature. Grain size is controlled by heat treatment in the specifications
and manufacturing of reactor vessels. The NDT temperature can also be lowered by small additions
of selected alloying elements such as nickel and manganese to low-carbon steels.
Pressure vessels are also subject to cyclic stress. Cyclic stress arises from pressure and / or
temperature cycles on the metal. Cyclic stress can lead to fatigue failure. Fatigue failure can be
initiated by microscopic cracks and notches and even by grinding and machining marks on the
surface. The same (or similar) defects also favour brittle fracture.
Stress-Temperature Curves
One of the biggest concerns with brittle fracture is that it can occur at stresses well below the yield
strength (stress corresponding to the transition from elastic to plastic behaviour) of the material,

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provided certain conditions are present. These conditions are: a flaw such as a crack; a stress of
sufficient intensity to develop a small deformation at the crack tip; and a temperature low enough to
promote brittle fracture. The relationship between these conditions is best described using a
generalized stress-temperature diagram for crack initiation and arrest as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 illustrates that as the temperature goes down, the tensile strength (Curve A) and the yield
strength (Curve B) increase. The increase in tensile strength, sometimes known as the ultimate
strength (a maximum of increasing strain on the stress-strain curve), is less than the increase in the
yield point. At some low temperature, on the order of 10F for carbon steel, the yield strength and
tensile strength coincide. At this temperature and below, there is no yielding when a failure occurs.

Hence, the failure is brittle. The temperature at which the yield and tensile strength coincide is the
NDT temperature. When a small flaw is present, the tensile strength follows the dashed Curve C.
At elevated temperatures, Curves A and C are identical. At lower temperatures, approximately 50F
above the NDT temperature for material with no flaws, the tensile strength curve drops to the yield
curve and then follows the yield curve to lower temperatures. At the point where Curves C and B
meet, there is a new NDT temperature. Therefore, if a flaw exists, any failure at a temperature equal
or below the NDT temperature for flawed material will be brittle.

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Crack Initiation and Propagation
As discussed earlier, brittle failure generally occurs because a flaw or crack propagates throughout
the material. The start of a fracture at low stresses is determined by the cracking tendencies at the
tip of the crack. If a plastic flaw exists at the tip, the structure is not endangered because the metal
mass surrounding the crack will support the stress. When brittle fracture occurs (under the
conditions for brittle fracture stated above), the crack will initiate and propagate through the
material at great speeds (speed of sound). It should be noted that smaller grain size, higher
temperature, and lower stress tend to mitigate crack initiation. Larger grain size, lower
temperatures, and higher stress tend to favour crack propagation. There is a stress level below
which a crack will not propagate at any temperature. This is called the lower fracture propagation
stress. As the temperature increases, a higher stress is required for a crack to propagate. The
relationship between the temperature and the stress required for a crack to propagate is called the
crack arrest curve, which is shown on Figure 2 as Curve D. At temperatures above that indicated on
this curve, crack propagation will not occur.
Fracture Toughness
Fracture toughness is an indication of the amount of stress required to propagate a pre-existing
flaw. The fracture toughness of a metal depends on the following factors.
a. Metal composition
b. Metal temperature
c. Extent of deformations to the crystal structure
d. Metal grain size
e. Metal crystalline form

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The intersection of the crack arrest curve with the yield curve (Curve B) is called the fracture
transition elastic (FTE) point. The temperature corresponding to this point is normally about 60F
above the NDT temperature. This temperature is also known as the Reference Temperature - Nilductility Transition (RTNDT) and is determined in accordance with ASME Section III (1974
edition), NB 2300. The FTE is the temperature above which plastic deformation accompanies all
fractures or the highest temperature at which fracture propagation can occur under purely elastic
loads. The intersection of the crack arrest curve (Curve D) and the tensile strength or ultimate
strength, curve (Curve A) is called the fracture transition plastic (FTP) point. The temperature
corresponding with this point is normally about 120F above the NDT temperature. Above this
temperature, only ductile fractures occur.
Figure 3 is a graph of stress versus temperature, showing fracture initiation curves for various flaw
sizes. It is clear from the above discussion that we must operate above the NDT temperature to be
certain that no brittle fracture can occur. For greater safety, it is desirable that operation be limited
above the FTE temperature, or NDT + 60F. Under such conditions, no brittle fracture can occur
for purely elastic loads.
The low temperature operation of a pressure vessel can raise the NDT temperature over the lifetime
of the reactor pressure vessel, restricting the operating temperatures and stress on the vessel. It
should be clear that this increase in NDT can lead to significant operating restrictions, especially
after 25 years to 30 years of operation where the NDT can raise 200F to 300F. Thus, if the FTE
was 60F at the beginning of vessel life and a change in the NDT of 300F occurred over a period
of time, the medium used in the pressure vessel would have to be raised to more than 360F before
full system pressure could be applied.

If we just review now the cause of failure, it would have been clear that the vessel had a flaw
initiated at lifting lug. The low temperature operation of the pressure vessel must have shifted the
NDT upwards. At the time of hydrotest, the vessel was overstressed and the crack propagated and
led to catastrophe. Periodical ultrasonic flaw detection is a requirement as per code. It is perhaps
time to scrap the storage tank after use for particular life cycle as the ultrasonic detection of flaw
depends on the skill of the inspector to detect the crack. The inspector has to be an expert to assess
the size of the crack and to revise the permissible load. The fool proof method could be a sample
plate removal and testing for impact properties.

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AN ARTICLE ON FUEL COURTESY IFRF HANDBOOK
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

WHAT IS A FUEL?
For the purposes of industrial Combustion, a Fuel is defined as a substance containing carbon and
hydrogen, which may combine within the industrial combustion process, with the oxygen contained in
atmospheric air.
This rapid combination releases heat at relatively high temperature, which may then be used for
industrial process heating, including the generation of steam and high-pressure hot water.
The combustion chemistry is very simplistically represented as:
2C + O2 --> 2CO + Heat
2CO + O2 --> 2CO2 + Heat
H2 + O2 --> H2O + Heat
Industrial fuels can contain other fuel elements, the most important of which is sulphur, which when
oxidized, can contribute significantly to the overall heat release in combustion. However the use of
high sulphur containing fuels is strongly restricted at the time of writing, due to heavy limitations in
the emission of sulphur dioxide.
HOW DID INDUSTRIAL FUELS DEVELOP?
WOOD
Naturally the development of industrial fuels was dependent on the demands of developing industrial
processes. Almost certainly the earliest industrial fuel was Wood, or derived from wood - Charcoal,
fired in various open fires, ovens and kilns.
The development of metallurgical industries required charcoal, which also supplied the carbon for ore
reduction. Thus charcoal burning itself became an industry, eventually consuming large tracts of
forest. Later, raw wood became almost displaced as a fuel for large-scale industry, but it is again
becoming important as a component of Biomass fuel or BioFuel.
COAL AND COAL-DERIVED FUELS
Wood was eventually replaced by Coal, both in terms of an industrial fuel and as the source of a
reducing agent in metallurgical processes by the coal based product - Coke.
Coal is a solid fossil fuel in the form of dark, compact, stratified rock-like mass of decayed plant
debris interspersed with smaller amounts of inorganic matter and covered with sedimentary rock,
typically brown or black in color.
Coal is a Fossil fuel of widely varying quality, existing in below surface seams of varying thickness,
depth and extent. Initially, surface seam ends were outcropped, progressing to deep mines with
drift and/or vertical shafts, leading eventually to the modern techniques of opencast mining. These
days a large proportion of coal is traded globally; the remainder is utilized close to the mine.

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In modern times coal is used mainly for:

Power generation and cement manufacturing, fired typically as a pulverized fuel, and steam or
hot water raising, fired as a pulverized fuel or as a crushed fuel in fixed or fluidized beds.

As a raw material for the manufacture of metallurgical coke, a process giving a by-product
Coke Oven Gas a rich fuel gas that may be regarded as a secondary fuel, and which is fired
typically in integrated iron and steelworks. Metallurgical coke is in turn used to fuel iron
manufacturing in blast furnaces which gives rise to a further by-product gas, a low grade
secondary fuel known as Blast Furnace Gas.

Coal can also be gasified, traditionally to Producer Gas and Water Gas, by passing steam and/or air
through hot coke beds. These processes either individually, or in combination, give a relatively low
calorific value fuel gas. At various times and locations, in the second half of the 20th century, there
has been considerable RD&D to develop commercially successful coal gasification processes. But the
advent of plentiful supplies of relatively cheap natural gas - see below has tended to prevent
widespread application, and to displace Town Gas as the coal derived gaseous fuel distributed in urban
areas for over a century.
PETROLEUM FUELS LIQUID FUELS
The next set of fuels to become important in industry was essentially a variety of liquid fuels. Liquid
fuels are mainly oils, tars and pitches and are derived primarily from Crude Petroleum, but also from
Oil Shale by distillation and from coal by carbonization and Hydrogenation.
Crude petroleum (also known as crude oil or simply crude) is a liquid, light brown to black in color
and varying considerably in viscosity depending upon origin. It occurs in sedimentary rock strata and
is a fossil fuel, derived over millions of years from the decomposition of marine organisms, ocean bed
plant life and land based organisms carried into lakes and to the sea bottom. All industrial fuels
derived from crude petroleum are classed as fossil fuels. Crude petroleum is found regularly with
Natural Gas - see below and also gives rise to a commercial gaseous fuel LPG, also described in
the following section.
Crude Oil was initially recovered seepage from near surface wells. As demand for petroleum products
increased towards the end of the 19th century, deeper and deeper wells were identified and exploited
through advancing exploration and drilling techniques. In recent decades, land based production has
been substantially augmented by the development and exploitation of under-sea based oil fields.
Crude oil is processed to produce a whole range of domestic, automotive and industrial fuels. The last
group contains, Petroleum Distillate Fuels light fuels, and a range of Petroleum Residual Fuels broadly
described as light, medium and heavy oils. These fuels were relatively cheap and easier to transport
and handle and fire than coal. Eventually at the end of the 1940s petroleum residual fuels commenced
to take over from coal-derived fuels for the firing of industrial heating processes.
In 1974, the so-called oil crisis gave rise to a temporary loss of crude petroleum supplies and also to
a considerable rise in oil prices. This commenced the search for alternative fuels, alternative
supplies of crude oil or indeed liquid fuels alternative to petroleum. In the 1980s research was carried
out into the firing of very heavy residuals, the production of coal-water slurries, the development of
Bio-oils and so forth. The application of these alternative fuels was however curtailed by the eventual
reduction in crude oil prices. Nevertheless it is strongly believed that the use of liquid, petroleum
based industrial fuels will remain important in the early decades of the present century although their
market share may decrease.
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NATURAL GAS-GASEOUS FUELS
The final range of fuels of industrial importance is gaseous fuels which are generally the easiest
fuels to handle and fire. At the time of writing, Natural Gas, a high calorific value, gaseous fossil fuel
composed mainly of methane CH4, often found in association with crude petroleum deposits, is the
most abundantly distributed and fired. This gas is also transported in bulk, in liquefied form LNG. A
further industrial fuel derived from natural gas or from petroleum refining is LPG, a very high
calorific gaseous fuel composed primarily of propane and/or butane, distributed as a liquid prior to
firing in the gaseous state.
In the iron and steel manufacturing industry, Coke Oven Gas (COG), Blast Furnace Gas (BFG) and
Basic oxygen steel making gas (BOS gas) are regularly used for associated process heating e.g. for
the firing of reheating furnaces, Cowper stoves etc., and for power generation. Similarly in the petrochemical industries a variety of gaseous by-product streams are used for the firing of associated
processes.
Town Gas, usually derived from coal, is a medium calorific value gas formerly used extensively for
residential applications in the urban areas of mature economies, but now largely superseded by Natural
Gas.
RENEWABLE FUELS
BACKGROUND
The combustion of fossil fuels effectively releases carbon, stemming originally from decomposed
plant and animal organisms, stored for millions of years as hydrocarbon molecules in coal, petroleum
or natural gas. This carbon is released as Carbon Dioxide CO2. It is presently believed that the
massive increase in the combustion of fossil fuels commencing at the start of the industrial revolution
has significantly increased the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide is a so-called greenhouse gas which is said to contribute to the phenomenon of global
warming, exhibited as climate change. The Kyoto protocol requires the curtailment of carbon dioxide
emissions from fossil fuel combustion which can be achieved, among other ways, through:

Increasing the overall thermal efficiency of the use of fossil fuels;

Substituting fossil fuels by so-called renewable fuels in combustion processes;
Providing process energy from sources not requiring the conversion of any form of fuel e.g.
electricity produced form nuclear power stations, Wind Energy, Solar Energy, etc.

FOSSIL SUBSTITUTE FUELS

This an important area of development, which considers the developing role of biomass.
Generally this set of fuels is based on plant forms, including:

Plants from wood to straw, that can be grown and harvested as a fuel (so-called energy crops);
Waste residues from plant processing piths, bagasse etc.

In addition to biomass, a further developing area includes fuels derived from municipal (domestic,
commercial and industrial) wastes so-called Refuse Derived Fuels RDF and sewage sludges.
With the increasing prohibition of landfill and river and sea dumping as a means of disposing of these
wastes, recycling of waste products including the development of potential industrial fuels streams is a
developing area, and one of interest to industry as a source of fossil replacement fuels.

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There has been considerable research in the last decade into the firing of such fuels, either in the cofiring mode or in combustion equipment specifically designed for the firing of these fuels with built-in
heat recovery.
Co-firing essentially means the mixing, for example of an RDF with a coal, in combustion equipment
designed for coal preparation and firing. The heating process can be steam raising for power
production of a cement kiln.
The essential point is that the amount of waste for disposal is reduced and that the calorific value of
the RDF or other waste fuel streams is released in a controlled manner at a point where it can be easily
utilized, reducing the need to fire a specific fossil fuel.
CONCLUSIONS
For the foreseeable future, fossil fuels will continue to provide the bulk of the industrial fuel supply.
Gradually developing fossil substitute fuels, based on biomass and recycled wastes will contribute a
relatively small but nevertheless significant portion of the industrial fuel supply.

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ART OF BED MANAGEMENT IN AFBC BOILERS
Fluidization had been extensively researched and brought out in many papers. The fluidization which
as originally used for chemical reactors was extended to combustion technology. It had been nearly 30
years since the fluidization had been commercially applied for combustion. Many manufacturers
design and supply boilers with Bubbling fluidized bed combustion technology. Many fluidized beds
are operating successfully. There are some installations wherein the fluidization misbehaves leading to
poor combustion and bed coil failures. The subject of fluidization is reviewed here for the benefit of
operating engineers.
The behaviour of a fluidized bed is difficult to predict since the parameters such as the particle size,
shape and density are not simply some numbers. These parameters in real world fall in to wider range.
There are many Fluidization regimes which have been well explained in Fluidization engineering by
Kunii & Levenspiel.
REVIEW OF FLUIDIZATION BASICS
What is Fluidized Bed?
When air or gas is passed through an inert bed of solid particles such as sand supported on a perforated
plate, the air, initially, will seek a path of least resistance and pass upward through the sand. With
further increase in the velocity, the air starts bubbling through the bed and the particles attain a state of
high turbulence. Under such conditions, the bed assumes the appearance of a fluid and exhibits the
properties associated with a fluid and hence the name 'Fluidized Bed'. If velocity is too low,
Fluidization will not occur, and if the gas velocity becomes too high, the particles will be entrained in
the gas stream and lost. Hence, to sustain stable operation of the bed, it must be ensured that gas
velocity is maintained between minimum Fluidization velocity and particle entrainment velocity.
Fluidization is widely used for many commercial operations, such as transportation, heat treatment,
absorption, mixing, combustion, chemical reactions.
Regimes of Fluidized bed combustion (source: Fluidization engineering-Kunni & Levenspiel)
When the solid particles are fluidized, the fluidized bed behaves differently as velocity, densities of
gas & solid particles are varied. It has become evident that are number of regimes as shown in figure
1.

Regime A- Fixed bed- the particles are at rest.

Regime B- Minimally fluidized bed: The upward moving gas is able to overcome the gravitational
force on the particles. The voidage increases slightly.

Regime C- As the velocity is increased further, the bubbles are generated. The bubbles coalesce
and grow as they rise to the top of bed.

Regime D- If the ratio of the height /diameter of the bed is high; the size of the bubbles becomes
equal to the diameter of the bed. This is called slugging.

Regime E- When the particles are fluidized at a high enough rate, the upper surface of the bed
disappears. Instead of bubbles one observes turbulent motion of solid clusters and voids of various
sizes and shapes.

Regime F- With further increase in gas velocity, eventually the fluidized bed becomes an entrained
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bed in which the pneumatic transport of solids take place.

Figure 1: Different regimes of fluidisation

As you might have guessed we are supposed to operate in regime C. But invariably we may land in
regime E, where the particles have become coarser. Even coarser particles are seen getting out of the
bed.
GELDART CLASSIC CLASSIFICATION OF PARTICLES
Not every particle can be fluidized. The behaviour of solid particles in fluidized bed depends mostly
on their size and density. A careful observation by Geldart (1973) is shown in figure 2. There are four
different types of materials categorized.

Figure 2: Geldart classification of particles (Geldart-1973)

Group A- these are designated as aeratable particles. The particles have small mean particle size
(dp<30m) and or low particle density (<1.4g/cm3). Fluid cracking catalysts are in this category.
These solids fluidize easily, with smooth Fluidization at low gas velocities without the formation
of bubbles. At higher gas velocity, a point is reached when bubbles start to form and the minimum
bubbling velocity, Umb is greater than Umf.
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Group B these are called sand like particles. Most particles of this group have size range of
150m to 500m and particle density is from 1.4 to 4 g/cm3.
Group C-these particles are cohesive or very fine powders. Their sizes are less than 30m. They
are extremely difficult to fluidize because inter particle forces are relatively large. Examples of
group C materials are talc, flour and starch.
Group D these materials are called, Spoutable and the materials are either very large or very
dense. They are difficult to fluidize in deep beds. As the gas flow is increased, a jet is formed in
the bed and material may then be blown out with the jet in a spouting motion. Roasting metal ores
are examples of group D materials.

Geldarts classification is clear and easy to use as displayed in figure 2 for Fluidization at ambient
conditions and for U less than about 10*Umf. For any solid of known density and mean particle size
this graph shows the type of fluidization to be expected.
FLUIDISATION VELOCITY
Many fluidization velocity correlations are available in text books. A typical correlation found in
fluidization engineering by Kunii & Levenspiel is presented below.

Vm

g ( s g )

m3

s 2 D p2
1 m

150
D pVm g
when,
< 20

The above equation is usable for

smaller particle system

D 3p g ( s g ) g
1.75 D pVm g 2 150(1 m ) D pVm g
(
)
+
(
)
=
3
3 2
2

ms

ms

D pVm g
when,
> 20

The above equation is usable for coarser particle system

Legend in above equations is as below:

Vm = Minimum Fluidization velocity
m = Void fraction
S = Sphericity
= viscosity of gas

g = acceleration
p = density of particles
Dp = Diameter of the particle
g = density of gas

We need to notice the following in the above equations**Min Fluidization velocity is proportional to Dp^2 or Dp^3 depending on the particle size.
**Min Fluidization velocity is proportional to particle density.
The above equations are based in narrow particle distribution. In real life fluidized bed system, we
have wider particle size distribution. For example in coal preparation plant from one plant to another
we may not have same particle size distribution. From mines to mines the coal ash will be different in
terms of composition and thus particle density is going to be different. In some case, we may have
complete segregation of particles in to a region of predominantly small particles and a region of
predominantly larger particles. The segregation is characterized by the abrupt change in porosity. The
picture is same in case the bed has two different particle densities. The picture is shown in figure 3.
When the particle sizes fall into a relatively narrow group we would have an intermediate case, as
shown in figure 4. The larger size particles (or denser particles) are found grouping at bottom. There is
zone where we have a mix of particles. The above theoretical exposure would now help in analyzing
our problems in fluidized bed combustion boilers.

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REAL LIFE FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION SYSTEM

Figure 3: Fluidisation with wider particle

distribution / wider particle density difference

Figure 4: Fluidisation with wider (not too wide)

particle distribution / wider particle density
difference

In a fluidized bed combustion system, the fuel / bed material is a source of the particles. In the case of
coal, the burning particles & and the burnt particles are the main contributors which decide the
fluidization behaviour in the bed. The bed material which is used for start up of a bed may be particles
which have been sieved from the ash obtained from Fluid bed combustor or it is generally sieved river
sand / sieved crushed refractory bricks...
ABOUT SAND
When sand is used as bed material, particles less than 1.5 mm should be used. These particles are
generally round in shape. When the sand particle happens to be on the higher size, we can notice that
the sand is sharp in nature. Such sand particles are found to be erosive when the bed is not properly
fluidized. It is not necessary to remove the finer portion of sand. The sand size range of 0-1.5 mm gets
the best combustion of fuels in many installations. Sand is practically a crystallized material and does
not have pores.
ABOUT CRUSHED REFRACTORY
The refractory bricks are made from recycled bricks & fresh refractory clay. The old refractory bricks
dismantled from ore melting furnaces and many other refractory furnaces are crushed to minus 3mm
as part of raw material preparation in refractory manufacturing industry. The refractory grog prepared
in this way is screened in 20 & 8 mesh and the material that is lying in between is used as bed material
for FBC. This bed material is found to be less erosive. As the density of this material is lesser as
compared to sand, the size range is 2.35 to 0.85 (corresponding to mesh numbers 20 & 8). Higher size
has been permitted here as the particle density is lower due to presence of pores.
ABOUT FUEL PARTICLE SIZE- COAL FIRED BOILERS
Even if the sand / refractory bed material conforms to required size range, over a period of FBC
operation, the entire particles are going to be replaced with the ash particles generated from fuel.
Thus the fuel sizing is very critical for trouble free FBC operation. Ignorance to maintain screen
system at coal handling plant can lead to accumulation of oversize particles. Once the over size
particles are accumulated, the bed goes for spouting. Even the heavier particles get thrown out of the
bed. The loss on ignition would go up if the furnace residence time is less. Otherwise we may not
notice it. Again if the coal is reactive with high volatile matter, the unburnt in ash may not go high. In
the case of under bed firing, the erosion of bed coils is accelerated due to violent turbulence at fuel
feed points. The generation would come down as the particle size increases. This is due to the fact that
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smaller particles have more surface area to conduct the heat to bed heat transfer surfaces.
ABOUT FUEL PARTICLE SIZE- AGRO FUEL FIRED BOILERS
In the case of agro fuels such as rice husk, de-oiled bran (DOB), ground nut shell the ash from fuel
does not contribute to bed particle size. Whatever the bed material used gradually disintegrates and the
fines go out of bed. Regular addition of bed material is required in order to maintain the bed height.
DOB fired boilers experience peculiar problem of heavier particle generation due to melting of ash.
DOB ash melts and agglomerates to over the sand / bed material. More sand will be required to offset
the bed particles becoming heavier. In general agro fuels are having lesser density as compared to bed
material and they try to leave the bed earlier. Using finer material helps to achieve a good bed
expansion and binds the fuel particles better.
Stone ingress in husk fired boilers is well known among old installations. More drains had been added
in some cases to bring out the stones. The stone removal by mechanical screen system is not effective.
Only way to get the best from these combustors is to resort to frequent draining and recharging
screened bed material. Fine sand is the right option for husk fired boilers as the disintegration of the
refractory type bed material could increase the operational cost.
ABOUT FUEL PARTICLE DOLACHAR FIRED BOILERS
Dolachar & coal are fired together in boilers used in sponge iron industries. The Dolochar contains
iron particles which are heavier. As one can expect the bed can have segregation of particles to bottom
of bed. In many cases, the operators ignore this. Once a bed lands in to segregation of particles, there
is no way out in the case of flat distributor plate designs. Only open bottom design can pull out the
oversize particles which settle at bottom. Alternately sloped distributor plate / DP with many drains
can help to control the particle separation. Particles separation when takes place preferential erosion of
bed coils is seen.
In these combustors, the generation of bed ash is also more. We may not find a requirement to add bed
material. Except for a fresh start up we may not use iron free bed material. Bed coils in these boilers
call for early replacement and the availability of the boiler is greatly disturbed due to unscheduled shut
downs. In under bed feed system, the erosion of bed coils is localized whereas in overbed the erosion
is not so, provided we keep removing heavier lot. If heavier lot is allowed to accumulate, the bed coil
erosion is of different kind. The coil is seen eroded in between studs to as in photograph 4. There is a
gross erosion of bed coil. All these troubles are related to iron accumulation. They solution could be a
continuous bed ash iron removal system. The bed ash must be cooled and discharged to an automated
magnetic separator system & over size screen system. The screened bed material should be recharged
to bed through a bed material silo and feeder system. In a case where I had visited, the plant in charge
had resorted to magnetic plate for removal of iron from bed ash. See photograph 5. Yet the rate of
accumulation was so high the iron % in bed ash did not come down. The customer was advised to
resort to continuous bed ash removal and recharge system. More bed drains have been advised so that
the removal is effective.
CASE STUDY 1- RELATED TO FLUIDIZATION
This is a 90 TPH coal fired AFBC boiler with over bed feed arrangement. The customer was restarting
the boiler after a shut down from cold condition after 5 days shut period. The bed material was not
changed. Whatever remained before the shut had been used as such. Naturally we can expect that
particle range will be right from fly ash dust to coarser ash. As this boiler was provided with over bed
start up burners, the height of the bed material had to be kept to 600-700 mm in order to cover up the
bed coil. The burner was put on for 3 hrs to raise the boiler pressure slowly and to promote circulation
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in bed coils & other evaporative circuits. In over bed burner start up system, the bed never gets heated
up beyond 150 deg C. The airbox pressure was raised to 800 mmWC and the coal feed was done. The
powder content in bed material got separated to the top and gave a picture as if the bed was fluidizing.
The bed plate design was checked for MCR pressure drop. It worked out to be 300 mmWC. That
means nearly 900 mmWC air nozzle pressure drop will be required to set a cold Fluidization. When
the FD fan can not give 1500 mmWC, the question of thorough fluidization can not be achieved.
There were temperature differences between bed thermocouples even after 12hrs after start up. In this
situation whatever fluidization which was observed was clearly a regime of fluidization with two sets
of particle groups. Now to correct the situation I simply drained the bed material from several drain
points simultaneously to bring out the coarser fraction of material at the bottom. After 4 hrs, we had
seen that all the bed temperatures read the same value. Further, the customer was advised to use finer
bed material. I recommended minus 1.5 mm sand. I advised not to discard the finer fraction of bed
material that is less than 0.5 mm.
CASE STUDY 2- RELATED TO FLUIDIZATION
This is a coal fired AFBC boiler with under bed feed arrangement. Within 2 months of changing over
to new lot of imported coal, the plant suffered bed coil erosion. The unit experienced severe iron
accumulations in bed ash. It was as high as 33%. The source was found to be the high iron content in
coal ash itself. A model calculation done proved that we need to increase the fresh bed material feed
rate to 25% of fuel feed in order to limit the iron in bed ash to 5.6%. Incidentally more the iron content
in coal, the ash fusion temperatures could be lower. The bed may begin to generate clinkers as well
(see photo).
Table 1- Ash analysis summary Fe2O3 has increased in recent coal supply.
Ash
constituents
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K2O
SO3

Bed ash at Bed

present
material
27.11
53
15
34.5
33.4
0.8
0.234
3.5
0.56
2.1
2.898
0.31
-

Coal used before Failure

Coal 1
Coal 2
48.27
56.79
26.31
27.36
6.12
6.19
9.65
3.19
1.4
0.53
1.2
0.81
0.87
1.41
0.244
0.2

Coal used
of late
35.09
19.46
29.88
5.28
1.91
1.34
2.2
0.49

CASE STUDY 3- RELATED TO FLUIDIZATION

This was a rice husk fired boiler. The customer experienced severe polishing of bed tubes. The steam
generation had come down drastically. Rice husk fired boilers need regular make up of bed material.
When I visited I found the bed ash drained from the bed was heavier. When checked up with a magnet
we noticed that the bed ash contained 40% iron. The source of iron was found to be the bed material
itself. The crushed refractory as explained earlier is made from crushing used bricks removed iron
melting furnaces. Naturally the iron content in the crushed material has to be more. The vendor did not
separate the iron which was the normal process used for making refractory bricks to meet the IS 8
specification bricks. The customer was advised to change over to fine river sand.
CASE STUDY 4- RELATED TO FLUIDIZATION
This case is a 100 TPH Boiler which was designed for high DP drop operation by design. The cold
Fluidization was checked by me in person. With a bed height of 300 mm and with air box pressure of
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1000 mmWC, the bed did not fluidize. I requested the customer to change over to finer bed material
for start up. I explained that the bed would not fully fluidize. I have enclosed photo 5, which proved
that the bed did not fluidize even after 12 hrs after the coal feeding was commenced. I recommended
that fresh fine bed material had to be added to large extent simultaneously drain the bed that did not
fluidize initially. Cold fluidization is being ignored by many in the recent boilers which were provided
with overbed start up burners. When the bed is designed with hot air generator this would not be a
problem. Had the boiler been provided with charcoal start up burner lances, the boiler would have
never started. It would have experienced clinkering every time. In fact I had attended a case where the
client got the entire set of air nozzles replaced with higher diameter holes to have the cold fluidization.
FINAL WORD
Boiler operators need to realize the importance of the right size of bed material with the right particle
density is important for a thorough Fluidization. Use of mechanized bed ash / bed material screen
system, regular sieve & ash analysis of fuel, regular measurement of sieve analysis bed ash, frequent
check in iron content of bed ash & bed material would help to improve get the best from the AFBC
boilers. Manufacturers need to realize that the additional drains are a must for smooth operation of
FBC boilers. High DP drop in bed would give problems in setting the cold Fluidization. Cold
Fluidization inspection should be part of start up process and can not be compromised.

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Photo 1-heavier particles are thrown in bed

Photo 3-Open bottom furnace originally

designed by B&W

Photo 5-Improper fluidization High DP drop

Photo 2- heavier particles collected at inspection

door.

Photo 4- bed coil erosion in overbed fed boiler.

The heavier particles settling at bottom of the
bed has caused erosion.

Photo 6- Fusion of ash in case of high iron.

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Photo 7: A sample of bed ash was checked in a boiler where the total bed defluidized due to iron
containing bed ash particles. The weight % of iron containing particles is found to be 51.9%.

By K.K.Parthiban
Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID: parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
Mobile: 098431 13111

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ART OF BED MANAGEMENT IN AFBC BOILERS
Fluidization had been extensively researched and brought out in many papers. The fluidization which
as originally used for chemical reactors was extended to combustion technology. It had been nearly 30
years since the fluidization had been commercially applied for combustion. Many manufacturers
design and supply boilers with Bubbling fluidized bed combustion technology. Many fluidized beds
are operating successfully. There are some installations wherein the fluidization misbehaves leading to
poor combustion and bed coil failures. The subject of fluidization is reviewed here for the benefit of
operating engineers.
The behaviour of a fluidized bed is difficult to predict since the parameters such as the particle size,
shape and density are not simply some numbers. These parameters in real world fall in to wider range.
There are many Fluidization regimes which have been well explained in Fluidization engineering by
Kunii & Levenspiel.
REVIEW OF FLUIDIZATION BASICS
What is Fluidized Bed?
When air or gas is passed through an inert bed of solid particles such as sand supported on a perforated
plate, the air, initially, will seek a path of least resistance and pass upward through the sand. With
further increase in the velocity, the air starts bubbling through the bed and the particles attain a state of
high turbulence. Under such conditions, the bed assumes the appearance of a fluid and exhibits the
properties associated with a fluid and hence the name 'Fluidized Bed'. If velocity is too low,
Fluidization will not occur, and if the gas velocity becomes too high, the particles will be entrained in
the gas stream and lost. Hence, to sustain stable operation of the bed, it must be ensured that gas
velocity is maintained between minimum Fluidization velocity and particle entrainment velocity.
Fluidization is widely used for many commercial operations, such as transportation, heat treatment,
absorption, mixing, combustion, chemical reactions.
Regimes of Fluidized bed combustion (source: Fluidization engineering-Kunni & Levenspiel)
When the solid particles are fluidized, the fluidized bed behaves differently as velocity, densities of
gas & solid particles are varied. It has become evident that are number of regimes as shown in figure
1.

Regime A- Fixed bed- the particles are at rest.

Regime B- Minimally fluidized bed: The upward moving gas is able to overcome the gravitational
force on the particles. The voidage increases slightly.

Regime C- As the velocity is increased further, the bubbles are generated. The bubbles coalesce
and grow as they rise to the top of bed.

Regime D- If the ratio of the height /diameter of the bed is high; the size of the bubbles becomes
equal to the diameter of the bed. This is called slugging.

Regime E- When the particles are fluidized at a high enough rate, the upper surface of the bed
disappears. Instead of bubbles one observes turbulent motion of solid clusters and voids of various
sizes and shapes.

Regime F- With further increase in gas velocity, eventually the fluidized bed becomes an entrained
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bed in which the pneumatic transport of solids take place.

Figure 1: Different regimes of fluidisation

As you might have guessed we are supposed to operate in regime C. But invariably we may land in
regime E, where the particles have become coarser. Even coarser particles are seen getting out of the
bed.
GELDART CLASSIC CLASSIFICATION OF PARTICLES
Not every particle can be fluidized. The behaviour of solid particles in fluidized bed depends mostly
on their size and density. A careful observation by Geldart (1973) is shown in figure 2. There are four
different types of materials categorized.

Figure 2: Geldart classification of particles (Geldart-1973)

Group A- these are designated as aeratable particles. The particles have small mean particle size
(dp<30m) and or low particle density (<1.4g/cm3). Fluid cracking catalysts are in this category.
These solids fluidize easily, with smooth Fluidization at low gas velocities without the formation
of bubbles. At higher gas velocity, a point is reached when bubbles start to form and the minimum
bubbling velocity, Umb is greater than Umf.
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Group B these are called sand like particles. Most particles of this group have size range of
150m to 500m and particle density is from 1.4 to 4 g/cm3.
Group C-these particles are cohesive or very fine powders. Their sizes are less than 30m. They
are extremely difficult to fluidize because inter particle forces are relatively large. Examples of
group C materials are talc, flour and starch.
Group D these materials are called, Spoutable and the materials are either very large or very
dense. They are difficult to fluidize in deep beds. As the gas flow is increased, a jet is formed in
the bed and material may then be blown out with the jet in a spouting motion. Roasting metal ores
are examples of group D materials.

Geldarts classification is clear and easy to use as displayed in figure 2 for Fluidization at ambient
conditions and for U less than about 10*Umf. For any solid of known density and mean particle size
this graph shows the type of fluidization to be expected.
FLUIDISATION VELOCITY
Many fluidization velocity correlations are available in text books. A typical correlation found in
fluidization engineering by Kunii & Levenspiel is presented below.

Vm

g ( s g )

m3

s 2 D p2
1 m

150
D pVm g
when,
< 20

The above equation is usable for

smaller particle system

D 3p g ( s g ) g
1.75 D pVm g 2 150(1 m ) D pVm g
(
)
+
(
)
=
3
3 2
2

ms

ms

D pVm g
when,
> 20

The above equation is usable for coarser particle system

Legend in above equations is as below:

Vm = Minimum Fluidization velocity
m = Void fraction
S = Sphericity
= viscosity of gas

g = acceleration
p = density of particles
Dp = Diameter of the particle
g = density of gas

We need to notice the following in the above equations**Min Fluidization velocity is proportional to Dp^2 or Dp^3 depending on the particle size.
**Min Fluidization velocity is proportional to particle density.
The above equations are based in narrow particle distribution. In real life fluidized bed system, we
have wider particle size distribution. For example in coal preparation plant from one plant to another
we may not have same particle size distribution. From mines to mines the coal ash will be different in
terms of composition and thus particle density is going to be different. In some case, we may have
complete segregation of particles in to a region of predominantly small particles and a region of
predominantly larger particles. The segregation is characterized by the abrupt change in porosity. The
picture is same in case the bed has two different particle densities. The picture is shown in figure 3.
When the particle sizes fall into a relatively narrow group we would have an intermediate case, as
shown in figure 4. The larger size particles (or denser particles) are found grouping at bottom. There is
zone where we have a mix of particles. The above theoretical exposure would now help in analyzing
our problems in fluidized bed combustion boilers.

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REAL LIFE FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION SYSTEM

Figure 3: Fluidisation with wider particle

distribution / wider particle density difference

Figure 4: Fluidisation with wider (not too wide)

particle distribution / wider particle density
difference

In a fluidized bed combustion system, the fuel / bed material is a source of the particles. In the case of
coal, the burning particles & and the burnt particles are the main contributors which decide the
fluidization behaviour in the bed. The bed material which is used for start up of a bed may be particles
which have been sieved from the ash obtained from Fluid bed combustor or it is generally sieved river
sand / sieved crushed refractory bricks...
ABOUT SAND
When sand is used as bed material, particles less than 1.5 mm should be used. These particles are
generally round in shape. When the sand particle happens to be on the higher size, we can notice that
the sand is sharp in nature. Such sand particles are found to be erosive when the bed is not properly
fluidized. It is not necessary to remove the finer portion of sand. The sand size range of 0-1.5 mm gets
the best combustion of fuels in many installations. Sand is practically a crystallized material and does
not have pores.
ABOUT CRUSHED REFRACTORY
The refractory bricks are made from recycled bricks & fresh refractory clay. The old refractory bricks
dismantled from ore melting furnaces and many other refractory furnaces are crushed to minus 3mm
as part of raw material preparation in refractory manufacturing industry. The refractory grog prepared
in this way is screened in 20 & 8 mesh and the material that is lying in between is used as bed material
for FBC. This bed material is found to be less erosive. As the density of this material is lesser as
compared to sand, the size range is 2.35 to 0.85 (corresponding to mesh numbers 20 & 8). Higher size
has been permitted here as the particle density is lower due to presence of pores.
ABOUT FUEL PARTICLE SIZE- COAL FIRED BOILERS
Even if the sand / refractory bed material conforms to required size range, over a period of FBC
operation, the entire particles are going to be replaced with the ash particles generated from fuel.
Thus the fuel sizing is very critical for trouble free FBC operation. Ignorance to maintain screen
system at coal handling plant can lead to accumulation of oversize particles. Once the over size
particles are accumulated, the bed goes for spouting. Even the heavier particles get thrown out of the
bed. The loss on ignition would go up if the furnace residence time is less. Otherwise we may not
notice it. Again if the coal is reactive with high volatile matter, the unburnt in ash may not go high. In
the case of under bed firing, the erosion of bed coils is accelerated due to violent turbulence at fuel
feed points. The generation would come down as the particle size increases. This is due to the fact that
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smaller particles have more surface area to conduct the heat to bed heat transfer surfaces.
ABOUT FUEL PARTICLE SIZE- AGRO FUEL FIRED BOILERS
In the case of agro fuels such as rice husk, de-oiled bran (DOB), ground nut shell the ash from fuel
does not contribute to bed particle size. Whatever the bed material used gradually disintegrates and the
fines go out of bed. Regular addition of bed material is required in order to maintain the bed height.
DOB fired boilers experience peculiar problem of heavier particle generation due to melting of ash.
DOB ash melts and agglomerates to over the sand / bed material. More sand will be required to offset
the bed particles becoming heavier. In general agro fuels are having lesser density as compared to bed
material and they try to leave the bed earlier. Using finer material helps to achieve a good bed
expansion and binds the fuel particles better.
Stone ingress in husk fired boilers is well known among old installations. More drains had been added
in some cases to bring out the stones. The stone removal by mechanical screen system is not effective.
Only way to get the best from these combustors is to resort to frequent draining and recharging
screened bed material. Fine sand is the right option for husk fired boilers as the disintegration of the
refractory type bed material could increase the operational cost.
ABOUT FUEL PARTICLE DOLACHAR FIRED BOILERS
Dolachar & coal are fired together in boilers used in sponge iron industries. The Dolochar contains
iron particles which are heavier. As one can expect the bed can have segregation of particles to bottom
of bed. In many cases, the operators ignore this. Once a bed lands in to segregation of particles, there
is no way out in the case of flat distributor plate designs. Only open bottom design can pull out the
oversize particles which settle at bottom. Alternately sloped distributor plate / DP with many drains
can help to control the particle separation. Particles separation when takes place preferential erosion of
bed coils is seen.
In these combustors, the generation of bed ash is also more. We may not find a requirement to add bed
material. Except for a fresh start up we may not use iron free bed material. Bed coils in these boilers
call for early replacement and the availability of the boiler is greatly disturbed due to unscheduled shut
downs. In under bed feed system, the erosion of bed coils is localized whereas in overbed the erosion
is not so, provided we keep removing heavier lot. If heavier lot is allowed to accumulate, the bed coil
erosion is of different kind. The coil is seen eroded in between studs to as in photograph 4. There is a
gross erosion of bed coil. All these troubles are related to iron accumulation. They solution could be a
continuous bed ash iron removal system. The bed ash must be cooled and discharged to an automated
magnetic separator system & over size screen system. The screened bed material should be recharged
to bed through a bed material silo and feeder system. In a case where I had visited, the plant in charge
had resorted to magnetic plate for removal of iron from bed ash. See photograph 5. Yet the rate of
accumulation was so high the iron % in bed ash did not come down. The customer was advised to
resort to continuous bed ash removal and recharge system. More bed drains have been advised so that
the removal is effective.
CASE STUDY 1- RELATED TO FLUIDIZATION
This is a 90 TPH coal fired AFBC boiler with over bed feed arrangement. The customer was restarting
the boiler after a shut down from cold condition after 5 days shut period. The bed material was not
changed. Whatever remained before the shut had been used as such. Naturally we can expect that
particle range will be right from fly ash dust to coarser ash. As this boiler was provided with over bed
start up burners, the height of the bed material had to be kept to 600-700 mm in order to cover up the
bed coil. The burner was put on for 3 hrs to raise the boiler pressure slowly and to promote circulation
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in bed coils & other evaporative circuits. In over bed burner start up system, the bed never gets heated
up beyond 150 deg C. The airbox pressure was raised to 800 mmWC and the coal feed was done. The
powder content in bed material got separated to the top and gave a picture as if the bed was fluidizing.
The bed plate design was checked for MCR pressure drop. It worked out to be 300 mmWC. That
means nearly 900 mmWC air nozzle pressure drop will be required to set a cold Fluidization. When
the FD fan can not give 1500 mmWC, the question of thorough fluidization can not be achieved.
There were temperature differences between bed thermocouples even after 12hrs after start up. In this
situation whatever fluidization which was observed was clearly a regime of fluidization with two sets
of particle groups. Now to correct the situation I simply drained the bed material from several drain
points simultaneously to bring out the coarser fraction of material at the bottom. After 4 hrs, we had
seen that all the bed temperatures read the same value. Further, the customer was advised to use finer
bed material. I recommended minus 1.5 mm sand. I advised not to discard the finer fraction of bed
material that is less than 0.5 mm.
CASE STUDY 2- RELATED TO FLUIDIZATION
This is a coal fired AFBC boiler with under bed feed arrangement. Within 2 months of changing over
to new lot of imported coal, the plant suffered bed coil erosion. The unit experienced severe iron
accumulations in bed ash. It was as high as 33%. The source was found to be the high iron content in
coal ash itself. A model calculation done proved that we need to increase the fresh bed material feed
rate to 25% of fuel feed in order to limit the iron in bed ash to 5.6%. Incidentally more the iron content
in coal, the ash fusion temperatures could be lower. The bed may begin to generate clinkers as well
(see photo).
Table 1- Ash analysis summary Fe2O3 has increased in recent coal supply.
Ash
constituents
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K2O
SO3

Bed ash at Bed

present
material
27.11
53
15
34.5
33.4
0.8
0.234
3.5
0.56
2.1
2.898
0.31
-

Coal used before Failure

Coal 1
Coal 2
48.27
56.79
26.31
27.36
6.12
6.19
9.65
3.19
1.4
0.53
1.2
0.81
0.87
1.41
0.244
0.2

Coal used
of late
35.09
19.46
29.88
5.28
1.91
1.34
2.2
0.49

CASE STUDY 3- RELATED TO FLUIDIZATION

This was a rice husk fired boiler. The customer experienced severe polishing of bed tubes. The steam
generation had come down drastically. Rice husk fired boilers need regular make up of bed material.
When I visited I found the bed ash drained from the bed was heavier. When checked up with a magnet
we noticed that the bed ash contained 40% iron. The source of iron was found to be the bed material
itself. The crushed refractory as explained earlier is made from crushing used bricks removed iron
melting furnaces. Naturally the iron content in the crushed material has to be more. The vendor did not
separate the iron which was the normal process used for making refractory bricks to meet the IS 8
specification bricks. The customer was advised to change over to fine river sand.
CASE STUDY 4- RELATED TO FLUIDIZATION
This case is a 100 TPH Boiler which was designed for high DP drop operation by design. The cold
Fluidization was checked by me in person. With a bed height of 300 mm and with air box pressure of
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1000 mmWC, the bed did not fluidize. I requested the customer to change over to finer bed material
for start up. I explained that the bed would not fully fluidize. I have enclosed photo 5, which proved
that the bed did not fluidize even after 12 hrs after the coal feeding was commenced. I recommended
that fresh fine bed material had to be added to large extent simultaneously drain the bed that did not
fluidize initially. Cold fluidization is being ignored by many in the recent boilers which were provided
with overbed start up burners. When the bed is designed with hot air generator this would not be a
problem. Had the boiler been provided with charcoal start up burner lances, the boiler would have
never started. It would have experienced clinkering every time. In fact I had attended a case where the
client got the entire set of air nozzles replaced with higher diameter holes to have the cold fluidization.
FINAL WORD
Boiler operators need to realize the importance of the right size of bed material with the right particle
density is important for a thorough Fluidization. Use of mechanized bed ash / bed material screen
system, regular sieve & ash analysis of fuel, regular measurement of sieve analysis bed ash, frequent
check in iron content of bed ash & bed material would help to improve get the best from the AFBC
boilers. Manufacturers need to realize that the additional drains are a must for smooth operation of
FBC boilers. High DP drop in bed would give problems in setting the cold Fluidization. Cold
Fluidization inspection should be part of start up process and can not be compromised.

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Photo 1-heavier particles are thrown in bed

Photo 3-Open bottom furnace originally

designed by B&W

Photo 5-Improper fluidization High DP drop

Photo 2- heavier particles collected at inspection

door.

Photo 4- bed coil erosion in overbed fed boiler.

The heavier particles settling at bottom of the
bed has caused erosion.

Photo 6- Fusion of ash in case of high iron.

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Photo 7: A sample of bed ash was checked in a boiler where the total bed defluidized due to iron
containing bed ash particles. The weight % of iron containing particles is found to be 51.9%.

By K.K.Parthiban
Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID: parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
Mobile: 098431 13111

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IS YOUR GAUGE GLASS FAILING OFTEN?
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

A customer had been facing gauge glass failures ever since the boiler was commissioned. He asked me
how could this happen. He reported that water keeps on trickling down the gauge glass from steam
side. This happens in both side water level gauges.
There can be two reasons for this. One is Foaming of boiler water. Another reason can be the uninsulated pipes connecting the level gauge. Insulation of the pipes can be easily attended to. Foaming
leads to dancing of water level gauge. You may observe water fluctuations to an extent of 50 mm.
Foaming can occur due to several reasons. Foaming not only affects the water level but also steam
purity.
Foaming - This is the formation of foam in the space between the water surface and the steam offtake. Foam on a glass of beer sits on top of the liquid, and the liquid / foam interface is clearly
defined. In a boiling liquid, the liquid surface is indistinct, varying from a few small steam bubbles at
the bottom of the vessel, to many large steam bubbles at the top.
The following are indications and consequences of foaming:

Water will trickle down from the steam connection of the gauge glass; this makes it difficult to
accurately determine the water level. It leads to frequent gauge glass failure.
Level probes, floats and differential pressure cells have difficulty in accurately determining
water level.
When low water level happens, the boiler will trip unnecessarily.
Phosphate levels are uncontrollable. Phosphate hide out is experienced. All of a sudden you
will find phosphate level going up even after stopping chemical dosage.
Smaller drum sizes may lead to permanent foaming. At low loads the faming may not be
experienced. The trend is towards smaller boilers for a given steaming rate. Smaller boilers
have less water surface area, so the rate at which steam is released per square metre of water
area is increased. This means that the agitation at the surface is greater. It follows then that
smaller boilers are more prone to foaming.
TDS level - As the boiler water TDS increases, the steam bubbles become more stable, and are
more reluctant to burst and separate.
Oil / Grease contaminated water will lead to high level of foaming.

REMEDIAL MEASURES

Look for sources of suspended matter ingress. In can happen due to pre-boiler system corrosion. In
many plants pH correction is not being done at DM / RO plant outlet. This leads to corrosion of
piping / tank and thus boiler feedwater will be contaminated with iron powder. This accumulates
in steam drum over the steam water interface. Go for lining of the tanks. Raise pH at water
treatment plant outlet itself.
There can be sections of steam user equipment which is being started / stopped often. During every
start, this process equipment sends its entire corrosion product to boiler along with condensate.
Look for steam capping / Deaerated hot water circulation arrangement to preserve the process
equipment from corrosion.
The boiler itself foams if not preserved properly during outages.
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Turbidity increase during rainy season, if not treated properly can get into boiler water leading to
foaming.
Dont dose excess chemicals. Dont simply dose chemicals as per chemical vendor advice.
Understand the purpose and regulate the chemical dosage.
In some plants chemical dosing is done without continuous chemical dosing system.
Condensate pH control can be adopted by use of volatile chemical dosage. Thus condensate line
corrosion can be avoided.
Anti-foaming agents may be added to the boiler water. These operate by breaking down the foam
bubbles. However, these agents are not effective when treating foams caused by suspended solids.

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AUDITING ENERGY SYSTEM EFFECTIVELY
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
In the growing market of energy systems, Industrial boiler companies have been doing a good business
of late. I have to say they are busy too. Lots of new engineers have come in to the field. In the
companies the old stalwarts have not put systems for design audit & field audit of the boiler &
subsystem. This has indirectly resulted in premature failures & shut down of the plant in many cases.
It has become order of the day to engage consultancy companies for design audit & inspection
companies for quality audit. If you ask me whether this is working my answer yes to some extent.
The reason for the remark is the absence of a well defined audit system that could not do the needful to
industry. In this article, I have brought out some of the failures by the manufacturing companies who
have not institutionalized a proper audit system in place. You would also find that Boiler buyers are
over confident about their competency in this field energy system.

TYPES OF AUDITS

Like the various performance review system such as six sigma / TPM we need to have some system up
to putting up a power plant. There are five types of audits for power plant equipment. They can be
categorized under design audit, manufacturing audit, construction audit, operational audit & shut down
audit.

DESIGN AUDIT

Design audit is to be carried out even before placement of the order. The consultancy companies do
have bunch of specifications to spell out the requirements. There are data sheets to be filled in by the
prospective vendors. Consulting companies make a comparison of heat transfer areas, Equipment
sizing, and make of components. This stage definitely does ensure the job as there had been a
considerable development in the consulting companies to revise their specifications as they gain
experience over a period.
There are many boiler user industries, which simply rely on some employees who have put up some
projects in the past. A project co-ordination work is different from purchasing the equipment with
right specifications. I have encountered undersized equipment being purchased in this way. Items
which have not been proven are being purchased. Particularly in smaller capacity segment, boilers are
being purchased without a design verification process. It is my advice to these companies to have a
design audit done before order placement. Some of the calls which I get are due to lack of knowledge
in the design side by the internal project team.

MANUFACTURING AUDIT

Here comes the knowledge & experience. Many of us have got years of experience in this field.
Unless there is a detailed design experience one may not fit into this role. Manufacturing audit goes
with lots of design & field experience. Manufacturing audit means mostly checking raw material
quality, manufacturing process, dimensional inspection etc. Companies that conduct manufacturing
audit mostly do a nice job of reviewing identity of raw material, overall dimensional inspection of the
product, reviewing the stage inspection reports, reviewing the shop tests, reviewing the Non
destructive testing (NDT) reports & Destructive testing (DT) reports. Yet what we miss here is the
purposeful inspection. When the inspector fails to possess the operating experience of the end product
he can not inspect the necessary parameters that have to meet the ultimate requirement of product
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performance. There are persons in the QC auditing companies, who verify the product with respect to
the manufacturers drawing. Lack of knowledge of drawing reading skill leads to failures in
inspection. Some of the problems which I had diagnosed are due to this aspect.

CONSTRUCTION AUDIT

Many manufacturing companies have been forced to recruit fresh engineers to do construction job.
This is the present status as the demand has gone up for persons in boiler & power market. Almost all
manufacturing companies do not have a field audit system for the boiler system. There have been
innumerable cases of failures by the manufacturing companies. The consulting companies who have
been part of the project also fail to look in to the construction audit. The audit needs to be purposeful
to get the product performance in service. We may see there are no log sheets used by the companies
that are engaged in field quality. They tend to see mostly on welding quality rather than the ultimate
product performance. Even if one agency is hired to do this job, it may be worth to hire a second
agency to construct the audit. Once I was called at a plant for auditing a boiler under conversion to
FBC. When the two agencies did the job, number of useful points came up that resulted in a perfect
commissioning of the plant. (I know I am selling myself at this point !).

OPERATIONAL AUDIT

There is no doubt that the boiler operation / power plant operations have lots of data being generated
by the Data acquisition system. These data are summarized and critically reviewed by the plant senior
personnel. There could be lots of improvement possible in the boiler operations in the combustion side
& water side that would improve the plant availability. Failures to maintain instrumentation system
often have led to deterioration of performance & availability. Equipment supplier could be called upon
to conduct an audit of the operational parameters.
Operational audit should include review of operational parameters of the boiler and the computation of
boiler efficiency & plant efficiency. There are cases of poor water side management that were detected
from the feed water, boiler water, saturated steam, superheated steam, TG condensate, plant
condensate & make up water analytical reports. A review by a designer / water treatment specialist
could be useful in extending the availability of the plant. The recent demand for high pressure boilers a
stringent water quality management. The knowledge gap can be reduced often after a review by the
experts.

SHUT DOWN AUDIT

Boiler users are giving a new dimension to this nowadays. I have been getting lots of call related to
this. I say it is worth it, if we have to keep the equipment fit. The audit may also be conducted by the
manufacturing company. Boiler availability deteriorates over a period due to fuels we use & the design
defects, construction defects & operational defects. There is also a need to modify the equipment to
suit the changing scenario in fuel characteristics. These could be identified only during a proper shut
down audit.

CASE STUDIES

I have chosen to include the reports of some of the audits performed by me in the recent past. I have
dressed up the report so that I would not pinpoint that some manufacturer is at fault. The point driven
in this article is to say that the auditing needs to be done by inviting an external agency. If an audit can
bring out one valid point that can improve the plant availability by a day, it is good enough for a
decent payback. I have brought out so many photographs that illustrate the vast scope for improving
the performance.
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Case study 1
A customer had purchased a boiler based on thumb rule of heating surface per ton of steam generation.
He had called me for inspecting the boiler that had reached the site. I found that the boiler design was
altogether wrong. Instances of this type can be avoided by engaging the consulting company. The
report that was handed over to owner is attached herewith.
Case study 2
This case was an inspection of the power plant during commissioning period. The plant was facing a
start up problem and I was called upon. The visit led to revealing of innumerable design defects &
construction defects & commissioning defects. The readers may get a dose of education from the
report that is dressed up little bit. Read the report that is attached herewith. The consultancy company
& quality control company that had been hired missed out many details.
Case study 3
This was a case of boiler inspection during a shut down. The shut down revealed need for modifying
the water quality parameters. Impact of fuel characteristics was seen on the bed tubes of the boiler.
There were several useful points resulted out of the energy audit. What is more is that the boiler
operating engineers got an insight of the equipment which they were handling. No doubt that the shut
down audit provides a training session in the process.
SUMMARY
I had been doing audits of this kind to many boiler users. There are numerous cases that the power
plant engineers get their supplement knowledge out of the audits performed and the discussions that
follow after the audits. Readers may avail our auditing services for the benefit of better availability of
the energy system.
We have recently introduced a protocol system devised for a new power plant under construction.
Samples of protocol check points are shown at the end of the case studies.

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AUDIT OF 12 TPH AFBC BOILER UNDER SUPPLY
The boiler parameters are 12 TPH (from & at 100 deg C), 28 kg/cm2 (design pressure), saturated
steam, rice husk fired overbed FBC boiler, twin furnace, waterwall cum shell type boiler. The dust
collection system is a mechanical dust collector. The heat recovery system given is an Airpreheater.
The following are the points of inspection.
1. The shell is provided with 63.5 x 4.06 dia flue tubes. The number of tubes are 161 & 110 in 1 & 2
pass respectively. This too less. The average gas velocities in 1 & 2 pass are estimated to be 39 &
35 m/s. The gas inlet velocity in these tubes are working out to be 41.8 m/s & 37.42 m/s. This kind
of gas velocities are used in oil / gas fired boilers. The draft loss across the shell alone will be of
the order of 180 mmWC. The erosion of the tube will be high if we try to operate at full load. Also
the ID fan head selected is only 210 mmWC which will be totally insufficient. It is recommended
to go for a new shell of 340 & 200 number of tubes in 1 & 2 pass respectively. In comparison with
the present 8 TPH boiler the number of tubes should have been 385 & 158 in 1 pass & 2 pass
respectively.
2. The FD fan selected is just meeting the MCR requirement. There is no margin considered by
supplier. The FD fan flow required with 25% flow margin is 9288 m3/h whereas what is supplied
is with 7200 m3/h.
3. The bed cross sectional area provided is adequate for a 12 TPH boiler. However the DP drop will
work out to be 500 mmWC. The FD fan head will not be sufficient to take care of fluidization.
4. The APH inside tube arrangement is not OK. There is big gap of 150 mm on either side of the
central baffle. See photo 5. This needs to be corrected.
5. The fuel feed point seem to be at a very high level over the bed tubes. See photo 6. Please compare
the fuel feed point in the available 8 TPH boiler and revise the location suitably. My
recommendation would be 300 mm above bed coil so that the husk will get in to the bed.
6. See photo 6. The fuel feed point is just above the ash collection chamber wall. The fuel will go
directly to ash chamber.
7. The ID fan casing to impeller cut off is too less. This can create noise & vibration problems. This
should be usually 10% of impeller ID. See photo 1.
8. The ID fan impeller to suction cone clearance is about 30 mm. This will affect the performance of
ID fan. The gas recirculation within the fan will be more. The draft at furnace will be affected. The
gap should be close 3 mm. This has to be corrected. See photo 2.
9. The ID fan shall not be provided with suction flap damper. See photo 3. Such a damper at ID fan
will affect the fan performance. Locate the damper in MDC outlet duct which is 800 x 800 mm
cross section.
10. The ID fan draft required will be 250 mmWC. At present what is selected is 210 mmWC.
11. A leak proof casing shall be provided for the furnace to prevent the air ingress in to the furnace.
12. At present the manufacturer has envisaged supporting waterwall at a different base level than the
shell. This is not good as there will be differential thermal expansion. Please note the waterwall
outlet header is directly connected to from tube sheet. This is an anchor point.
13. MDC cone to vane assembly is not proper. All the turning vanes should be at same level inside the
cone. See photo 4.
14. The waterwall on thermal expansion will try to push the refractory wall. To take care of thermal
expansion ceramic blanket can be inserted for 20 mm thick at the joint between the waterwall &
refractory wall.
15. MDC outlet pipe to vane clearance is too high. This gap shall be filled with a 5 mm rod all around
to prevent erosion of outlet tubes.

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ANNEXURE for case study 1

Photo 1: The cut off between impeller diameter & casing is less. This can cause high noise & high
frequency vibration of duct / chimney.

Photo 2: The impeller to suction casing clearance is around 30 mm all around. This can cause
recirculation of flue gas. Thus the draft will be less at furnace.
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Photo 3: There shall be no flap dampers in front of ID fan. This affects the fan performance.

Photo 4: The gas turning vanes at MDC shall be at a uniform height inside the MDC cone. The gap
between the outlet pipe & turning vanes shall be closed by a round rod. Otherwise the outlet pipe
erodes.
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Photo 5: The APH tube to middle baffle gap is too high. This can bypass the gas affecting the APH
performance.

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Photo 6. The elevation of screw feeder is too high to bed coil level. Check what is in the present
boiler and provide the same. Recommended distance is 300 mm above bed coil.

Photo 7. The husk may directly go to ash settling chamber, as the partition wall height is less.

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REPORT ON AUDIT OF 18 MW POWER PLANT
The Petcoke / coal based thermal power plant is commissioned recently. The boiler parameters are of
85 TPH, 88 kg/cm2, 520 deg C. The design fuels are Coal, petcoke and partly lignite. The boiler is of
single drum design with convection SH, Radiant SH and bed SH. The boiler was under shut at the time
of visit. It was informed that the bed frequently clinkered during start up & during operation. The
reason for such repeating problem is analyzed and reported in this report. Further the boiler & power
plant steam piping installation were inspected. There are many points, which call for immediate
attention. The report on such installation defects are covered in annexure illustratively.
BED CLINKERING PROBLEM
1. The design bed height as per O&M manual is 425 -485 mmWC. Actual operating data of the past
one month indicates that the Airbox pressure is only 450 mmWC. This means the operating bed
height is 300 mmWC. This is not a stable bed height for start up compartment after start up or for a
compartmental operation. Low operating bed height means that the bed HTA is more. It is
necessary to camouflage portion of bed coils so that the operating height increases. Phoscast may
be applied above coal nozzle but with care. It may unnecessarily invite sites for erosion. If done
above coal nozzles, both outer & inner coils are to be covered.
2. When a compartment is slumped its air bleed off valve must be kept open.
3. At present there is no instrumentation for knowing the operating bed height. The airflow measured
will be too low with one compartment during start up. Only DP drop can be made use of as a
measure for air flow. With this one can see how much bed height is available after mixing. At
times the bed material from start up compartment spills to adjoining compartment. With less bed
material ignition / bed temperature stabilization is difficult.
4. With less bed height the combustion is incomplete in the operating bed. The particles just leave
after ignition. A minimum start up bed height of 250 mmWC is required. The bed spilling to
adjacent compartment is reduced when we make a tall border along the edge of 2nd compartment
during start up.
5. The bed coil area required for 950 deg C combustion temperature @ 30% Excess air is 113m2.
The studded coil length required is 707 m. For a 900 mm expanded bed height, the immersed coil
length available is 797 m. We can go for refractory cover of 550 mm in the 158 number outer coils
only. This will provide a coverage of 87 meter.
IMPORTANCE OF WATER CHEMISTRY
1. For this boiler the pH-PO4 regime has to be in congruent mode. Excess of both will lead to caustic
gouging. Bed coil in idle bed is more susceptible for caustic gouging.
2. The pH control for condensate has to be with morpholine. We should not attempt to maintain pH
with Ammonia. It may not offer the indented protection to Air cooled condenser tubes as the
ammonia has higher steam distribution ratio.
VANISHING OF WATER LEVEL DURING START UP
1. At present the water after pressurizing may be going in to the economiser due to the long piping. It
is recommended to maintain a minimum leakage flow in economiser while the bed temperature
rises during a start up. If drum level goes up keep CBD crack open.
OTHER OBSERVATIONS
The other observations are as per enclosed annexure.

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FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Bed height instrumentation & refractory lining together is expected to avoid clinker operation during
start up. Compartmental operation if unavoidable, rotate compartments every 3 hrs. Boiler water
chemistry shall be managed with a 70:30 mix of tri-sodium phosphate & di-sodium phosphate. All
piping spring supports shall be attended immediately.

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ANNEXURE for case study 2

Photo 1: The flowmeter & APH bypass air duct are placed very close to FD fan. There is no
expansion joint as well. The aerodynamic disturbance placed in the immediate vicinity of FD
discharge is likely to be cause for vibration & noise. The flowmeter reading will not be proper as
there is a damper at outlet.

Photo 2: The buckstays link erection is wrong. The present arrangement does not permit the
expansion of waterwall. At some boilers this has resulted in waterwall corner tube fin tearing off &
boiler waterwall caving in. This needs to be corrected as per drawing.
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Photo 3: The Spring support base is distorted / erected improperly. A bracket could have been
provided.

Photo 4: The Main steam line spring hanger is not carrying any load. The hanger rod from spring
support is bent.

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Photo 5: The rigid base support at main steam piping is likely to lift off after thermal expansion. It
will be then wrong to have assumed that the pipe is supported at this point.

Photo 6: Already the feeder is of under capacity for petcoke. To this feeder, the limestone chute is
connected. Moreover the petcoke regulation is not possible when limestone mixing is done like this.
This is a very fundamental mistake.
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Photo 7: Limestone feed chute is of rectangular. This would give problem as the limestone is
hygroscopic. The Limestone has to be connected to drag chain feeder directly.

Photo 8,9 &10: Roof panel to CSH / RSH sealing is not OK. Ash is seen in the insulation cladding.
Oxygen can not be taken as a guide for setting the air flow, since the air ingress will mislead.
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Photo 11: The hanger supports provided for economizer gas outlet duct are not loaded evenly. The
link plates are not vertical proving the uneven loading.

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Photo 12 & 13: Waterwall top header hangers are unevenly loaded. The link plate is not vertical.
The sound of hanger rods when hammered is found to be different from each other.

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Photo 13: Drum anchoring has to be in both in X & Y axes. Then only the expansion of drum will
be identical on either side.

Photo 14. The hanger rod needs some clearance around it at the seat to permit deflection on
expansion.

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Photo 15: The boiler to economiser inlet fabric needs a rain guard. Any asbestos based expansion
joint will fail on rain water damage.

Photo16. All the APH base supports are directly welded to insert plates on the RCC. This restricts
the thermal expansion and this RCC may damage.

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Photo 17,18 & 19: The air box thermal expansion pushes the insert plate. The airbox is also bottom
supported. The RCC cracks due to this.

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Photo 20. The ash hopper wall plate slopes are inadequate for complete discharge of ash from
inside. There must have been a compromise on providing the required number of ash transmitters.

Photo 21. Today CFD has become a thrust area of energy conservation in terms of reducing
unnecessary draft loss. But here, the PA duct bend is a right angle duct without a smooth bend.

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Photo 22 & 23: The economiser support beams are directly welded to support columns in this
design. Other reputed manufacturers allow free thermal expansion of Economiser / APH as shown
on the photo on right. The manufacturer needs to update their design.

Photo 24: In between APH & economiser there is no expansion joint. As the APH expands upwards,
the Economiser casing will be put under strain.

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Photo 25: Boiler thermal expansion guide is not strong enough. This needs redesign.

Photo 26: Main steam header roller support is off the base. There is no jack arrangement to load in
the support. Commissioning engineers are not trained enough to look into this aspects.

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Photo 27 & 28: Piping supports are engineered to ensure piping deflects due to thermal expansion
with minimum stress. Spring supports are supposed to be on a rigid base. But if the spring supports
are on awkward supports, we can not ensure that the spring would offer the flexible support. Critical
high temperature main steam piping is on flexible supporting system. There will be failures of
piping at later date.

Photo 29: The constant load hanger support remained locked even after a month of boiler operation.
There are many spring supports which are not unlocked / not preset before. There seems no protocol
signed by commissioning engineer.

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Photo 30: There is no insert plate on RCC to enable thermal expansion of deaerator on RCC
pedestals. The coefficient of friction will be high between steel & RCC.

Photo 31: In cold condition itself some spring supports have crossed the load limits. The guide rod
is bent. The lock is yet to be released. Many spring supports are like this. Commissioning engineer
should submit a spring support commissioning protocol.

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Photo 32: The CEP suction reducer is wrongly erected. Pump manufacturers recommend that the top
of the pipe should be flat without a chance of air lock / cavity.

Photo 32 & 33: The ID inlet duct is provided with expansion joint to take care of downward
expansion movement of inlet duct. The APH out let duct expansion is not taken care of this way.

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Photo 34: The CBD piping & HP chemical dosing piping are laid at 100 mm distance to each other.
This leads to high pH / PO4 in water sample than what is in the bulk water. The HP dosing has to be
shifted below the Feed distributor.

Photo 35: Supports in multi plane is seen in several places. Drawing itself envisages such supports.
This supports can not offer a rigid base for the spring support.

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REPORT ON SHUT DOWN AUDIT OF 90 TPH AFBC BOILER
The 90 TPH AFBC boiler was under shut down at the time of visit. The various systems of the boiler
were inspected. The following are the observations & recommendations.
1. The fluidised bed was clean at the time of inspection. The bed coils were externally inspected for
any sign of erosion. There were no marks of erosion, though there was no protection system such
as shields or phoscast refractory. However there were marks of ash deposition / fouling above all
fuel points. See the photographs 1, 2 & 3. At all fuel points the fouling of ash was seen to a radius
of 250 mm. The fuel used has a low ash fusion temperature.
2. The bed material which was drained from the bed was available for inspection. It did not contain
any clinker. The bed temperature readings were found to be just 875 900 deg C. The load on the
boiler was also confirmed to be less than MCR load. Hence there is a need to analyze the coal on a
regular basis for ash fusion temperatures such as initial deformation, softening and fusion
temperatures. It is advised to check for every lot of coal consignment received at site. It is
recommended to check the ash chemical composition so that any abnormal iron ingress can be
monitored.
3. The bed coil thickness was measured at 120 clock position at the lower part of the coils, where
caustic gouging phenomenon was experienced earlier. The readings did not indicate any such
phenomenon. As the measurement was found to be difficult, sampling was done only at 3 locations
above fuel feed points.
4. It was informed that the boiler water pH & phosphate were maintained properly after the first
failure. The drum was opened and inspected. The photographs taken (see enclosed photo 4 to 7)
revealed that the boiler is yet subject to corrosion. The color of the drum in the water zone is still
reddish. The drum internal design needs to be changed to correct this. Right now the chemical
dosed can easily go to CBD line as the two lines are close to each other. By this, the sample drawn
from CBD will always indicate higher PO4 & pH as compared to circulating water. The chemical
dosing line can be brought under the feed water distributor. See photograph no 8 for a good drum
of another manufacturer with right type internal.
5. The internal of deaerator was inspected. The feed water box support was in adequate. The two
tubular supports, additional venting done at manhole seemed to have helped to tide over the
Oxygen related corrosion. Looking at the design it is found there is no water removal arrangement
from the perforated air vent chamber. At least a U loop can be provided to drain off the water
from air vent chamber. A better design of this air vent chamber is to extend up to top of dished end
so that the feed water box bottom plate gets an inner support. Also it is possible to accommodate a
vent condensing arrangement as illustrated in figure 1.
6. It was confirmed that the feed water temperature could be maintained at 105 deg C after the
additional vent was incorporated at the deaerator tower manhole. The steam drum did not seem to
contain oxidation product in the water. The drum level mark was fairly normal indicating there
was not much of suspended matter which was created by iron oxides from feed water system. As
the economizer failures did not occur again we can presume that the deaerator temperature was
maintained and the chemical oxygen scavenging was satisfactory.
7. The APH erosion was seen in the lower block. The cause for the failure was the excessive tube to
casing plate clearance. See photograph 14. As the flue gas tends to go through the excessive gap,
the erosion is also more. The tube had thinned down at 3o clock position that is facing the casing.
The idea of plugging the tube increases the pressure drop to some extent. But yet it may not affect
the boiler steam generation, In future if the tubes are replaced at this place, the failure can not be
prevented. It is better to leave the tubes as sacrificial tubes. When the tubes loose their shape, they
must be replaced. Gas baffles can be provided at the entry and at exit as it is done at economizer
inlet and as shown in figure 2.

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8. It was seen the many birds have come through the FD fan and plugged the I pass of the APH tubes.
See photograph 15. The dead birds must be removed as otherwise the draft loss across APH will be
more.
9. It was observed that the APH outlet duct to APH tube sheet welding was partly complete. This
leads to leakage of hot air to outside. See photograph 21. Hence the welding must be completed.
10. The economizer is found to be eroding. The reason for the erosion could be the high gas velocity
adopted. The top baffles provided by manufacturer to prevent bypassing of gas through the end
gaps are not fully welded to casing. The width of the baffles shall be 100 mm only. Presently it is
more than 200 mm reducing the gas flow area. The baffles are not to be too close the tubes. As the
ash stocks and falls off from the baffle, the flue gas tends to cut the tube. It is necessary to leave a
gap of 100 mm above the tubes. Also the tubes need shields for erosion protection as shown in the
figure 2.
11. The tubes are arranged in staggered manner at economizer. Only the top rows of tubes are
provided with impingement erosion shields. With staggered pitch, the second rows of the tubes are
to be protected with shields too. See photograph 17.
12. The tube bends of economizer were found to be eroding in between the banks. The tubes can be
provided with cassette baffles as shown in the figure 2.
13. It is seen that the bed ash is being screened manually. It is recommended to use mechanized
system so that the bed material specification can be easily adhered to.
14. The fabric expansion joint at water wall to wind box was found to be taut indicating the filling of
the bed material. Wherever it is taut, the bed material shall be removed to avoid distortion / failure
of windbox supports as the boiler expands down. Thermal expansion loads are of very high order
when they are prevented. See photograph 12.
15. There were ash accumulations in convection superheater area over the nose panel. This shall be
cleaned. See photograph 13. The present design of the ducting system needs to be addressed by
manufacturer.
16. The waterwall outlet duct to economizer duct is found to be distorted as the fabric expansion joint
filled with ash. The fabric expansion joint needs to be cleared of ash to permit the thermal
expansion of the boiler. See photograph 16.
17. There was no manhole at the APH outlet gas duct. A manhole shall be introduced to facilitate
inspection. See photograph 20.
18. At many places manholes are buried inside the insulation. See photograph 20.
19. The economizer casing is leaking in many places. When the economizer was repaired for the joint
leakage, the welding is not completed. The outside air goes in to the system loading ID fan. See
photograph 18 & 19 for samples.

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ANNEXURE for case study 3

Photo 1-3: Photos above illustrate the ash fouling above coal nozzles. Blunting of outer studs is
seen.

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Photo 4 & 5: Photos above illustrate the boiler is corroding. The distinguished red color in water
space proves the boiler water chemistry regime is not OK.
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Photo 6-7: Loose corrosion products are seen inside. This must be from previous regime of
operation in which pH & O2 were not controlled. O2 could not be controlled as the deaerator water
chamber failed. The uniform corrosion due to low pH water is seen by a rub off.
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Photo 8 & 9: The top photo is a drum with proper internal arrangement showing the dark grey
magnetite layer of steel. The bottom photo is what was observed earlier when the pH was not under
control. The drum surface is comparatively better this time.
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Photo 10 & 11: The two photos indicate that the feed water pH was OK. The utter reddish surface is
not seen. Also the clear tray indicates there is no transportation of corroded steel to boiler.
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Figure 1: The deaerator air vent chamber needs a drain pipe system to remove the water that will
form inside the chamber as the vent steam passes. A U loop seal shall be provided with a 25 nb
pipe as shown above. A vent condenser is recommended as shown from steam saving point of view.

Photo12. The waterwall to windbox expansion joint was taut at some places. The accumulated bed
material must be cleared.

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Photo 13: There is quite a good amount of ash accumulations seen in superheater area

Photo14. The APH end tube to casing clearance is about 100 mm. Due to excessive gap the gas had
bypassed and eroded the tube surface that is facing the casing.

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Photo 15: The APH air side tubes are blocked by the dead birds. This has to be cleared to permit the
free air passage.

Photo16. The water wall to economizer duct is distorted as the thermal expansion is prevented due
to ash filling at fabric expansion joint. This can be avoided by addressing at design change. This
may be referred to manufacturer.

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Photo 17: The top row of economizer tubes are provided with impingement shields. The second row
is not provided with such an arrangement. The polishing of tubes are seen in the second row.

Photo18. Lot of welding work is found to be left out while the economizer was repaired. All the
leakages shall be arrested.

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Photo 19. The welding of economizer casing is pending leading to outside air ingress in to the
economizer.

Photo 20. It is found that the manufacturer had not provided handles in the manhole doors to
facilitate easy access inside. Also the frame is inside the insulation itself. The frame has to be out of
insulation

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Photo 21: APH outlet duct is only stitch welded at erection stage itself. The field quality inspection
system is missing. The hot air is leaking to outside.

Figure 2: Economizer to be given baffles as shown in future.

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BANK TUBE FAILURE IN A DISTILLERY
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
The customer had been facing frequent tube failure in boiler bank. The customer maintained that the
feedwater & boiler water quality is maintained as per manufacturer recommendations. The chemical
dosing is done in the feedwater tank by a regulated dosing system. Customer faced the tube failure
only in one particular row of the bank tube. The failure cause was studied and measures have been
brought out in this bulletin for the interest of the boiler users.
DETAILED REPORT
The Boiler Details
The boiler parameters are 7 TPH, 21 kg/cm2g & saturated steam. It is of bidrum configuration with
fluidized bed combustor. The heat transfer surfaces include bed coils of hairpin type, fin-welded
waterwall, bank tube assembly, and airheater. Since the boiler is not provided with economizer there
was no Deaerator. However the client has provided sparger-heating system to purge the oxygen to a
maximum possible extent. The feedwater temperature is maintained close to 95 deg C, whenever the
boiler is in operation.
The Circulation System
The feedwater is pumped directly from the feedwater tank to the steam drum based on the signal from
drum level transmitter. The water gets heated close to saturation temperature as soon as it enters the
drum though the feed water distributor placed below the normal water level. The subcooled water
enters though the rear set of bank tubes to the lower drum. From the lower drum the water flow gets
divided into two streams. One stream flows though the front set of boiler bank. The other stream goes
through the bed coil to water wall and then to steam drum.
Preboiler system
The plant is equipped with RO plant to deliver practically <50 ppm TDS level. The water is stored in
Stainless steel tanks. The pH adjustment is not done at this stage. The plant uses part of the treated
water. From the storage tank the make up water is transferred though MS piping to the feed water
tank. The feed water tank is of MS construction. The tank is well covered from top. The suction line to
boiler feed pumps is provided with suction filter.
First Call
When the failures were frequent, the client called up for immediate visit. At the time of the visit the
boiler was in operation. The failed tube was inside the boiler itself. The tube was not available for
inspection. The water chemistry was checked in the boiler and was found to be OK. The blow down
tank appeared reddish. I could guess there is some corrosion in the boiler. Normally Iron is not
analyzed in small plants. The boiler vendor does not advise the boiler user for regular analysis of
boiler water for iron. However on seeing the color of the blow down water, it is necessary for the plant
engineer to check the source. In this visit I recommended for the thorough analysis of Condensate
water, make up water, boiler water. I requested for immediate call on the next failure.
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Next Call
By the time the next call came, it appeared that many more failures had occurred. The plant had been
off in between several times. The plant personnel did not follow the lay-up procedure.
I was shown the corroded iron particles collected from the mud drum and bed coil inlet headers. This
time the boiler drums were opened. The drum surface was containing bubbles of iron oxide deposits.
The inside of the bank tubes also contained bubbles of iron oxide deposits.
There were no pits in the surfaces. However below the loose iron oxide deposits pits were found to be
forming. It was clear the large amount of corrosion products did not generate from the boiler. The
feedwater tank was containing lot of iron oxides particles. The sparger heating arrangement was found
to be stirring the loose iron oxides. This proved the entry of the loose iron oxide deposits into the
boiler.
Now in the boiler bank the failures were found only in the first row of the bank tubes. Customer
wanted to know why the failure could occur only in this location. The reason I could give was that the
circulation of water should be minimum here because the refractory tiles block the heat pick up in
these tubes. Hence the loose iron oxides could not have remained in motion. Nice theory! Is it not? If
it were gross pitting within the boiler, not a single time the bed coil or water wall or other boiler bank
tubes failed. That is how I have reasoned out.
CONCLUSION
Now coming to the source of problem. The pH is not boosted in water treatment plant. The low pH
water was being pumped through the MS piping to the MS tank. The hydrogen could easily rip the
iron from the metal surface. The craters in the tank & piping proved this. In the feedwater tank there
was no presence of iron / iron oxides above water level or even in the roof. This proved that the pH of
the water was doing the mischief.
I had recommended for SS piping from the storage tank to feed water storage tank in the boiler house.
The pH boosting must be done at the outlet of water treatment plant. At least two other cases I have
come across wherein the feed water tank consists of lot of iron oxide products.
WATER LEVEL DANCING IN A BIDRUM BOILER
It is a bidrum boiler wherein the drum level kept dancing. The customer had this problem since
installation. The water level nearly goes out of the gauge glass at the top tapping in the steam drum. It
is a plant wherein 80 % of the condensate comes back. The blow down pit looked reddish. The boiler
drum showed off reddish stuff. Since it is A low-pressure boiler, there was no economizer. Otherwise
the economizer could be a supply source of iron oxides. Either the oxides were forming within the
boiler or it was getting transported through the condensate or make water system. First I traced down
the condensate return system. There was very less chance of even oxygen getting in to the system. The
plant runs practically thorough out the year and hence there was no chance of the iron oxides
formation from the plant. But on inspection of the DM water storage tank, I saw junks of corrosion
product. The pH from the DM plant was less than 7. The DM water storage tank was not lined with
rubber or any other protection system. The pH was not being boosted up at the DM outlet.

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That solved the problem. Customer was advised to boost up the pH so that the corrosion would not
proceed further. But the tank had to be acid cleaned to remove all the iron oxides.
FREQUENT FAILURE OF FEEDWATER PREHEATER
It is a low-pressure boiler with a boiler bank evaporator section followed by a feedwater preheater.
The customer was replacing the feedwater preheater very often. The make up water pH was less than
7. The feedwater tank, DM plant outlet piping were found to be corroding inside. Customer was
advised to raise the pH to 8.5 before the water leaves DM plant.
LESSONS LEARNT
The pH in feedwater and boiler water shall follow recommendations of boiler manufacturer.
Ignorance of the water chemistry leads to non-availability of boiler. Low pH & high pH lead to
corrosion in boiler. The pH should be in range of 8.5 to 9.5 in feedwater and 9.5 to 10.5 in boiler
water. It has been very well established that the corrosion of steel in minimum in the above range.

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A CASE OF BOILER FAILURE DUE TO OVERSIZING OF BOILER FEED PUMP
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
THE FIRST VISIT
It was unbelievable that all the bank tubes were leaking at the joints within a month after the boiler
was fired. The owner of the sugar mill requested me to make a visit and inspect the boiler to find out
whether there was any thing wrong. The boiler was under shut and it was open when I visited. The
boiler vendor had sent his people for re-expansion of all tubes. I checked with the operator whether
there was low water level operation even for a short duration. He denied any such occurrence. I
checked for any possibility for an overall circulation failure due to improper drum internal
arrangement. The no of cyclone separators was adequate as per my calculation. As there was no drum
level recorder, I could not ascertain the cause. The boiler engineers did not feel it was a serious issue.
The boiler was planned for restart the next day. I returned the next day to see the boiler in operation as
the owner requested me to come again.
THE DETAILS ABOUT THE BOILER
The boiler parameters were 35 TPH, 44-kg/cm2 g, 440 deg C. The boiler was fitted with pulsating
grate to fire the bagasse from the sugar mill. The boiler was a bi drum type top supported design. The
furnace was enclosed with loose tubes backed up by refractory tiles, insulation mattress and a leak
proof casing attached to the buckstays. The boiler was provided with a three-element drum level
control system. The Control panel had circular chart recorders for feed water flow, steam flow and
CO2 in flue gas. The boiler configuration is shown in figure 1.
WHAT I SAW NEXT DAY!
The boiler was on full fire when I came back the next day. I directly went up to see the water level.
My first doubt was that the set point for NWL might be lower than what is required. But it was OK. I
just watched for 5 minutes. There was a water level swing of nearly 120-mm but water level was
within the gauge glass. The person stationed for drum level monitoring explained that the water level
fluctuated but never it went down below the gage glass.
While coming down the platform, I observed the feed control station. The feed water flow control
valve was hunting. The control valve remained closed for about 2 minutes. At times the valve went for
full opening.
I came near the feed pumps at ground floor. The pump discharge pressure showed 80 kg/cm2g and I
found the discharge valve was almost shut. For a boiler with main steam pressure of 44 kg/cm2g, this
was too high. The hand operated minimum flow valve to Deaerator was fully open. By then, I learnt
that Boiler vendors commissioning engineer had set the valves as such positions.
I went inside the boiler control room. There was no drum level recorder. Instead recorders were
available only for feed water flow, steam flow & CO2. I could not confirm that the water level had
never gone down below the LWL. There was no tripping arrangement in the boiler on low water level.
The steam flow chart did not show much of short time fluctuations. The steam load on the boiler was
about 25 TPH since the old boilers were also in operation. The feed flow chart indicated that the
closure of the feed control valve very often. I reviewed all the daily charts on water level. Almost all
the charts since the boiler was commissioned indicated the feed water flow fluctuation.
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I had a look at the boiler pressure part arrangement. There were no positive downcomers to ensure the
positive circulation of water to the lower drum when the water flow would be cut off. I discussed with
the Plant in charge. I explained that the boiler feed pump is oversized. The feed control valve design
pressure drop seemed small and hence the feed control valve was working as on / off valve instead of
regulating the feed flow.
I explained that the heat pick up in the boiler was expected to be more as there was economiser and
airheater down the flue gas path. Due to this, the rear set of bank tubes which are to act as
downcomers suffer reverse flow. When cold water is not added to the drum, the water level appears
swollen. Since the drum level remains increased for more time until the water hold up in the
evaporator comes down due to continued steam drawal. I explained the possibility of excess steaming
of bank tubes due to reduced circulation. The Plant in charge confirmed that some tubes were found
distorted inside the boiler bank. Then I recommended that the feed pump motor is provided with the
Variable frequency drive. Alternately the control valve should be changed to suit the available excess
head at the discharge of the pump. We discussed the possibility of killing the excess pressure drop by
means of series of orifice plates. I gave a sketch and left the plant.
THREE MONTHS LATER
The Plant in Charge called up over phone to inform me that the whole boiler tubes were found to be
distorted. The crushing season was over and the boiler was in open for cleaning. No measures were
taken during the season to attend the water flow fluctuation.
The steam generating tubes in the furnace were found completely distorted. There was mild swelling
of tubes in several places. Since the tubes were tied together at the level of buckstays, in all other
locations the tubes were found elongated and distorted. It was clear that the inside the tubes nucleate
boiling would have been disrupted. Steam blanketing must have occurred leading to overheating of
tubes and abnormal thermal expansion of the tubes. It was observed that the furnace refractory walls
caved inside because of the thrust from the downward expansion of the tubes. It was clear that the feed
water flow and drum level fluctuation must have caused the reduced flow in the steam generating
tubes. During the season the boiler had run at near full load. Hence the firing rate was more. Since the
furnace tubes pick up more heat at increased firing rate, the tubes had to distort. Yet I had to check the
circulation calculations for the heated downcomers (rear set of bank tubes). The circulation
calculations confirmed that adequate velocity in the steam generating tubes.
This time again the feed water recorder charts showed quite lot of hunting. I explained to client that
the loss of available head for circulation must have lead to poor circulation rate and thus the DNB
(Departure from nucleate boiling) must have occurred.
The plant in charge decided to replace all the furnace tubes and to go in for my recommendations for
VFD for boiler feed pump. The cause for the entire episode was definitely the oversizing of feed
pump. The plant in charge explained that in sugar mills it is a practice to go in for 130 % margin on
normal head and 130 % margin on flow. It was obvious that the feed pump was oversized leading to
high discharge pressures at normal flow rate. The feed control valve had to operate like open / close
valve because of oversizing of the boiler feed pump.
4 MONTHS LATER
I visited the plant to check how the VFD was working in the system. The feed control valve was
disconnected from the control loop. It was kept full open. The Feed pump rpm was now controlled
through VFD by the Drum level control loop. The feed flow chart indicated that the feed flow is now

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steady. Further as advised by me the CO2 recorder available in the panel was now connected for
indicating the drum level. Drum level chart indicated no fluctuation in level.
CONCLUSIONS
The feed pump selection should be proper and more care is to be taken for the control valve selection.
Oversizing of the pump has led to a unusual failure. A worksheet showing the method for selection of
boiler feed pump is presented in this article.
It is appropriate to narrate a similar failure pattern in boilers offered by a leading Indian Boiler
Manufacturer. The figure 2 shows the boiler configuration adopted by the manufacturer. The boiler is
offered with FBC furnace for firing many fuels. The boiler is designed to produce saturated steam at
low pressures (max 17.5 kg/cm2g). The boiler is designed for switching on / off based on low & highpressure switches. Also the feedpump is designed switching on / off based on Mobrey level controller.
The bank tubes are often found distorted / sagged. Many users retube the boiler and yet experience the
same failure. Only distortions occur but not tube failure. As such in this boiler, the head available for
circulation is very less. If the pump is oversized or if the boiler steam drawal is less, the boiler feed
pump is likely to be off for more period. This will disturb the circulation rate through the bank tubes.
The firing rate being always constant in this boiler, the available head reduces when the pump is in the
off mode. My request to these users is to operate the pump on continuous basis.

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SAFETY VALVE SET PRESSURE & RELIEVING CAP.CALCULATIONS
PROJECT :
M/S ABC Limited
INPUTS
Steam generation rate Nett = 35000
kg/h
Saturated steam flow for deaerator = 400
kg/h
Main steam pressure = 44
kg/cm2 g
Calculated Pressure drop across SH & DESH = 3.5
Calculated Economiser pressure drop = 1.5
kg/cm2 g
Control valve pressure drop assumed = 2
kg/cm2 g
Calculated Feed line pressure drop = 1
kg/cm2 g
Margin on BFP flow = 15
%
SAFETY VALVE RELIEVING CAPACITY CALCULATIONS
Maximum steam generation capacity of boiler = 35000 kg/h
Peak generation capacity = 1.1 x 35000 kg/h
= 38500 kg/h
MSSV relieving capacity = 0.4 x 38500 = 15400 kg/h
Saturated steam flow for deaerator = 400 kg/h
Drum SV 1 relieving capacity =( 0.3 x 38500) +( 0.5 x 400) = 11750 k
Drum SV 2 relieving capacity =( 0.3 x 38500) +( 0.5 x 400) = 11750 k
SAFETY VALVE SET PRESSURE & FEED PUMP DISCHARGE PRESSURE
Main steam pressure = 44 kg/cm2 g
MSSV set pressure = 44 / 0.95 kg/cm2 g
= 46.316 kg/cm2 g
MSSV set pressure = say, 46.5 kg/cm2 g
Calculated SH press. Drop = 3.5 kg / cm2
Drum pressure when MSSV floats = 46.5 + 3.5 = 50 kg/cm2 g
Margin = 1 kg/cm2 g
Selected pressure = 50 + 1 = 51 kg/cm2 g
Drum I SV set pressure = 51 / 0.95 kg/cm2 g
Drum I SV set pressure = 53.7 kg/cm2 g
Say, Drum I safety valve set pressure = 54 kg/cm2 g
Difference between drum I & II SV set pressures = 1 kg/cm2 g
Drum II SV set pressure = 54+1 = 55 kg/cm2 g
Economiser pressure drop = 1.5 kg/cm2g
Control valve pressure drop = 2 kg/cm2g
Feed line pressure drop = 1 kg/cm2g

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Pump duty Point 1
Pump head required during drum SV II floating
Pump head at duty point 1
Flow at duty point 1(MCR Flow )
Pump duty point 2
Pump head at duty point 2

= 55+1.5+2+1+1.5 kg/cm2g
= 61 kg/cm2g
= 35000 + 400 = 35400 kg/h

= 44+3.5+1.5+2+1+1.5 kg/cm2g
= 53.5 kg/cm2g
MCR flow = 35400 kg/h
Flow margin = 15 %
Flow required at duty point 2 = 35400x (100 + 15) /100 kg/h
= 40710 kg/h

Summary
SH safety valve set pressure
Drum safety valve set pressure 1
Drum safety valve set pressure 2
Min relieving capacity of SH safety valve
Min relieving capacity of Drum 1 safety valve
Min relieving capacity of Drum 2 safety valve

= 46.5 kg/cm2g
= 54 kg/cm2g
= 55 kg/cm2g
= 15400 kg/h
= 11750 kg/h
= 11750 kg/h

Feedpump flow at duty point 1 = 35400 kg/h

Pump head at duty point 1 = 61 kg/cm2g
Feedpump flow at duty point 2 = 40710 kg/h

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CASE STUDIES OF BOILER FAILURES DUE TO IMPROPER COMMISSIONING
PROCEDURE
K.K.Parthiban- Venus Energy Audit System / Sri Devi engg consultancy & agency / Sri Devi Boiler
Equipment & spares
Introduction
There have been many unpublished cases of improper commissioning of power boilers which have
led to tube failures. The boilers may have been commissioned without proper stage inspection, precommissioning & commissioning protocols. We share our experience with case studies on waterwall
failures, roof tube failures, SH tube failures and main steam header failures. The failures could have
been avoided by proper field inspection.
CASE STUDY 1-WATERWALL TUBE BURST IN A CFBC BOILER
The first CFBC boiler in this plant was commissioned in October 2009. The power plant had been in
operation for a total period of 326 hrs. Within this period, there had been 34 stoppages. Out of these
stoppages, three were due to waterwall tube bursts experienced in the LH & RH side wall panels
towards rear. The tube failures locations were at 200 - 400 mm below the refractory lining near
furnace outlet. The burst tubes showed the sudden overheating. The tubes have burst due to sudden
loss of circulation / departure from nucleate boiling or steam blanketing. The failed tubes did not
exhibit long term overheating. See photo 1 to 4.
The boiler was under shut down at the time of visit. As requested, the steam drum was opened and
offered for inspection. The boiler drum exhibited presence of high corrosion products in boiler water.
See the photos 5 & 6.
Boiler water & condensate chemistry problem
The steam drum was seen with low pH / high PH corrosion and there was no magnetite layer
formation of internal surface. There was no distinct water to steam interface seen in the drum. The
steam purifying driers also showed the reddish appearance, confirming foaming due to presence of
corrosion products in boiler water.
It was learnt that during the entire operating period, the best silica level in condensate was only 0.07
ppm. The condensate was always seen with high silica levels. See table below:
Table 1: conductivity & silica levels in return condensate
Period of operation
18/9-21/9
25/9 -28/9 1/10 - 5/10
Conductivity s/cm 25.5 to 8.3
8.8 to 10.5 4.2 to 6.1
Silica
ppm
0.31 to 0.42 1.67 to 0.3 0.13 to 0.41

15/10 19/10 2/ 11 to 4 /11

5.2 to 6.9
9.7 to 11.4
0.07 to 0.25
0.25 to 0.35

There had been very high blow down rate done to limit the silica in boiler water. Under this
circumstance, the phosphate dosing had been raised. But simultaneously, high blow down was
maintained. This should have led to pH variations in boiler water. It was confirmed that the blow
down water was reddish. However the boiler water phosphate and pH were high, confirming that the
boiler water was alkaline. This could have been due to presence of foaming or due to drum internal
arrangement. Free OH alkalinity (2P-M alkalinity) was seen in the boiler water in the earlier period
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of operations. Though the boiler water chemistry seemed OK, the boiler internal surface did not say
so. A wipe off shows the drum surface was red. There was no grey surface at water space or steam
space. The following were the boiler water analysis data.
Table 2: pH & silica values in boiler water
The pH values
The PO4 values
9.15,9.9,9.9,9.5,9.56,9.64,9.65 22.4,8.15,10.4,4.6,10.4,3.8,5.5,7.9,9.8,4.5
Drum internal arrangement
There is a possibility of chemical stirring effect by the feed water distributor pipe. See photograph 11
& 12. It is the normal practice to locate the chemical pipe in such way that the feed water carries the
phosphate chemical to the downcomers. In steam drum internal layout, the blow down pipe should
be arranged in such a way that the high TDS return water is taken out without mixing any fresh water
/ chemical. In the drum internal arrangement, the holes in feed distributor were located at 30 deg
upward to horizontal. The two distribution pipes could stir up the chemical and cause a sampling
error. It was advised to rotate the feed distributor pipe, so that the water ejects downwards. The
chemical pipe could be connected to feed distributor pipe close to inlet point in the drum. This will
help in proper mixing of chemical with feed water. Or else the chemical dosing pipe should be laid
below the feed distributor pipe.
Proper pre-commissioning care for start up of the unit
Air cooled condenser has large heating surface as compared to boiler. Air cooled condensers are not
chemically cleaned during pre-commissioning. It generates corrosion product during every start up.
The first steam that enters the ACC is generally of low pH and it leads to some corrosion. The
corrosion product due to oxygen exposures also would come in to the condensate. The contaminated
condensate chokes up the strainers at CEP inlet. Also the BFP strainers will be choked as the mesh
opening is lesser than that of the CEP. It was reported that the strainers got choked with reddish fine
particles. This can increase the conductivity and silica depending on the condition of internal surface
of the ACC tubes. This had forced the high blow down rate from the boiler. The rate of blow down
had been as high as 7.7 to 9.52 %. It was confirmed that colloidal silica was not there in the feed
water. Hence the source of contamination could be from ACC. When the phosphate requirement was
calculated, there was a mismatch. For high pressure steam cycles with ACC, condensate filtration
and polishing system is a must.
Frequent tripping & ACC being offline
There had been as high as 34 trippings of the power plant. During these trippings, the ACC went
offline. Every time the ACC was exposed to air, it would corrode. When the condensate was taken
without treatment it had contaminated the boiler water with suspended & dissolved impurities. This
made the boiler water dirty causing choking the bottom drains. The high blow down requirements
and boiler drain valve choking confirmed this. The hot box of the boiler led to choking of the drain /
bottom supply pipes as the corroded iron particles begin to separate out of water.
Physical arrangement of downcomers & riser
The distributing pipes are tapped off from the main downcomers and connected to all four walls. See
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figure 7 & 8. The failures had been in the last ten tubes at the ESP side on both left & right side
panels. The distributing pipes to this section of the boiler are taken from the bottom most point of the
main downcomer. The front & rear waterwall panels (226 tubes) are fed by 18 distributing pipes. The
left & right side waterwall panels (170 tubes) are fed by 14 distributing pipes. The rear waterwall
tubes have lot of bends as compared to the side waterwall panels. When there is undersized
downcomers, the failures will be experienced at all water wall tubes and the worst affected will be
the rear waterwall panel tubes. Since the tubes of left & right side waterwall panels have failed, the
problem was simply related to starvation only. Looking into symmetry of the boiler about the centre,
it was clear that water flowing was disrupted when there was stoppage and restart. On stoppage of
boiler / load reduction / on filling, the corrosion products tend to accumulate at bottom most pipes
only. This can retard the flow rate to the extreme tubes of the LHS & RHS panel tubes.
TSP consumption

The TSP consumption should have been 18 to 23 kg instead of 5 kg as per log sheet. Usually the
chemical consumption will be more from the estimated value due to low purity levels.
Accumulation of dirt in low heat flux tubes
As such the corner tubes can have less circulation as there will be less heat pick up. Dirt build up /
concentration is usually more in such tubes. This can cause overheating failures as the cooling may
be retarded.
Failure to do low pressure blow down during commissioning
During commissioning of the new boiler, low pressure blow downs are done with fire off. This helps
in attaining good water chemistry in a short time. Moreover when there is a mechanism of dirt
generation in the boiler or even after the tube replacement job, the boiler calls for a low pressure
blow down. It was learnt that this was not done.
Storage post hydrotest stage

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It was learnt that the water used for hydrotest was left inside the boiler for a long duration. This was
not proper. During long outages, the boiler needs preservation against corrosion. The water should be
completely removed and hot air should be admitted in the boiler. Simple alternate method is to place
a tray full of silica gel / lime inside the drum. This will have to be followed at TG exhaust &
condensate storage tank also so that the ACC will be dry. Failure to preserve the boiler & ACC will
accumulate dirt inside the boiler and lead to plugging of evaporative circuits. Hot air circulation
arrangement is a fool proof method for offline corrosion protection of ACC.
Hand hole pipe & drain at main downcomer
The boiler was found to have no hand hole pipe system in downcomer. Hand hole pipes help to clean
the system, after the alkali boil out in a better manner. In this boiler, the main downcomers act as
dirt trap. In some boilers the bottom ring headers collect the dirt. It is safer this way. The drain pipe
of 50 nb was directly fitted to end plate. Further the drain valve is of 25 nb and is of globe type. See
photo 10. It is difficult to de-choke this valve even by tapping. The valves got choked often. This
confirmed the presence of sufficient amount of corrosion products. The drain arrangement needs to
be modified. See the better arrangement in photo 9.
Globe or gate type valves for drains
It was advised to provide 40 nb / 50 nb drain valves of gate type. Gate type valves help in easy
removal of blockages. When the boiler is restarted after the repair work or annual overhauling, the
water should be flushed out from the boiler by keeping the drain valve open. Low pressure blow
down is suggested as the boiler pressure is raised during a start up.
Piping system after the drain valves
The drain piping from the main downcomer is connected to blow down tank. Unfortunately the drain
piping is with a U loop. As long as the boiler is under pressure, the water may flow to tank. When the
pressure is less, the last run of dirty water will trap in this U loop. It is a good engineering practice to
slope the drain lines towards the final outlet point. An alternate direct drain to trench was
recommended.
A Quick check on circulation velocity
This boiler has two main downcomers of 350 nb, feeding the water for the four side waterwall
panels. The designer at site informed that the CR ratio is 6.7. This will have a velocity of 3.2 m/s in
main downcomers. The distributing pipes are of 125 nb pipes. The water velocity in these pipes is
2.1 m/s. The steam water mixture velocity in risers will be 3.95 m/s. There is no undersizing of
downcomers or risers.
Modifications carried out by OEM
It was learnt that the boiler of same design was running at another place. This confirmed that the
failures were due to causes outlined above. The modifications carried out by OEM were seen to be
out of anxiety. Connecting additional supply tubes & relief tubes from header ends was not required.
Conclusion
The lack of provisions for proper cleaning during pre-commissioning & operational cleaning and
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ACC debris ingress had led to the multiple tube failures. The startup procedure shall include low
pressure bottom drain valve operations with fire off condition. It was advised to drain off the ACC
condensate until the condensate met the requirements.
CASE STUDY 2: IMPORTANCE OF PROPER COMMISSIONING OF STEAM PIPE
SPRING HANGERS & SUPPORTS
There are several pipelines that connect various equipments in a power plant. These pipes are to be
supported properly at regular intervals. Invariably, the pipelines are hot and hence there is thermal
movement of piping in service. In order to take care of the movement and at the same time to offer
proper support, a combination of rigid hanger, rigid support, roller support, guided supports, limit
stops are provided. There is another important support system called spring supports. Spring supports
are essential to take care of the movement and at the same time offer a support without straining the
pipe / or the connected equipment. Boiler feed pump and turbine flanges are important connections
that are not to be loaded beyond the allowable forces. Also there will be thermal movements to be
taken care of. Spring supports can be variable spring support, variable spring hanger, constant load
hanger & constant load support.
Equipment such as Turbine generator, Final SH header, Steam drum, main steam header, LP heater,
HP heater, Condenser, Condensate pump, BFP are somewhat fixed to some locations. These
equipments yet have thermal expansion at the connecting ends to piping.
The pipes have their self weight and imposed loads due to valves. Certain reaction loads due to
opening/ closing of control valves and safety valves also act on the piping. Pipes are insulated and
thus have additional loads.
Pipelines are to be supported at regular intervals to prevent sagging. Pipes can be supported by pipe
racks or hung or base supported from boiler supporting structure or building. The routing of pipes is
done from aesthetic sense, accessibility for valves, instruments, and head room clearance and to
make use of nearby structure.
Pipelines are subjected to thermal expansion. If the piping is not designed for flexibility, we may
have strained flanges, weld joints, strained bends, and strained branches. Ultimately pipe would
rupture if the piping is not designed with flexibility. We often see break down of piping, header due
to improper piping design and improper construction of steam pipelines.
Pipeline failures are due to,
1) Layout changes executed by construction engineers either due to interferences or by their own
decisions.
2) Improper commissioning of pipe support due to lack of knowledge.
3) Inadequate rigidity of the base support.
4) Failure to remove the temporary anchoring done for construction purpose.
5) Failure to locate the support with a shift based on expected thermal movement as per stress
analysis report.
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Recently we had come across a case of a main steam header crack which occurred within few
months of commissioning of a power plant. See photograph 15. The cause was identified as nonremoval of temporary anchors of steam piping. But the construction manager showed an attitude of
disagreement to the finding. He went ahead to say that their designer had verified that the header
should not fail for this reason. It appeared that the magnitude of thermal forces is not verified by
calculation by the designer. The inspection made by the design engineer was not complete. The case
study is presented below:
This is the case study of a 2 x 25 MW power plant. The main steam parameters are 105 kg/cm2g and
545 deg C. The newly commissioned 2 x 115 TPH boilers and two steam turbines are linked by the
main steam header placed on the roof of control room. The steam pipelines from boilers are of 250
nb OD x 32 thk. The steam piping to TG is also 250 nb pipe with 32 thk. The main steam header is
of 400 nb dia & 44.45 thk. The main steam boiler is of 6.5 m long. It is anchored at one end allowed
to expand in opposite direction. The header and pipeline arrangements are shown in figure 1. The
customer had arranged for all the piping system drawings. The entire pipeline from boiler to header
and header to turbine was checked for the correctness of spring hangers, spring supports, guides &
rigid supports. While all the supports are found at the right places, certain additional temporary
supports were seen inside the insulation. After the insulation was removed, the pipelines were seen to
be locked at locations shown in the drawing. See photographs 13 & 14.
The unit had several start / stops since there were teething troubles with the various equipments.
There were totally about 20 stoppages. It was concluded that the large cyclic forces must have led to
the failure. This led to the crack of pipe close to the weldments. Generally a weldment is stronger
that the parent metal due to extra thick reinforcement at weld. In addition, the heat affected zone is
likely to have some minute hair line cracks. The cracks grow, if sufficient force is made available.
Cycling forces accelerate the growth of the crack.
Reasoning by forces / bending moment / stress analysis
To support the argument, the thermal forces were estimated. It could be seen from the calculations,
the order of the forces were simply too high.

The header is considered as a simply supported pipe with various loads acting on it. It has its own
weight along with insulation. The bending stresses can be estimated for this case separately.

Part of the weight of connecting pipes & valves will be acting on the header. Depending on the
location of the support in the pipe, the bending stresses can be calculated.

When the connecting pipes are restricted by locks, the restricted thermal expansion of pipe
develops thermal stresses. The stresses transfer as forces on to the header. The forces are found to
be of very high order. The order of the forces can be seen below.

The above three stresses are added to the longitudinal stresses developed by internal pressure.
The calculations proved that the failure was bound to occur at the location where the failure had
taken place.

Estimation of Thermal forces on header by the restricted piping,

Thermal Co-efficient For P22 Material

= 14.35x10-6 mm / mm / C
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Youngs modulus For P22 Material E
Operating temperature
T
Thermal Stress
(On complete restraint)
Thermal stress

= 1.4342 x 104 kg/mm2

= 535C
= *T*E
= 14.35x 10-6 * 535*1.434x104
= 110.1 kg/mm2

Assuming the pipe is flexible to absorb the thermal expansion to an extent of 90%, the actual stress
can be taken as 10% of the above.
Therefore, Stress in the piping

Converting stresses into forces:

Stress
Force at R (from boiler 1)

= 110.1* 10%
= 11.01 kg/mm2
= F/A
=A
= 11.01 * (273-209)/4
= 266750 kg

Force at S (to boiler 3)

= 11.01* (219-163)/4
= 185000 kg

Force at T (to TG3)

= 11.01* (273-209)/4
= 266750 kg

The forces act as bending moments on the header. Stresses due to bending moment add to the
longitudinal stress developed due to internal pressure. It is found that allowable stresses have
exceeded the value specified by the code.
Related case studies
In another installation, photographs 16 to 25 were taken. In photographs 16 & 17, we can see here
how the inadequate structural support has yielded to load. The variable spring support close to these
supports has got loaded heavily and it is no more a spring support. These developments which show
up during commissioning have to be brought to the designers notice to avoid major catastrophe in
steam piping. These photographs are not covering all the wrong installations at the plant. In general
such mistakes are seen in several plants.
Recommendations for a proper piping support installation & commissioning
1. Hanger and supports are to be used only for the intended purpose. It is not to be used for
scaffolding purpose.
2. The pipe routing is not to be altered by erection engineer. If done, it should be after the revision
of stress analysis and load calculations.
3. The location of pipe support is not to be changed by the erector. If done, it should be after the
revision in stress analysis and load calculations.
4. Spring supports and assemblies should not be used for earthing.

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5. Temporary supports used for piping should be removed finally after the complete insulation work
also. Finally the insulation should be completed in left over area too.
6. All spring supports are to be unlocked.
7. After hydro test, if the springs do not return to cold position, they have to be adjusted to match
the pointer returns to cold position.
8. At the first heating of the piping, the spring supports are to be monitored till the piping reaches
its rated duty condition.
9. After the construction activities are completed, piping engineer should walk through with the
drawings and spring support data sheet to ensure that the hangers and supports have been erected
correctly unlocked and that no temporary support is preventing the free movement of piping.
10. Sliding supports should be properly designed and erected. The piping is placed centrally to the
support in cold condition by many of us. Many times we can see the pipe is about to slip off from
the support.
11. It is vital that no pipe line fouls with the structure, cable trays, walk ways etc, hand rails, which
can cause serious damage and accident when thermal expansions start occurring.
Final word
It is a great set back if the pipeline fails in service. The steam force in the pipe can cause damages to
unpredictable levels to power plant and the staff. It was to the luck of the plant that the damage was
minimal when the header failed. There are so many plants, where piping supports are not
commissioned by the engineers. For the readers information only, some photographs are attached
with this article.
CASE STUDY 3: ROOF TUBE FAILURES IN A 250 TPH PULVERISED FUEL FIRED
BOILER
There are three identical boilers at this plant. Shortly after commissioning, only one unit suffered repeated
roof tube failures. The customer had been repairing the roof tubes for four or five times until the matter
became critical when the other two units were on annual shut down. The plant was under great pressure and
the management had put the foot down to resolve the matter. The boilers were of Chinese make and hence
proper support was not available from the manufacturer on time and hence I had the chance to diagnose the
problem. The failure was from the steam cooled roof panel.

The failed tube

The failed tube was seen with swelling on furnace side. On inside the whitish deposits were seen. See photo
26 & 27. Then I concluded there was mechanical carryover. I enquired with O&M team whether the steam
drum was opened any time in the past after the failures. No one nodded yes. I prayed for a chance to see the
drum inside. To my luck the boiler had to be shut for the turbine related problem. Meanwhile I had gone
through the drum internal drawings. I could see that there is a possibility of cyclone coming off its position as
the fit up design was not proper. See the photo 28 & 29 enclosed.

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Soon after the drum was opened the cause of the failure was identified. Three cyclone separators had come off
from the position. See photo no 30 & 31. I advised that the cyclone should be wedged and welded so that it
would not come off its position.

Lessons for the plant personnel

There are three identical boilers and the problem was encountered only in one unit. Thus the failure can be
related to installation defect. The loss could have been prevented by proper inspection during construction. It
must be remembered that cost of damage is phenomenal compared to expenses incurred for a construction
audit. Incidentally the unit had wall tube failures which were related to improper buckstays fitment.

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Photo 1 : Burst tubes inside waterwall panels. The sudden bulge seen is a case of starvation.

Photo 2: The swelling of tubes seen nearby failed area as well. Weldment being stronger, the
swelling is seen only above and below the weld joints.

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Photo 3: The waterwall is seen distorted. This implies that the entire waterwall was starving for

water.

Photo 4: A close look of failed tube.

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Photo 5: The drum internal showing the pH deviations. There can be iron loading from ACC
during pre-commissioning. Usually if the corrosion products are transported from the pre-boiler
circuit, the dirt appears dark brown but the boiler surface will show grey surface. If the corrosion
products are generated within the boiler circuit, then the surface will be reddish.

Photo 6: The screen drier showing the foaming inside the drum due to loose hydrated iron oxide

Fe2O3 in boiler water. The magnetite layer is not seen even in steam space. This is an indication of
deviation of boiler water pH.
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Photo 7: The present downcomer arrangement. The bottom most supply pipes feed the extreme
WW tubes in the LHS & RHS. If this is choked then the tubes may starve.

Photo 8: Even the front & rear waterwall tubes are fed by the bottom most supply pipes. But the

connection is at middle. The remaining supply pipes would ensure supply.

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Photo 9: Good engineering practice by another boiler maker. The main downcomer has a hand hole

& a drain valve taken above the end cover. In this arrangement commissioning debris can be

cleared easily.

Photo 10: The main downcomer is not provided with a dirt trap / hand hole plate. The drain size is

small. It was informed that the drain was choked during boiler operation. On every hot box up, the

floating dirt would settle at this header end cap.

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Photo 11: The feed water distributor is arranged in such a way that the water outlet holes are facing
30 deg up to horizontal. This arrangement can stir up the phosphate and lead to high phosphate in
blow down. Then the boiler water chemistry will be different from what the sample indicates. It
was advised to direct the holes downwards. Though the boiler water pH and PO4 were OK as per
report, the drum internal surface indicated low pH. The chemical dosing line has to be connected to
feed distributor itself.

Photo 12: Arrangement of feed distributor with holes facing upwards. See the color of drum.

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Figure 1: The drawing shows the piping arrangements connected to the main steam header. The
drawing shows the location of temporary anchoring. The pipelines & headers are meant for carrying
steam at a pressure of 100 kg/cm2 & at 540 deg C.

Photo 13: The steam piping from header to old Photo 14: The steam piping from boiler no 2 to
TG is seen locked up. The insulation was header is seen locked up. The insulation was
removed to identify the temporary anchoring.
removed to identify the temporary anchoring.
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Photo 15: The header crack can be seen here very close to the weldment.

Photo 17: In the main steam piping, this is the

status of the next support. The rigid hanger
support base is not rigid enough.

Photo 16: This is a mistake by a designer that a

base support for hanger is not rigid enough. This
Photo 18: We can see that the spring support next
is from another installation.
to the above two supports has got overloaded.
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Photo 19: A constant load hanger is seen with an Photo 20: A spring support waiting to be loaded in
improvised lock at a recently commissioned the operating power plant.
installation.

Photo 21: A pipe is seen with temporary support

though the permanent support is installed nearby.

Photo 22: Pipe support partially commissioned by

the commissioning team.

Photo 23: A rigid hanger in the boiler feed piping

designed for 125 kg/cm2 is seen fallen due to poor
welding at support.

Photo 25: Due to burying the steam line inside the

Photo 24: Steam piping to TG is seen buried in
TG wall, the pipe support gets lifted off it is base.
the building wall. This is a common mistake seen.
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Photo 26: This is the inside surface of the failed tube. The tube indicates the phosphate carryover.
Silica carryover does not affect the roof tube. It can affect the turbine blades only. This can be
purely due to defective drum internal.

Photo 27: This is another tube from the same boiler, which failed by swelling. The external surface

proved mechanical carryover.

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Photo 28: The cyclone is not fully bolted type. This can lead to passing of steam- water mixture
from the flange and cause mechanical carryover.

Photo 29: The cyclone is fitted with a wedge. This can get loosened over a period and lead to
mechanical carryover.

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Photo 30 & 31: The drum internal of boiler is in open condition. Many cyclones were seen in fallen
down. This had resulted in direct water carryover (mechanical) to the superheater. Over a period
the carryover must have been there. When the PO4 levels were haphazard and crossed the
permissible limits, the carryover of phosphate leads to overheating failure.

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CASE STUDIES IN FAILURES IN BOILERS
By K.K.Parthiban, Sri Devi Boiler Equipment and Spares- Karnataka & Venus energy audit system Tamilnadu

Failures occur in boilers due to several reasons.

The degree of damages due to failure varies.
Some damages are catastrophe in nature. It gets
reported due to the magnitude of the damage.
Some damages are ignored. Failures can be due
to poor design, inadequate instrumentation and
poor keeping of boiler in water side and fire side
of the boilers, improper operation & inadequate
annual inspection. Every failure needs proper
diagnosis for taking steps to avoid future
incidents. In this paper few case studies are

presented.

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CASE STUDY 1- FAILURE ANALYSIS OF FURNACE SHELL PLATE
The boiler is an 8 TPH oil fired boiler. It is a three pass wet back boiler. The furnace shell plate had
failed in a repetitive manner. The furnace shell plate had bulged inside two times in a six month
period. The location was seen to be about 1.5 meter from the front tube sheet. The orientation of
failed portion was at 6o clock position. The plate had caved towards the furnace due to internal steam
pressure. The plate was locally replaced during the first failure. The second failure was also in the
same location. After the bulging had taken place, the water started seeping from the repair weldment
itself. After observing black smoke in chimney, the boiler was stopped by the boiler operators.
Observations during the visit
1. The failed portions of the plates were seen to be bulging towards the axis of the furnace. Scale
was seen underneath the plates on water side. The extent of scales for the first failure was not
known. However this time the scaling was found to be about 0.5 mm.
2. Apart from this, the boiler showed a small layer of hardness scale over the tubes. The scale is
seen to be very high where the water is fed in to the boiler. There is definitely slipping of
hardness to boiler.
3. The boiler water TDS reports confirmed that the TDS had been as high as 10000 ppm before first
failure. After the chemical cleaning, instructions were given to operators to increase the blow
down and maintain 5000 ppm of TDS in boiler water. Even then, the water TDS was seen to
increase along with pH as reported by operators. In fact the pH booster dosage was stopped
seeing the pH going to 11. This could have been happened due to high dosage rate of anti scalant.
4. The chemical was being added through a small plastic tank with a cock for regulation. This could
result in non-uniform dosage rates. The system would be dependent on skill of the persons.
5. The burner was seen with a baffle plate inside the wind box. It was suspected that there may not
be uniform air flow in the burner. Hence a ribbon test was arranged to check the uniform
distribution of air. It was found that there was minimum air flow at the bottom portion. Ideally
such a test must be conducted by an anemometer. The baffle plate was oriented vertically and the
air distribution was checked for. An operator physically checked for distribution. This was much
better this time. Yet quantification was required. A test with anemometer was recommended.
Cause for shell plate failures
1. The plate had failed at the same place twice. This clearly pointed out chances of flame
impingement. Incidentally on flame impingement, the scale formation would be more. On
increase in metal temperature, the plate would swell and would lead to failure.
2. There was scale present all over the boiler. It meant that there was deviation in water quality. Yet
the scale thickness was not alarmingly high. The boiler was cleaned off dislodged hardness scales
inside the boiler shell. Yet the quantity of dislodged scales which were lying outside the boiler
house was seen to be meager.
3. The feed water hardness was not monitored properly. Even when the hardness was reported to be
24 & 44, Nalco representative had certified that all the water parameters were OK. His signed
report was available.

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Photo 1: The part of the furnace shell that bulged Photo 2: The back side (water side) of the bulged
second time.
plate, showing scales (second time).

Photo 3: Part of the furnace shell that bulged Photo 4: The back side (water side) of the bulged
plate showing the scales (first time).
first.

Photo 5: water side showing small amount of Photo 6: Burner air flow test. It showed less air
scales.
flow at bottom when tested with flags.

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Safety plan
The following were advised to the plant engineers:
1. The furnace shell repair was not done to satisfactory level. Hence it was advised to carry out
radiography test. But this could delay the boiler starting as there were procedures in bringing the
radioactive source. Hence it was arranged to have an ultrasonic test. The local company did that
at site and certified that the weldment did not have cracks.
2. The furnace shell was covered with 65 mm thick refractory brick layer to protect the weakened
plate. Also this would prevent the flame impingement, if it was there earlier.
3. Furnace shell is considered to be most vulnerable part of the boiler. For safety reasons,
procedures should be followed. Manufacturer only should attend to such failure. Tube
replacement is a different matter and it can be attended by a boiler repairer.
4. Burner flame shape should be checked by the suppliers service technician at the earliest. There
should not be any impingement.
5. Water softener must be checked by the supplier. Hardness test kit should be replaced.
6. Hardness levels should be checked before regeneration. This is an important aspect of the water
chemistry.
7. The water treatment chemical supplier is required to ensure that there is no deviation in water
chemistry due to the wrong dosage of chemical itself.
Boiler shell failure can result in catastrophe. Care is required to follow the proper procedure in
repair.
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CASE STUDY 2: FAILURE INVESTIGATION OF A HIGH PRESSURE SHELL BOILER
This is about an investigation of a Boiler accident in the 12 TPH, 35 kg/cm2, 350 deg C FBC boiler
at this plant.
About this boiler
The boiler was installed about 4 years back. Almost two years the boiler had been in operation on a
continuous basis after it was converted from grate firing to FBC. Previously the boiler was designed
for wood chips. Later it was modified for rice husk cum GN shell firing. The boiler is provided with
reciprocating pump. The feed line is connected to both shell & steam drum. The downcomers are
taken from steam drum to waterwall, shell, bed coils by separate downcomers. The feed water is
produced from a DM plant. The raw water TDS is < 300 ppm. The treated water TDS is about 0.1
ppm only. The blow down TDS had been 50 ppm only. The shell tubes were also seen to be clear of
any deposits.
Incident
The shell that comes after the convection SH is meant for steam generation as a boiler bank. This
shell is made of two segments with a cirseam. The tube sheet and main shell are of 25 mm thick. The
rear part of shell got ripped off from its place. Three persons lost their life in this incident.
Observations
At the time of visit, the boiler parts were practically left in same condition after the incident. The
shell plate part that came off from the main shell was available for closer inspection. Also the main
shell could be examined to some extent among the debris.
Ruling out water level loss
It was learnt that the 2 nos Mobrey level controllers were operational. The feed pumps were always
running on / off based on switch action from Mobrey. In the event of low water level, the main
furnace tubes such waterwall & bed coils fail in this boiler since they are in high temperature area. In
the event that shell goes dry, the front tube sheet opens first and not the rear. Hence it was clear that
the shell burst was not due to low water level.
Possible failure modes- lamellar tear in raw material
Generally such failures can happen due to raw material defect or manufacturing defect. As the shell
plate showed sign of lamellar tearing, it could have been parent material defect. Usually the shell
plates are 100% ultrasonically tested for overlapping and lamellar tears at sub surface level. It was
advised to conduct an ultrasonic test alone the entire circumference of the failed plate. Yet the
lamellar tear would not spread to entire circumference. It should have blown the shell by local
opening, as the tube sheet to shell weld was quite stronger. The boiler manufacturer who visited
along with Inspecting authority had blamed the incident as raw material defect with lamellar crack in
the parent material itself.
Possible failure modes- by cyclic stresses

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The feed water stub is terminated at shell at 450 mm from the rear tube sheet. There was no
distributor pipe to direct the water away from shell plate & the weldment. The feed water
temperature being 80 -90 deg C, there can be cyclic stresses at the shell to tube sheet joint.
Fluctuating temperatures introduce stresses which ultimately can lead to crack propagation.
Possible failure modes- Improper weld
On closer inspection at the rear tube sheet, it was seen that the inside seam weld is not properly
fused. See photo below. Also the thick tube sheet at weld zone suggests that the tube sheet is not
edge prepared properly before the weldment. If this is true, plate can shear along the thickness as it is
a not properly fused joint. This would like a lamellar tearing only. We can see one side of the weld
holding the shell plate.
Absence of sleeve design for feed pipe
In high pressure boilers, the feed pipe has to be welded to the main shell through a sleeve pipe. There
has to be feed distributor pipe and water has to be admitted in water space and not near shell plate.
The boiler had failed due to various design defects and poor workmanship only

The edge preparation and weldment of shell & tubesheet was not as per code recommendations.
The feedwater should not be pumped to shell where steam generation was there. The feed water
should have been connected to steam drum only. This would have helped in better water
chemistry at all circuits.

Photo 1: It is seen that the tube sheet to shell weld is not torn off even a bit. This can happen if the
fusion was not proper.

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TubesheetThisshouldbe3mmatthisedge

Improperlyfused
Weldment

Shellplatepart

Shellplatepart

Gasoutletductplate

Photo 2: This is the part of shell sticking to the rear tube sheet. It is suggested to check the weld
preparation once the boiler is brought down from the debris. Looking at the thickness anyone
would doubt whether edge preparation was done or not for the shell. The lip is supposed to be 3
mm only. See the drawing attached in the next figure. Anybody can observe there is improper
fusion of shell plate with tube sheet.

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Figure 1: The above figure is from IBR handbook for the end plate to shell. This detail shall be
checked for by closer inspection. In the presence of larger lip detail, the shell plate would shear

off across thickness.

Photo 3: The shell is made of two lengths of plates with a circular seam weld. The shell rear
part got ripped out from place. The front tube sheet was intact along with the front half of the
shell. In case of water level loss in this boiler, the waterwall / bed tube fail first. Even if they do
not fail, the front tube sheet of the shell is the next vulnerable place of failure. Hence it is not

possible that the shell burst due to water starvation. The location of stub is 450 mm away from
the tube sheet to shell joint where the shell got ripped open. It is possible there had been
alternate stresses developed leading to tearing of shell plate across thickness.

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Photo 4 & 5: The feed water inlet stub to shell is seen without a sleeve pipe. This had led to

cracks development due to cyclic thermal stresses. However the shell plate did not fail due to
this crack as it is seen to be intact with main shell nearby.

Figure 2: The above should have been the stub detail for feed water stub at both shell and steam
drum.

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CASE STUDY 3: DIAGNOSTIC REPORT ON MAIN STEAM LINE FAILURE
This case is about the main steam pipe failures which were experienced in the ten days. The
insulation was removed and inspected by plant personnel. The steam pipe OD has grown from 168
mm to a maximum 210 mm. This can be seen from the photographs below.
The boiler is designed for 66 kg/cm2 g & 495 deg C maximum. The steam pipe is of P11 material.
The radiant SH outlet pipe is of 150 nb and is of 80 schedule thickness. The main steam line is also
of 150 nb & of 80 Schedule. As per the standard IBR calculation this is suitable for the service
conditions.
Analysis
1. The failed pipes were inspected. The pipes were seen bulged. It indicates that the pipe had not
been able to withstand the service pressure under the present steam conditions. There can be
material composition problem.
2. The steam temperature had gone up to 520 deg C as seen from log book. In the last one year, the
steam temperature had gone up beyond design temperature on many occasions. This is due to the
high amount of fines in coal.
3. It was informed that the secondary air was increased to 100% to control steam temperature.
4. The stress values of pipe come down by 30% on higher temperature and this can lead to bulging
of pipes. The thickness calculation of the pipe is done based on the creep stress for 1 %
elongation at design temperature / rupture stress in 100000 hrs at design temperature. At 525 deg
C, the pipe can withstand a pressure of 50.32 kg/cm2 only on rupture stress basis.
Actions taken to bring down the steam temperature
The bed height and furnace refractory height were adjusted to increase the heat absorption and thus
the steam temperature excursion was resolved. In fact at many plants, the design temperature limits
are not known to operating team.

The swelling of the pipe is seen as the pipe was unable to withstand the temperature.

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CASE STUDY 4: DIAGNOSIS OF STEAM DRUM FAILURE
This case is about a catastrophic failure of the steam drum of the 14 TPH, 36 kg/ cm2 FBC boiler. It
was informed that the boiler had been in service for the past three years.
The incident had taken place almost about month ago. The steam drum had bulleted to the nearby
factory upon the failure. The steam drum end plate got opened and due the reaction forces the steam
drum had flown from its position. At the time of the visit, the debris was removed from the position.
The steam drum was moved to manufacturers storage yard.
Observations on inspection
Flat ends for steam drum!
The steam drum was seen with the flat end design. It was not right to have manufactured the steam
drum at the time where dished ends could be procured. Flat dished ends tend to bulge under pressure.
To prevent this boiler code suggests the use of gusset plates to hold the flat end plate in place. Before
the welding technology was developed riveted gussets were in vogue. In the case of gussets, boiler
design codes provide method of calculation for sizing the thickness and geometry of the gussets.
Welded gussets and the type of weld
The gussets are to be welded to the shell and end plates by full penetration welds. It was seen that the
welds were not full penetration welds. It was also seen that the welds were not properly fused. It was
also seen that the welds are undersized and not as per code requirements. The photographs taken on
all the gussets can be seen below. It was seen from manufacturers drawing that preheating was not
adopted for such thick welds. It was also seen that welds were made without edge preparation to
facilitate fusion and full penetration welds. IBR code had given the revised weld detail in the
annexure A of chapter XII. The BS code from which IBR was formed also asks for full penetration
weld.
Inspection record for fillet welds
Fillet welds are being only visually inspected at Manufacturers' works. The fillets welds cannot be
easily inspected for the reason that the welds are in confined area. Records are not possible for fillet
welds unlike dished end welds that are X-rayed. By virtue of choice of flat end drum for high
pressure service, the steam drum had become a vulnerable element for failure.
Breaking away of weldment
If the weld is not done with proper fusion and preheating, the welds would give way in service.
Boilers undergo cyclic heating and cooling depending on the plant disturbances. The fillet welds
with imperfections open up gradually and result in a catastrophe. This is what happened exactly here.
The gussets were found with inadequate fusion. In fact all thick fillet welds are susceptible for failure
from crack creation and propagation. Absence of preheating can also cause crack development
during the cooling process.
Overpressure operation
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Over pressure operation of the boiler can cause failure of the flat ends. Unless all three safety valves
are gagged, over pressure operations are not possible. It is also true that the factor of safety for stress
value is much higher. Hence minor over pressure can not cause catastrophe.
Anchor bolts
Steam drum & shell require anchor bolts with steel / RCC structure, with proper expansion
provisions. In the event of mishaps, the steam energy will be partly absorbed by the supports. In this
case, the steam drum & shell were simply rested on RCC base. Due to this, the steam drum had
travelled like a bullet to adjacent factory.
Conclusion
It was concluded that the failure was caused by improper weldment. The type of weldment made is
not a completely fusion joint. For a properly fused joint the gusset should have been edge prepared as
per annexure A of IBR chapter XII or as per BS code BS-EN-12953. Preheating should have been
carried out. Weld size records should have been created.

Photo 1: The steam drum was inspected at manufacturers storage yard. It is seen that the flat ends
are provided for the steam drum, instead of dished ends. The flat end had come off from the steam
drum, which had led to this incident.

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Photo 2, 3 & 4: most of the welds shown are without fusion of the gussets. The weldment is
not seen to the gussets. When the weld is properly fused, metal will be seen pulled out in a
haphazard manner. The edge preparation is supposed to be with hardly any land as per IBR
regulation / BS code.

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Differences between fillet weld types: The gusset weld should have been type D as per IBR
code. What was done as per 1a. This is used only structural design.

No matter what the welding process is, Tee Butt welds need to be carefully designed to
ensure full fusion is consistently obtained. When producing Tee Butt welds by welding from
both sides (recommended for arc welding processes) the land and bevel angle need to be
designed so that the welding process can consistently achieve 70 80% penetration of the
land from one side, Note that thicker parts will require more arc energy heat input in order to
provide full fusion. When producing full penetration Tee Butt welds it is imperative to:

Control the size of the land to close tolerances;

Control the size and angle of the bevel when required;
Achieve consistent fit-up every time (preferably zero root gaps);
Use mechanized welding processes that can replicate amperage, voltage and travel speed;
Maintain constant contact tip to work distances;
Use a consistent pre-heat temperature;
Ensure the power source can operate at 100% duty cycle at the nominated current and
voltage.

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CASE STUDIES IN BOILER VIBRATIONS AND BFP CAVITATION

By K.K.Parthiban, B.Tech ( IIT-M), M.E Thermal Engineering- RECT Trichy
In this paper two case studies are presented, which are relevant to boiler operating and design
engineers. One is a vibration problems experienced in CFBC boilers and other is about a repeated
BFP failure in a power plant.
VIBRATION OF SECOND PASS AT AIRPREHEATER
There were three cases which had come to us in this subject. Two cases were about the vibration
experienced in the APH casing of CFBC boilers. One case is the vibration of the steam cooled
second pass housing the primary superheater & economiser. Vibration of boiler is not a rare
phenomenon and many readers would have come across it. Vibrations of tube bundles / casing /
panels are due to a scientific phenomenon known as flow induced vibration. Some of us may doubt
whether fluid flow can cause vibration. Here is a famous example. The two photos below show the
collapse of a bridge named Tacoma Narrows Bridge in USA in the year 1940. Within three months

Photo 1 & 2 : Collapse of Tacoma narrows bridge - 1940

of construction, the bridge collapsed due to aero-elastic flutter due to wind at a speed of 68 kmph.
This phenomenon is due to flow of wind around the bridge. The subject is unique and such situations
occur in boilers too. Vibration and noise problems may be encountered as the air / gas / water / steam
flow over tube bundles in a power plant.
Vortices are formed and shed beyond the wake of the tubes,
resulting in harmonically varying forces on the tubes
perpendicular to the flow direction. It is a self-excited
vibration. If the frequency of vibration of the Von-Karman
vortices, as they are called, coincide with the natural
frequency of vibration of the tube bank, resonance occurs
Fig 1: Von korman street- is a which leads to tube vibration.
repeating pattern of swirling vortices
caused by the unsteady separation of Another phenomenon that is relevant for discussion here is
flow over bluff bodies
acoustic vibration, leading to noise. The duct or the
waterwall / steam cooled panels vibrate when the acoustic
frequency coincides with the natural frequency of tubes. The acoustic oscillation is normal to both
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The
casing
vibration can lead
to
supporting
structure and hand
rails. It becomes
necessary
to
Figure 2: Picture of standing wave in a duct / enclosure, due to air / gas
identify the source
column.
of acoustics. In
boiler and duct systems the source of acoustics can be from fans, improper ducts, and abrupt
transitions, to list a few.
Case study 1: vibration of APH casing in a CFBC boiler
This is a 76 TPH CFBC boiler designed to fire 45% ash Indian coal. The boiler general arrangement
can be seen in figure 3 below. The 2nd pass APH casing was seen to vibrate heavily once the load
crossed 65 TPH. The APH casing started cracking on the heavy vibration. The boiler was inspected
during operation. Plant engineers had stiffened the duct casing, thinking that the duct stiffeners are
inadequate. Even after the additional stiffening of the casing, the casing was cracking. See photo 3 &
4 below. On shut down inspection, it became clear that the cause for vibration was the acoustics
created by the air leak from air side to gas side. Heavy air leak could be seen from the lifting holes of
APH blocks. See photo 5 & 6.

Figure 3: CFBC boiler Case study 1

Photo 3 & 4: APH casing cracks.

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Photo 5 & 6: APH casing cracks can be seen due to acoustic vibration. The source of vibration was
the high pressure air leak from air side to casing side through the lifting lugs.

Photo 7 at top left shows the excessive gap between the casing and the end tube. Photos 8 shows
the incomplete seal welding around the APH blocks. Figures 4 & 5 below show the erection welds.
In shut down, more leakages were seen between the APH base and the structural supports. The
vibration possibilities due to vortex shedding and standing waves were checked, by calculations. The
procedure for checking the vortex induced vibration and the acoustic vibration is well written by
Mr.V.Ganapathy, expert in heat transfer. There was no possibility of APH tube vibration. Readers
could refer his article in internet. The spread sheet calculations is presented in this article for readers
interest. Another observation was that the tube to casing gap was much higher than the tube to tube
clear gap. This can lead preferential gas flow along the casing and cause casing vibration. Perforated
plates were installed at these locations, so that ash would not bridge and the gas flow would be
retarded. The vibration stopped once all the actions were taken as per the recommendations.

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Case study 2: vibration of second pass in a 270 TPH CFBC boiler

The case is a CFBC boiler of 270 TPH with Indonesian coal as the fuel. See figure 6 showing the
boiler layout. As the steam generation was increased around 80% MCR, the second pass began to
vibrate. The boiler maker suggested dividing the gas path thinking that there is superheater coil
vibration due to acoustics. When the visit was made, we found there could be other causes which
needed to be attended first before implementing the gas side partitioning proposed by the boiler
maker. Our observations included the following.

Air was seen gushing in the soot blower stuffing box making a whistle noise. This was later
attended by the plant engineers.
The oxygen levels were also high. The CFBC operation was not stabilized with adequate dust in
the upper furnace. There would be combustion pulsations which lead to vibration. Vibration was
experienced at another plant, when O2 level was at 12% in flue gas.
We did notice that there was air ingress in the fabric joint flange, wherein sealing rope was used.
The flange was not rigid too. We advised the flange be seal welded. Internal bracings were added
at the flange frame.
The boiler operation was corrected by proper loop seal parameters and adequate upper furnace
dust. Vibration was gone after the modifications.

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Figure 6: General arrangement of the 270 TPH CFBC boiler which had developed vibration in the
second pass.

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A clip from literature on vortex induced vibration and acoustic vibration modes.

Gas flows / air flows in a heat exchanger bank can generate a loud noise called acoustic resonance.
The noise can occur when the frequency of flow periodicity generated in the array resonates with
one of the natural transverse acoustic standing waves of the duct. The relevant standing waves are
oriented in a direction normal to both the tube axis and the flow direction. When resonance occurs
an intense pure tone noise is usually produces that can cause damage to the HX internals by fatigue
and will be harmful to plant personnel. The loudness of the noise can reach up to 175 db, depending
upon the pressure drop of the tube array and the damping capacity of the tube bundle and the duct.
The most common remedy is to install one or more anti-resonant baffles within the tube bundle to
distort and suppress the resonance acoustic waves.

Photo 9 & 10 show the position of the large fabric joint just below the economiser, which deflected
inside and created air ingress. The internal tie pipes were added to prevent the caving of the flange.
The flanges were seal welded. When the unit was put back on line, there was vibration. Acoustic
disturbances can be in many forms. Air ingress also seem to create more problem in CFBC as the
negative draft is high in the second pass as compared to other stoker / AFBC or even PF boilers.
In fact the doors in the second pass had to be sealed well. Incidentally this boiler is provided with
perforated baffles to prevent the preferential flow of the gases close to the casing / steam cooled
wall.

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CASE STUDY 3: FEED PUMP CAVITATION
In this case, the BFP had been subject to cavitation damage during turbine trip / load throw
occasions. The deaerator is given steam from the turbine extraction in order to maintain the feed
water temperature at 160 deg C. This corresponds to operating pressure of 5.2 kg/cm2 g. When a
load throw occurred in the turbine, the deaerator pressure comes down. During this period the NPSH
is upset. The pump supplier had informed the plant engineers that the suction piping pressure drop is
too high and hence the cavitation has been occurring.
Plant engineers had made arrangements are to inject cold condensate from the CEP. But the basic
problem remained. The various data for every second was available with plant engineers as this
problem had been a seven year old problem for the plant.
Why should there be a cavitation when the pressure drops at deaerator?
During a transient condition the volume of water trapped in the suction piping is at a higher
temperature as compared to the deaerator tank water temperature. The temperature of water at
deaerator storage tank would be at the saturation temperature corresponding to current pressure
above water level. In the event of turbine trip, the deaerator tank pressure will drop. The hot water at
storage tank will produce flash steam in case of pressure drop and adjust its temperature. But the
temperature sensors would indicate slow change. It is the trapped water in suction piping that can
cause cavitation. It can be about 60 seconds for the water to be replaced, with the feed water flow
rate present after the load reduction. It is within this period that the cavitation damage could occur.
Any vibration in BFP should be in this period only. Once the water inside the suction piping is
replaced, there should not be any continuity of cavitation or vibration.
Our diagnosis points

First thing was the pressure drop calculation for the suction piping. The pressure drop in suction
piping with boiler MCR flow was calculated to be only 0.23 mWC. The truth was that the pump
maker did not make a calculation or measured the pressure drop with calibrated pressure gauge.
The pump suction strainer DP was seen to be 750 mmWC normally. This is considered to be high
in a stabilized plant operation. The DP transmitter was calibrated to 5000 mmWC. The set
pressure for alarm as per BFP supplier document was 0.35 kg/cm2. Trip was to be set at 0.5
kg/cm2. Plant engineers had set the trip at 1200 mmWC. Perhaps this was done after the failures
were experienced in the BFP.
The strainer DP was seen to increase at every load throw in the past. Whenever there was
reduction in boiler feed water flow, there was an increase in DP. See photo 11 to 14. This
indicates there is ARC passing. The DP rise had been instant, that this was not due to flashing.
The ARC may be passing more flow than the stipulated minimum. ARC is designed to relieve 33
m3/h and act at a pressure of 142.3 kg/cm2 as the FCV starts closing. In the past instances the
pressure had never touched the 142.3 kg/cm2 value, but there is sufficient rise in the strainer DP.
This indicates there is passing of ARC at a lower pressure itself. More flow will call for higher
NPSH. The available NPSH declines as the turbine load reduces, due to reduction of deaerator
pressure.
ARC was seen to be passing at the time of visit. The ARC outlet piping temperature at turbine
hall was seen to be 138 deg C as measured by the IR camera. This was seen when the feed water
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flow was 80% of MCR and the BFP discharge pressure was 125 kg/cm2. We suggested adding a
pressure gauge near the TG floor in the ARC discharge line to know the passing of ARC. Power
consumption is also an issue with passing ARC.
We looked in to the details of strainers provided by the pump supplier as the normal DP itself
was high. Strainer flow area was seen to be 1.5 times the cross sectional area of piping. We
compared the area with strainer design by a well known pump supplier. Their BFPs are provided
with 3 times the flow area of piping.
We went in to further details of mesh selection. The mesh opening was 0.315 mm square. The
usual strainer openings by another pump supplier used to be 0.5 mm sq. Small mesh openings
can also be reason for cavitation.
We looked in to the suction piping arrangement taken by plant engineers in the previous
occasions. The feed pumps suction tapping at deaerator storage tank was found located near the
ring stiffener. This could affect the flow. See photo 16 & 17. We advised to trim the part of
stiffener which could obstruct the flow. We recommended that the wire mesh area at inlet shall
also be equal to thrice the flow area of the piping. It was advised that the wire mesh openings
should be made bigger as it was required only to trap the spray nozzle components. We made this
suggestion by comparing with another deaerator in the same plant.

Review of the transient curves given by the plant engineers

With the latest DCS control system in place, nice transient curves were taken out by the plant
engineers in the past. These curves are presented in this paper for readers interest. Such data could
help the plant engineers to improve the analytical skills.

The transient curve on TG load, deaerator pressure, BFP suction pressure, BFP vibration on
31/8/2013 5.43 AM was reviewed. The curve is attached in photo 11. The load throw (from 25
MW to 15 MW) occurred at about 5.46 AM. Both deaerator pressure and BFP suction pressure
had come down and recovered after the pegging steam supply was commenced. In 30 seconds the
difference between the suction pressure and deaerator pressure was re-established. The deaerator
pressure change had been only 0.7 kg/cm2. But the vibration level had gone up and remained for
a longer duration. It seemed to follow the frequency / rpm rise in the drive.
The transient curve on TG load, deaerator pressure, BFP suction pressure, BFP vibration on
30/8/2013 16.50 PM was reviewed. The curve is attached in photo 12. The load throw (from 22
MW to 11 MW) occurred at about 16.56 PM. Both deaerator pressure and BFP suction pressure
had come down and recovered after the pegging steam supply was commenced. In 90 seconds the
difference between the suction pressure and deaerator pressure was re-established. The deaerator
pressure change had been only 5.7 -5.2 kg/cm2. But the vibration level had gone up and
remained for a longer duration. It followed the frequency / rpm rise in the drive. In this case the
suction pressure came below the deaerator pressure and lasted for 1.5 minutes. This is the case of
cavitation.
In both the above cases, there is a small change in deaerator pressure. The change is about 3 to 7
mWC in head. The NPSH available excluding the strainer DP is 11.47 mWC. If the pressure
decay is too fast then there will be flashing of steam in suction piping. If we assume 1 kg/cm2 is
the decay, the flash steam percentage is 1.4%.

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Photo 11: Both BFP suction pressure and deaerator pressure declined during the load throw. The
BFP suction pressure to deaerator pressure difference is maintained.

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Photo 12: The BFP suction pressure had gone down below that of deaerator pressure. This can
happen due to high DP across strainer / ARC acting or due to momentary frequency raise.

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Photo 13: The DP had gone to 1325 mmWC instantly, even when the water flow is 90 TPH. There is
a load throw of 24 to 20 MW. In one minute the deaerator pressure had come down by 0.7 kg/cm2.
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Photo 14: The BFP strainer DP went up when the steam flow was dropped.

Photo 15: The ARC back pressure considered is 12 bar. This may be checked by installing a pressure
gauge downstream of ARC. ARC should operate only at 158.2 kg/cm2 as per the data sheet. The
minimum flow for ARC is 33 m3/h.

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Photo 16 & 17: The photo on the left shows the suction pipe location in the deaerator. The stiffener
should be trimmed. The coarse mesh flow area shall be 3 times that of pipe c/s area. Photo on the
right shows the coarse strainer in another deaerator of the same plant.

Photo 18 & 19: The photos above show passing of ARC valve. The heat is seen in the piping.

Photo 20 & 21: The photo on the left shows the strainer DP in another plant and the photo on the
right shows the DP in the affected pumps. It implied the strainer flow area is less as compared to
other installation.

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Conclusions
The ARC passing, small mesh in strainer, less flow area in strainer could reduce the NPSH available
during transients. We recommended two important points for immediate implementations.

Pressure decay can be reduced in the make up from CEP is stopped at the deaerator for one
minute, the flashing of steam in the water entrapped in suction piping can be reduced.
The deaerator vent pipes at this plant were 2 nos of 40 nb lines. We recommended adding 1 x 15
nb parallel vents to reduce the loss of steam and to reduce the rate of decay.

M/S Venus energy audit system Trouble shooting of boiler failures

and operational issues. Company carries out design audit, construction
audit, shut down audit and operational audit.
M/S Sri Devi engineering consultancy and agency engaged in non
pressure parts spares supply for FBC boilers.
K.K.Parthiban

M/S Sri Devi boiler equipment and spares engaged in supply of

pressure part spares for all type of boilers

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CASE STUDIES IN APPLICATION OF CFD ANALYSIS

TECHNIQUE FOR AUXILIARY POWER SAVINGS
By K.K.Parthiban, Venus energy audit system
Web: www.venus-boiler.com -www.boilerspares.com
Email: venus1@venus-boiler.com -sridhar.sdbesbng@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Since the invention of desktop and laptop computers and the various software packages, the work
styles of engineers have changed. Not to mention that lifestyle has also changed considerably. Earlier
in power industry there used to be a flow modelling laboratory in which prototypes were made to
study the flow patterns of air / flue gas duct system. For standardised designs such investment was
worth it. As the industrial boilers developed at a faster pace, new boiler companies had entered the
market segment which was not catered by the utility equipment manufacturers. Most of the industrial
boiler equipment manufacturers do not have the expertise / interest in the area of flow modelling.
Many a times the layouts are non standard for various reasons such site constraints and choice of
number of fans. Sometimes we end up with an improperly designed duct system with local
turbulences and eddies which cause pressure losses. When a turbulence / eddies is not favourable, it
can affect the fan performance as well in terms of vibration, excess power consumption.
There is scope for improvement in duct system layout for optimising the energy consumed for
pumping combustion air or evacuation of the flue gases from boilers. These case studies are about
the use of CFD technique to visualize the flow patterns as existing and after a proposed modification.
At least now we need not make trials in a running plant.
What is computation fluid dynamics?
It is fairly new design tool used by several industries for optimum design related to fluid flow. It is a
numerical analysis method involving large number of iterations using computers and predicting the
fluid flow patterns. In boilers it can be used for burner design, furnace design, duct design, heat
transfer, flue gas emission control.
CFD involves the solution of the governing laws of fluid dynamics numerically. The complex set of
partial differential equations is solved on in geometrical domain divided into small volumes,
commonly known as a mesh (or grid).
Why CFD has become popular?
There are various reasons why CFD has become popular, some of which are:

CFD allows numerical simulation of fluid flows, results for which are available for study even
after the analysis is over. This is a big advantage over, say, wind tunnel testing where analysts
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have a shorter duration to perform flow measurements.

CFD allows observation of flow properties without disturbing the flow itself, which is not always
possible with conventional measuring instruments.
CFD allows observation of flow properties at locations which may not be accessible to (or
harmful for) measuring instruments. For example, inside a combustion chamber, or between
turbine blades.
CFD can be used as a qualitative tool for discarding (or narrowing down the choices between),
various designs. Designers and analysts can study prototypes numerically, and then test by
experimentation only those which show promise.

Ducts in boiler system- Scope for application

In the case of Industrial boilers / captive power plants, the boiler capacities are not standardised due
to various reasons such as plant layout, plant capacity requirement, fuel combinations to be used. The
duct layouts are engineered every time. Honestly the boiler design engineers in some companies do
not have practical exposures. They tend to copy / make drawings based on the reference projects.
The designs in most of the case are thus not optimised. There are many instances where the duct
layout is so awkward, that the fans are not able to handle the additional resistances encountered. An
expert engineer should be able to identify the defects in design.
CFD comes handy to visualise the flow pattern and to decide on the corrections to be carried out.
We present some cases where we made use of CFD program to explain the picture now and the
picture when the suggested modification is implemented.
Case 1 Wrong fan inlet duct layout
This is a case of a CFBC boiler wherein the PA fan and SA fan inlet duct layouts are not proper. See
picture by the side. The fan inlet duct
layout is such that the air is imparted with a
pre-swirl which is not favourable to that of
the impeller and volute casing.
Flow dividers can be added to modify the
flow pattern so that the direction of swirl is
reversed. A top inlet duct is generally the
right way.
The modelling was done using Catia
software. The meshing was generated using
gambit. The analysis was done using CFD
software. Picture 2 is the present duct
configuration and the picture 3 is the flow
vectors. We finalised flow dividers as

Picture1:PAfansuctionduct

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shown in picture 4. The effect can be seen in picture 5. Wrong fan inlet duct design can result in poor
performance and vibration.

Picture2duct
details

Picture4Flow
dividers

Picture3Flow
diagram

Picture5Flow
diagramnew

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Case 2 deviation in design performance

There are two APH in this boiler. One is primary
APH (PAPH) and the other is secondary APH
(SAPH). Both PAPH and SAPH are identical.
The 3D model of PAPH / SAPH is shown in
picture 6. Each Airpreheater is divided in to two
blocks to reduce the span of the tubes. The air
from two PA fans (or SA fans) enters the blocks
as separate streams but they mix at the
intermediate chambers. When the APH was taken
up for fluid flow studies, it was seen that there are
two areas of pressure loss. They are

Picture6 APHmodel

1. The air streams oppose each other and take a 180 deg turn at the intermediate ducts. Also they
divide in two streams in opposite directions at the intermediate duct. There can be additional
losses here.
2. The air while passing from block 1 to block 2, goes through narrow passage created by the two
stiffening channels of ISMC 250. See picture 7 & 8 below. Similar narrow passage is formed
between block 3 & 4. The air velocity in this area is of the order of 20-24 m/s.
See the detail below which explains the above two points.
Picture7APHdetails

Picture8
APHmodel

Simple modelling
The model had to be simplified for analysis purpose. Only one column of 22 tubes in a block is
considered for analysis and flow visualisation. See picture 9 & 10. No heat flux was considered in
modelling. The aim was to obtain the flow patterns and as well as flow in each tube of a block on the
right side and left side. Picture 11 shows the recirculation zone due to beam stiffener.
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Picture10 flowpattern

Picture9simplifiedAPHmodel

Picture11 FlowpatterninsideAPH

Result
The flow pattern is seen to improve when the beam is not present. The unbalance in flow was found
to go up to -20% & + 10% in block 2 & 4 with the stiffener channel. The unbalance comes down to
6% in the case without stiffener. See pictures 12 & 13 below.

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Picture 12: Flow unbalance with stiffener

Picture 13: Flow unbalance without stiffener

Recommendation
The APH blocks are a solid mass once the tubes are rolled and seal welded in place. The stiffener
channel does not contribute to any stiffening. However vertical stiffener plates were suggested for
the tube sheet. The modifications were carried out and the draft loss had come down considerably.
However the opposing air streams continue to remain as the pressure drop device.

Case 3: Performance improvement of mixing nozzles

Mixing nozzle is an important component in under bed feeding system of AFBC boiler. This can
generate dust nuisance and choking of inlet chute when the coal has more percentage of fines. One of
our customers desired to have better vacuum at the venturi. Generally this is possible to achieve with
lower throat diameter or by optimising the location of the throat in the mixing nozzle. We took up
the case for CFD analysis. See picture 14. The right side picture shows the air sucked from the
suction chamber opening from where the fuel falls in to the throat.
Picture14:flowpictureatmixingnozzlechamber
t

The picture on the left is the visualisation of the jet effect. Red lines indicate the highest velocity
lines. We advanced the cone forward to see the effect in air flow from suction chamber opening. The

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pictures below show the effect.
Picture15:flowpictureatrevisedmixingnozzle

There is more area of dark blue color indicating the suction effect at the venturi inlet. The tables
below indicate the free flow of air through the suction chamber inlet area. The flow is found to
improve when the venturi cone is advanced in optimum manner. The flow area is divided in to cells
and flow values are taken from CFD reports.

From the above, one can decide that the modification in the mixing nozzle can result in improvement
the suction effect. The customer had gone ahead with procurement of new mixing nozzles with the
revised geometry and installed them too. The performance was found to be good.

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Some common mistakes made by design engineers in respect of ducting

Picture17

Picture16

Picture18

Some pictures taken in some plants are

presented below. Pictures 16 to 18 show
come peculiar duct layouts which create
unnecessary loading of the fan.

Picture 16 shows the opposing streams of

air flow at the inlet of APH. Opposing
streams are again to take a 90 deg bend. In
picture 17, the ESP outlet duct has two 90
deg bends with flow split, all placed too
close. In picture 18 shows a case which
was handled by us in a 135 TPH FBC
boiler. The FD fan IGV direction was
wrong. The IGV at partial opening imparts
a swirl which is opposite to that of impeller and the direction of volute. During commissioning the
fan showed up vibration and then the fan supplier changed the IGV.
Conclusion
Some boiler users could easily understand the defects when identified and explained. Some boiler
users do not appreciate the defects. CFD analytical tools make things simpler to them. It is
recommended to look in to such defective layouts at the plant. Many times two fans are operated,
since one fan results more inefficiency / does not cater to full air flow. Fan selection may not be
wrong. It is defective duct layout, which makes things worse.

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CASE STUDIES OF STEAM SYSTEM AUDIT IN SOME PLANTS
By K.K.Parthiban, Venus Energy Audit System
Introduction
This article outlines the outcome of auditing of steam system conducted in process Industries. The
details of modifications / improvements carried out may be of use to other boiler users. During the
audit the operating staff had exchanged all their experiences and this had resulted in benefit of their
plant.
Case 1: Steam system auditing in a process industry
Interaction & listing of the problems
A detailed interaction with various level personnel in the plant resulted in a long list of the
problems that could be addressed in order to improve the plant efficiency. The list was quite
exhaustive and it included the finer details of the problems as experienced. The studies included
both the boiler and the entire steam & condensate system of the plant. For photos refer annexure.
The problem, causes & Remedial actions
Problem
Gauge
glass
thinning
down.
Replacement at an
interval of 10 days.
See photo 1.

Cause
There was excess chemical dosage.
The boiler water pH used to go up
11.8. The normal pH recommended
was 9.5 to 10.5. See photo 3 & 4.

Remedial action
The plant personnel were educated
on the purpose of chemical dosing.
The antiscalant dosage was reduced
as the plant has very little make up
water.
Proposed for baffle box in front of
water level gauge. Steam separator
baffles added to reduce turbulence
inside the steam drum. See figure 1.

On inspection of the boiler steam

drum internal, it was found that there
was scope for turbulence of boiler
water at the level gauge tapping. See
photo 2
Excess condensate Excess chemical dosage has led to The chemical dosage was restricted
drainage at the first foaming inside the drum. See photo 6. to maintain the boiler water pH to
trap itself along the
10.5
steam line.
Steam risers did not have proper Extensive modification carried out
baffles to prevent direct passage of in the drum as per figure 2.
water to drier box. See photo 5 & 7.
Frequent choking Wood containing sodium / potassium Suggestion was given for an air
of the flue tubes in deposit in the tube sheet at the first operated hose for cleaning the tube
on
line.
This
was
pass entrance. Such boilers need pre- sheet
the boiler.
collection chamber & reduction flue implemented and the benefits
gas temperature to less than 650 deg C obtained. See figure 3 & photo 9
&10.
before shell. See photo 7 & 8.
Air
preheater Boilers when fired with high moisture Steam coil preheater is the right
choking
fuels experience flue gas condensation solution. When the air is preheated
in APH tubes. Simultaneously it leads to 65 deg C, the condensation of
to ash sticking to the moist surface and water can be avoided.
leads to choking. See photo 11.
But for this plant pressure jet water

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Outside air ingress is seen in to APH

causing condensation of flue gas
moisture. See photo 12.
Corrosion of ducts

Excess
consumption

Improvement
process
performance.

Boilers with biomass firing need

insulation right up to chimney inlet to
prevent moisture condensation in the
ducts. See photo 13 & 14.
fuel Auto air vents were seen installed in
the steam piping. These were not
maintained. The steam was mistaken
as air by the operating staff. See photo
15.
So many valves were not insulated at
all. See photo 16 & 17

cleaning was advised.

Tubes fail periodically. It is
necessary to understand the
periodicity of replacement & plan
spare.
The inspection door needed
strengthening. Every time any
inspection door is opened only fresh
seal rope must be provided.
It was advised to insulate all the
ducts up to Chimney inlet and arrest
all ingress.

Advised to close the auto air vent.

Air vents are provided only in heat
exchangers. These are again
required if there is a possibility of
air trapping.
Valves are to be insulated with
removable pad insulation. This
brings down the radiation loss to
surrounding.
Steam loss was very high at the traps. Traps at unnecessary places were
See 18.
closed down.
Wherever the traps are required and
the traps had started passing steam,
the bypass lines were cracked
optimally to bring down the loss.
in Wrong trap arrangement was seen at Right trap arrangement was given.
several places. Traps are not located
Wrong orientation of traps was
for easy inspection. See photo 19.
corrected.
Regular inspection of traps is a
must. For auditing IR camera &
ultrasonic probe come in handy. See
photo 19 & 20.

Case 2: Audit of a coal fired unit in a paper mill

The customer had requested for an audit of their plant to bring down the coal consumption. The
boiler was originally a husk fired. Later due to fuel price escalations, customer switched over to
coal firing most of the year.
The problem, causes & Remedial actions
Problem
High
consumption

Cause
coal Vibratory feeder used in place of
rotary feeder. See photo 22.
The oxygen level was so much
hunting, ( see figure 24, 25 & 26) hat

Remedial action
For coal feeders only rotary / drag
chain feeder to be used.
Customer was advised about the art
of fuel feed regulation. The CO

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the fuel did not burn in the furnace
resulting in high carbon in bed ash
itself. See photo 23.
The surface temperature audit by IR
camera proved that lot of scope exists
in reducing the heat loss to ambient.
See photo 27, 28 & 29.
Process side heat loss was also high.
In the paper industry, the drying
cylinders meant for drying the paper
was without the end radiation shields.

ppm exceeded 5000 ppm.

Insulation was advised to this

customer.

The surface temperatures between

the case with radiation shield & the
case without the shield were shown
to client. One can see the IR camera
outputs at the annexure. See photo
30 & 31.

Case 3: Audit of a biomass fired boiler in a paper mill

The customer had requested for an operational audit of their boiler to bring down the fuel
consumption and to address the dust complaint from nearby factories. The boiler was originally a
wood fired boiler. Later due to non availability of wood the boiler was converted to FBC firing
with external refractory furnace walls. The biomass fuels used include rice husk, tamarind shell,
ground nut shell, coffee husk.
The problem, causes & Remedial actions
formation The fuels used have ash fusion The combustion temperatures were
temperatures as low as 750 deg C.
adjusted for a lower bed
temperature.
There was clinker formation above the The biomass of fouling nature
bed on the wall due to high free board needs waterwall furnace enclosure.
temperature excursions & due to Only flue gas recycling is to be
done now to reduce the furnace
presence of uncooled walls.
temperature.
ID fan capacity It was seen that the air / flue gas Ducting reengineering was advised
inadequate
ducting is designed in a haphazard to bring down the draft loss.
manner. See photo 34.
It was seen that the ID fan is provided Customer was advised to remove
with a damper right at the fan inlet. the flap from the damper and to
Such obstructions bring down the fan provide multi flap damper in the
MDC outlet duct.
performance. See photo 33.
Chimney failure
This is a common phenomenon in The exhaust temperature at chimney
many plants. The cause is the high top should be over 110 deg C. This
moisture content in fuel & low can be improved by insulating the
gas ducting up to chimney inlet.
exhaust temperature.
Dust
complaint Though the ash content is less, due to Customer was advised for rotary
from
adjourning improper combustion, improper ash ash feeder at all ash collection
factory.
collection system combined with points. In addition unconventional
condensation of water vapor has dust traps as seen in photo 32 & 33
were added.
caused carbon particulate.
Furnace is not provided with over-fire Customer
was
advised
to
air arrangement. High volatile fuels incorporate secondary air system.
Clinker
in bed.

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need a good turbulence above the bed,
particularly in over bed feed system.
This is required to burn off the
unburnt gases.
Frequent
boiler The feed pump suction piping is with
feed pump failure
mistakes that take away the NPSH.
See photo 35, 36 & 37.

Seeing the CO values in the flue gas

at shell outlet the over-fire air has to
be adjusted.
Customer was advised to remove
the thermocouple & flow meter
immediately. If problem persists,
globe valve shall be replaced with
gate valve.

Conclusion
Generally in all the plants there remains a good scope for fuel savings & for improving the steam
generating & distributing system. There are numerous cases where plant engineers & operators
have incorporated many improvements. The users could bring out their achievements in this boiler
meet in the further years.

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Photo 1: Gauge glass seen eroded. This failure Photo 2: Gauge glass located close to risers.
This causes turbulence in water level gauge.
took place every week.

Figure 1:

Photo 3: Excess chemicals have led to whitish Photo 4: Rear tube sheet seen with whitish
deposit. If hardness salts are present, tubes
deposit seen in the shell above the tubes.
would be seen with deposits.

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Photo 5: A baffle box provided at one end of the Photo 6: Steam separator seen with foaming
drum did not have level equalizer. The steam mark indicating the drum was under turbulent
water mixture would have to climb over the box. water level.

Figure 2:

Photo 7: Risers do not have a cap. Thus the Photo 8: Inlet of the I pass tubes at shell. A view
water can go directly to the steam pipe nearby.
after cleaning. Old deposits could be seen.

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Figure 3:

Photo 9: Compressor lined up for ash deposit Photo 10: Cleaning ports in the inspection door.
removal.
Compressed air line is taken out of port.

Photo 11: Fresh air ingress to APH causes gas Photo 12: Improper APH inspection door
seating leads to cold ingress.
condensation leading to corrosion & choking.

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Photo 13: Shell intermittent hopper (not Photo 14: MDC cones seen coated with
insulated?)with improper flange seating condensed ash deposits. Insulation is advised.
allowing air ingress.

Photo 15: Unnecessary air vent in main steam

line. At high points, only a vent is required for Photo 16:Uninsulated valves result in heat loss.
air release during hydrotest.

Photo 17: Uninsulated valves result in heat loss.

Photo 18: Steam seen gushing out of trap. There

were traps downstream & hence this was closed.

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Photo 20: Auditing equipment Infrared camera

Photo 19: In accessible traps not suited for
for identifying defective trap, bearings &
regular check.
electrical panels.

Photo 21: Energy audit equipment ultrasonic Photo 22: Vibratory feeder being used for coal
probe for various application
feeding in an FBC boiler. Boiler designed for
husk.

Photo 23: Unburnt coal seen in the bed ash

itself. It is not practically adjust required coal
feed rate with vibratory feeder. The LOI ranged
to 2% in this case.

Photo 24: The Oxygen analyzer is provided to

ensure Oxygen is available for combustion. If
load is varying then the minimum Oxygen has
to be 3.5%.
.

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Photo 25

Photo 27: Uninsulated areas in a bi-drum boiler

Photo 26

Photo 28: Almost at all sealbox the temperatures

run over the stipulated ambient + 20 deg C. Max
temperature is 197 deg C.

Photo 30: In a paper industry, the drying

Photo 29: Close to the bottom drum, in the cylinders are not covered by many. This one is
finned area, temperature is seen to be maximum without a cover. We may see the peak
of 202 deg C.
temperature is 154 deg C.

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Photo 32: Ideas to reduce dust emission in small

Photo 31: This cylinder is with a cover. These boilers
drying cylinders rotate at a speed. Naturally the
convection heat loss will be predominant as
compared to radiation mode heat loss.

Photo 33: A way to reduce dust emission. Photo 34. Haphazard ducting adds up to higher
Further at all ash collection points rotary feeders draft loss. Customer had gone ahead with
added.
replacement of fans.

Photo 35, 36 & 37 show the mistakes made in feed pump suction piping that the frequently the
pumps fails to pump due to cavitation. Thermocouple in the line, flow meter & globe valve in pump
suction line creates loss of NPSH.

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CASE STUDIES ON BOILER TUBE EROSION
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Erosion is associated with solid fuel fired boilers. The cause can be defective design, defective
erection, improper operation & improper maintenance. Remedies could be available for many cases.
This paper discusses some case studies which were diagnosed by author of this paper.
CAUSES ATTRIBUTED TO DESIGN
Solid fuels depending on the amount of ash & type of ash constituents can cause erosion. There can be
numerable causes under this heading. To name a few,
1. Design with high gas velocities.
Solid fuels such as coal, rice husk can erode the boiler tubes due to their ash constituents. Using
higher gas velocities are found to erode the flue tubes in shell type boiler. Tubes are found to erode
within a distance of 150 mm from the tube sheet. The usual protection system for this is the sacrificial
tube ferrules. The tube ferrules must fit properly in the tube. The nitrided ferrules are found to last
longer as compared to ordinary ferrules. See figure 1.
In water tube boilers, the bank can erode due to high impingement velocity / high gas velocity within
the tube bank. When impingement erosion is prevalent, the remedy can be in two ways. One way is to
replace the tubes periodically. Another remedy is to again use sacrificial shields. The shields are to be
replaced regularly. In many cases it is not advisable to use the sacrificial shields. The shields may get
distorted due to overheating and cause more complications.
When the design gas velocity is high, the tube banks erode haphazardly within the bank. See figure 2.
Instead of attending to tube failures, remedial measure should be taken to decrease the gas velocity.
This can be possible in some cases. Where it is not possible to alter the pitch of the tubes, tubes are
surface treated for longer life.
2. Design without considering normal dust flow pattern expected within the tube bank
A tube bank is always with bends & straight lengths. It is natural to have to more gas / ash flow
between the casing and the bends. During the fabrication of coils it is not practical to ensure all the
coils are made to exact length. Preferential gas flow along the bends is unavoidable. Hence gas baffles
are placed above & at appropriate places within the bank to control this. See figure 4.
Wherever the tubes penetrate through the waterwall/ steam cooled wall / steel casing, the tubes are
susceptible for erosion due to preferential ash flow along the wall. When the free fall of ash is high the
erosion rate is high. Sleeves are to be provided in this area. See figure 5. Figure 6 shows the common
failure encountered if tube sleeve is not provided.
3. Design without considering the preferential gas flow upstream / downstream of the tube bank
In shell type boilers, the preferential gas flow occurs when the gas turning takes place. Inadequate
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space in the gas reversal chamber for the proper gas turning results in tube failures preferentially. It
may be possible to modify the gas reversal chamber in many cases. See figure 3.
In water tube boilers, the superheater / economiser banks may be positioned either vertically or
horizontally inside the waterwall / Steam cooled wall / steel casing. We may have tube banks / gas
baffles / gas ducts in upstream / downstream of the tube banks. They may cause certain erosion pattern
on tube banks. See figure 8-11.

Tube banks ahead can direct the ash laden gas to preferential locations
Hanger tubes can direct the ash laden gas to preferential locations.
Sloped panels / flat ducts can direct the ash to a particular zone of the tube bank.
Ducts with sharp turns can through the dust to outer portion of the bends
Improper duct orientation can cause biased gas flow

The remedies include periodical replacement of tubes, alteration of gas ducts. This will involve cold
flow studies / CFD analysis. Shields can be used, provided the gas temperature does not distort them.
4. Design without provision for controlling the preferential flow
In water tube boilers, tube banks have to be positioned in an economical way to optimizing the space
requirement. By providing adequate space for flow stabilization, the preferential erosion can be
avoided. Sometimes it becomes necessary to place flow dividers ahead of the bank to ensure the gas is
distributed uniformly over the bank. See figure 12.
5. Design with narrow clearance between tubes
Adopting very closely pitched tubes is not welcome for solid fuel fired boilers. Narrow clearances (20
to 30 mm) are not possible to maintain in actual case, though in drawing it looks nice. Clearances
come down during erection / operation at site for various reasons such as

Bow in tube length as received from tube manufacturer

Bow in tube length caused by transport / erection procedure
Fuel ash deposition brings down the tube to tube clearances.
Improper support system ( welded supports )
Thermal expansion bring down the clearances
Staggered pitch with narrow clearance makes the tube erode faster than the inline tube
arrangement. See figure 7.

It is always preferable to use a minimum of 40 mm clearance for fouling fuels.

6. Design without proper lateral spacers to maintain the longitudinal / transverse pitch of tubes
Tube banks have to be provided with adequate spacer / hanger to ensure pitch is uniform & tube
leaning out is avoided. There are cases wherein only two supports / spacers are envisaged for long
coils. A coil assembly with smaller diameter tubes needs more spacers than with large diameter tubes.
Spacers are required to maintain the pitch between the tube assemblies as well.
7. Design with possibilities for impingement erosion
Generally there may be pitch change between the two tube banks. Screen tubes may be placed ahead
of boiler bank / SH / Economiser banks. If enough space is not provided, we may experience
impingement erosion. Instead of attempting to protect with shields, it is preferable to replace the tubes
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in a scheduled manner. See figure 11. It may be possible to rectify the defect in some cases.
8. Failure to provide the sacrificial tube shields near soot blowers
Sacrificial shields are to be provided for the tubes that are in proximity to the tubes near soot blowers.
Designers should place the tubes at an optimum distance away from the soot blower.
9. Improper design of flow dividers
Improperly designed flow dividers some times cause more havoc than the one without it. Depending
on the thickness survey / erosion / polishing pattern, the design of flow dividers would call for a
change.
10. Failure to provide proper sealbox at places where the tubes enter inside the gas path
Seal boxes are required wherever the tubes enter the flue path. The compromise here leads to erosion
of tubes due to air ingress surrounding the tubes. When the tubes are hung from the roof panel, the air
ingress around the tubes can lead to erosion of tubes. Many boiler design / operating engineers think
that covering the openings with refractory is a solution. It is not a solution, as the refractory cracks
from the steel support on thermal expansion.
CAUSES ATTRIBUTED TO ERECTION
1. Improper erection methods resulting in irregular pitching of tube banks
Tube banks are to be erected ensuring the design pitches are achieved while erecting the boiler tube
banks. Using gauges while fit up & welding would ensure the clearances are maintained as per design.
I have presented a case of failure due to this aspect.
2. Improper / incomplete erection of protective shields / gas baffle
Failure to erect the gas baffles is a common problem due to stringent erection schedule imposed in the
project stage. Failure to overlap the shields is a common problem seen.
3. Incomplete erection of sealbox
The drawing may specify that the sealbox is to be erected with seal welding. Many engineers fail to
read the drawing / fail to ensure the detail is carried out at site. The failure case is dealt in case study
section.
CAUSES ATTRIBUTED TO OPERATION
1. Operation of the boiler beyond the design parameters
The boiler auxiliaries may be designed with certain margin for the various inferior fuels specified at
the design stage. It does not mean that the full capacity of the auxiliaries can be used up for generating
more steam from the boiler. Many times this can cause high rate of erosion.
2. Operation of the boiler without understanding the fuel characteristics / Operation of the boiler
with fuels not designed for
Of late there is acute shortage of reliable fuel supply. Various grades of coals are imported from
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various countries. Operating engineers are left with no option. There are cases where the Fe2O3 in fuel
ash is high enough to cause severe slagging of FBC boiler bed tubes / radiant SH / final SH tubes. The
slagged ash / fouled ash choke up the flue path causing erosion of the tubes both in coils & in the
waterwall / steam cooled wall. Operating engineers need to understand the effect of various ash
constituents with respect to the boiler in hand. Simply firing all types of coal / other fuels would
damage the boiler tubes.
CAUSES ATTRIBUTED TO MAINTENANCE
1. Failure to ensure the design pitching is maintained during tube replacement
Making use of gauges / fixtures can avoid this mistake. A small review needs to be done with the
repairer on this aspect. Simply entrusting the work to even an experienced contractor is not correct.
The quality levels demanded at the first supply should be demanded at every repair as well. A review
of erection procedure can bring out the proper way to ensure perfection.
2. Failure to observe the pattern of erosion and to take remedial advice from manufacturer.
Appraising the manufacturer by means of photographs, sketches and operational data can lead to
generation of a better design for the present case & future cases. Only in some exceptional cases, the
erosion is to be taken as part of boiler life
3. Failure to fit the gas baffles & tube shields / sealing arrangement after the tube replacement
Unless & until the original design drawing is referred this may not be known to many new comers in
the boiler maintenance.
4. Decision to retain the distorted / plugged coils within the flue path.
It has become a practice to retain the distorted coils / plugged coils in the flue path. This is not a good
practice. Many times it is seen that the distorted coils offer sites for ash accumulations and cause the
tube erosion.
CASE STUDIES
Numerous cases have been seen in the past and some of them have been highlighted at the end of the
paper.
CONCLUSION
The boiler erosion problems have to be addressed instead of taking it as if it is an incorrigible defect.
Some of the defects can be corrected by the mutual involvement of the design engineers & operating
engineers by design modification. Adopting certain quality checks during repair can ensure better
plant availability.

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FIGURES

FLUE TUBE

FERRULE
L

LOCAL VORTEX EROSION

I PASS TUBES

II PASS TUBES

DAMAGE SEEN IN FLUE TUBE

WITHOUT FERRULE

FIG 1:FLUE TUBE EROSION IN SHELL TYPE BOILER

LESSER THE 'L' MORE FLOW

OCCURS AT BOTTOM TUBES

FIG 3: L- DECIDES THE EROSION IN FLUE TUBES

EROSION IN
LEADING TUBE

EROSION AT
BENDS
EROSION IN
TRAILING TUBE

FIG 2: TUBE EROSION WHEN GAS VELOCITY IS HIGHER

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IMPINGEMENT
SHIELDS
GAS
BAFFLE

IMPINGEMENT
SHIELDS
GAS
BAFFLE

CASSETTE
SHIELDS AT BENDS

NONUNIFORM
GAP
FIG 4: SOME WAYS TO PREVENT PREFERENTIAL GAS FLOW & PROTECTION OF BENDS

IMPINGEMENT
SHIELDS

PLATE CASING

TUBULAR CASING

TUBE
SLEEVES

TUBE
SLEEVES

FIG 5: SLEEVE PROTECTION FOR TUBES AT PENETRATIONS

38

31

TUBE
EROSION

FIG 6:

EROSION OF TUBES AT PENETRATIONS

SEEN IN UNCLOSED SEAL BOXES & CASES W/O
SLEEVE TUBES

FIG 7: STAGGERED PITCH WITH WELDED SUPPORTS EFFECT OF PITCH TO VELOCITY

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LESSER 'V' HELPS

DISTRIBUTED FLOW

FIG 8 : H-DIMENSION THAT DECIDES EROSION PATTERN

CLOSELY PITCHED OUTLET

TUBES CAN ALSO DIRECT ASH
& GAS TO FRONT OF TUBE BANK

CLOSELY PITCHED HANGER

TUBES CAN DIRECT ASH
& GAS TO FRONT OF TUBE BANK

FIG 9 :IF COILS COULD BE ARRANGED FROM SIDE TO SIDE, MOST OF THE PROBLEMS CAN BE AVOIDED

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MORE THE 'H', LOCALISED

ASH GETS MIXED TO GAS

FIG 10 : ASH ACCUMULATIONS AT BOILER BANK CAN DUMP ASH TO NEAREST COILS.

USE OF DIVIDERS

FIG 12: MORE THE 'V', MORE

THE PREFERENTIAL FLOW
FIG 11: MISMATCH BETWEN PITCH OF SCREEN TUBES AND
TRAILING BANK TUBES CAN GET ERODED

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CASE STUDIES ON EROSION OF BOILER TUBES

Case 1: Economiser hanger support system is of welded design. Uniform pitch & verticality could
not be maintained during erection or repair. Drilled hanger plates & lug plates ensure the pitch.
During any repair work alignment & spacing can be again ensured.

Case 2: A welded support system for an economiser is seen here. The economiser tubes got eroded
haphazardly due to non uniform pitch. Staggered pitch needs more care to maintain the
longitudinal pitch.
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FINAL
SH

LTSH

Case 3: The ash settling below final SH was found to spill more towards front portion of LTSH.
The LTSH outlet tubes are so closely pitched and worked as curtain & made the ash fall in front
section of LTSH. The LTSH outlet tubes need to be shifted away from hanger tubes. The erosion
was so heavy that an unconventional shielding had to be done here. The uniform pitching &
alteration in outlet tube disposition would have solved the problem.

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Case 3: In one case the economiser was eroding along the rear wall. The gas baffle arrangement
was altered based on the CFD analysis and the erosion pattern was removed.

Case 4: The economiser headers are in the flue path. The economiser tubes are finned type and
also staggered. The clearances were so less that the ash could easily trap in to narrow spacing of
the tubes. Clogged ash formed during a fouling coal had led to erosion within the bank. Placing
headers inside had also led to higher apparent gas velocity.

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Case 5: The SH coil bends had come close to

the casing, that the bends had got eroding. The
shields were not placed properly during a
maintenance & it led to failure of SH.

Case 6: The protection shield at bends was not

placed properly during maintenance. This had
led to a stoppage of the plant. There is a gas
baffle to prevent the gas going along the
bends.

Case 7: Erosion at the top rows of a convection phenomenon depends on the arrangement of
pressure parts layout. A shabby work of shields can lead to poor availability of the boiler. We
can see how the shields are disoriented. The waterwall is seen eroded due to shields. The
distorted shields have led to multiple failures within the bank. Simply all the shields were
removed and all tubes were replaced in a scheduled manner.
Planned replacement of tubes can improve the availability of the boiler than simply resorting to
shields. Shields & baffles are to be engineered depending on various parameters, such as present
velocity & temperature profile, tube to tube clearances.

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Case 8: This boiler suffered erosion of tubes all over in the first pass whereas in the second pass
suffered no erosion though the design gas velocities were same. The small window opening had
caused increase in the ash concentration in 1 pass and the mild vibration prevalent due to
support system had led to erosion of convection SH tubes.

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CAUSTIC GOUGING IN BED TUBES OF HIGH PRESSURE AFBC BOILERS

SYNOPSIS
This article is about water side corrosion due to a mistake in design of boiler. Corrosion in the boiler is
prevented by maintaining a boiler water condition in such a way that the magnetite layer is retained.
Boiler water has to be at a pH of 9 to 10.2 in order to preserve the magnetite layer of steel. This is
done by dosing sodium phosphate in boiler water through HP dosing system. In case there is a
mechanism of concentration of the alkalinity of boiler water anywhere in the evaporative circuit,
caustic gouging / caustic attack occur. This is what happened in the some of the high pressure AFBC
installations that came up in the last year.
A RECALL OF THE PAST
I had come across the first failure in the year 1990 in 30 TPH AFBC boiler. The bed evaporator tubes
failed in 4th compartment within six months after the boiler was commissioned. I happened to analyze
the failure cause at that time. I had seen gross deviations in water chemistry. The alkalinity level was
very high and there was clear indication of free OH presence in boiler water. Since the load on the
boiler was less, the 4th compartment was always kept under shut down. Circulation is a function of
heat flux in the evaporator tube. When the heat input is less the steam generation is less. The velocity
of the water in such tubes is expected to be too low, resulting in film boiling. Film boiling would lead
to concentration of boiler water. The local water alkalinity could reach very high level thus resulting in
break down of magnetite layer. The iron gets dissolved as Fe(OH)2. The failed tubes had a groove
mark as shown in photo 1. The leakage develops through a pin hole in the groove portion where the
material is continuously removed by the caustic action. See the Photo -1.
IN THIS YEAR,
In the recent past 12 months, I came across the same failure in several FBC boilers which were
designed for high pressure. In AFBC Boilers the heat flux is the highest in bed evaporator tubes. It is
in the order of 390 to 400 kW/m2 expressed on tube inside area basis. As the pressure of the boiler
goes to 88 kg/cm2 & above, the circulation ratio comes down. This could be 8 to 10 depending the
circulation system design. The flow through the bed tubes may not be a fully mixed flow. It is a
subject of flow pattern inside tubes, when the steam fraction increases in the boiler tubes.
FLOW PATTERNS
Steam and water have different densities at different pressure. At the critical pressure, the water and
steam have practically the same density. At the lower circulation ratios, the steam and water can exist
in several flow patterns inside the tubes. Flow pattern means distribution of the steam with respect to
water. The important physical parameters which determine the flow pattern are

Surface tension which keep the pipe always wet and which tends to make small water droplets
and less diameter spherical steam bubbles.
Gravity which tends to pull the water to bottom of pipe and push the steam to the top of pipe
specifically in inclined tube.

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There are various patterns of flow that exist inside tubes. The patterns are defined with respect to
orientation of tubes.
FLOW PATTERN IN VERTICALLY ORIENTED TUBE
The common flow patterns for vertical upward flow, which is when the boiler tube is oriented vertical,
are as shown in figure 1. As the quality, that is steam to water ratio increases, the flow patterns change
from bubbly to wispy annular flow. In the boiler the steam / water ratio that is prevailing in the
particular circuit along with the mass flux would have decided the flow pattern inside tube.
Undoubtedly, the flow has to be bubbly flow so that the water / steam flow well mixed inside tube
without any steam blanketing inside the tube. Otherwise the metal temperature would go up resulting
in tube bursts.
Bubbly flow: the steam / water bubbles are uniform in size.
Slug / Plug flow: the steam flows as large bullet shaped bubble. Also the steam bubbles prevail as
small bubbles in water. This flow pattern is also called plug flow.
Churn flow: Highly unstable flow of oscillatory in nature. The water near the tube walls continuously
pulses up and down.
Annular flow: The liquid travels partly as annular film on the walls of the tube and partly as small
drops distributed in the steam which flows in the centre of the tubes.
Wispy- annular flow: As the water flow rate is increased in annular flow, the concentration of drops in
the steam core increases. Ultimately the droplet concentration in the core leads to large lumps or
streaks / wisps of water in the steam core. The flow pattern is the characteristic of high mass flux.
FLOW PATTERN IN HORIZONTALLY ORIENTED TUBE
The phases tend to separate due to density difference causing a form of stratified flow to be very
common. This makes the heavier water phase to accumulate at the bottom of tube. When the tube is
inclined at an angle the pattern the slug / plug flow is common. The common flow patterns in
horizontal tubes are illustrated in figure 2.
Flow patterns vary from that of vertical tubes due to gravitational forces which act perpendicular to the
direction of flow. As the steam fraction increases, the flow pattern changes from Plug to annular flow.
Plug flow: The individual steam bubbles have coalesced to produce long plugs. The steam bubbles
tend to flow along the top of the tube.
Stratified flow: the steam to water interface is smooth.
Wavy flow: the stratified flow may not remain smooth for long as the steam fraction increases, the
flow becomes wavy.
Slug flow: the wave amplitude is so large that the wave touches the top of the tube.
Dispersed bubble flow: many small steam bubbles are distributed uniformly across the entire tube
cross section when the steam and water velocities are high.
Figure 3 is the very well known representation of the steam bubble behavior inside a horizontally
oriented tube. It is the designers job to design the evaporation circuit with proper downcomer and
riser arrangements, evaporator tube arrangements to ensure the nucleate boiling prevails in each part
of the boiling circuit.
WHAT CAN HAPPEN INSIDE THE BED TUBE UNDER VERY LESS HEAT INPUT?
When the velocity inside the tube is less, the steam bubble may rise to the top and form a bubble
adhering to tube wall at 12o clock position. In vertically oriented tube the steam bubble would get in to
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the water phase. As the steam bubble sticks to the top, the water begins to concentrate in alkalinity.
The tubes may not fail due to steam blanketing because the gas side temperature may be low. But
corrosion mechanism begins and results in a gouged tube as seen in photo 2.
WHAT CAN HAPPEN INSIDE BED TUBE UNDER SITUATION OF HIGH HEAT INPUT,
HORIZONTAL / LOW SLOPED ORIENTATION / LESS VELOCITY?
High heat input would help in forming more steam bubbles to facilitate the growth of the bubble. As
the bubble size increases, it would raise to the top of the tube in the absence of sufficient horizontal
velocity or when the tube is horizontal or inclined to very low angle. Now the steam forms a blanket
inside the tube, may be for a moment, before being washed away by water.
SO WHAT IF THE STEAM BLANKETS THE TUBE?
When the blanket is heavy and in the absence of horizontal velocity component, the steam would get
superheated and tube would have failed due to high metal temperature. The failure would have been
instantaneous. This is called dry out and the heat flux is called critical heat flux.
When there is a horizontal velocity component the steam bubbles and water wetting alternately take
place at the top of the tube. This is described as slug flow / intermittent flow. Now we have a
mechanism of local concentration of solids due to evaporative boiling. The water going along the top
of the tubes has a different velocity as compared to the stream of water going along bottom of tubes.
This boiler water sample, upon which the control is based, represents an average of all the water
within the boiler and as such it contains water subjected to both the most severe and the least severe
conditions within the boiler. Hence water chemistry except for presence of corroded iron at drum
internals, does not indicate concentration of solids / chemicals inside the low sloped bed tubes. The
low slope tubes may prevent adequate mixing with the bulk liquid phase and over time, a
concentration gradient will develop between the bulk boiler water and the localized solution in contact
with the magnetite surface. Localized concentrations for some species may be two or more orders of
magnitude higher than in the bulk boiler water (Cohen et al., 1962). Under these conditions, species,
such as NaOH and NaCl, with relatively high solubilities tend to stay in solution, while those of more
limited solubility, such as those incorporating phosphate species, may exceed their solubility limits,
and undergo precipitation. In general wherever the tubes had failed due to gouging, the analysis
indicated phosphate salts.
APPEARANCES OF FAILED BED TUBES
The gouging type failures (as in photo 1) have been seen in at least six installations where the slope of
the bed tube happened to be less than 5 deg. The steam to water fraction happened to be higher and the
overall circulation ratio was estimated as 8-12. Depending upon the water outlet temperature at
economiser, the water inside the bed tubes begin to boil at a distance from the wall. The gouging mark
was seen inside the tube after the steaming point. At one unit where the economiser outlet water
temperature was very less, the gouging was seen in the upper portion of hairpin bed coil.
WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE TO DELAY THE FAILURE?
When it happened, the immediate concern was to how to keep the boiler on line before any remedial
measures could be taken.
1. Operating at lower loads / lower pressure will lead to delayed failure. This is mainly due to the
reason that the steam to water ratio is more at rated load & rated pressure.
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2. Operation of the boiler within narrow range of phosphate offers a time delay against unavoidable
failure.
WHAT IS TO BE DONE TO PREVENT THE FAILURES IN FUTURE?
When it was zeroed down that the angle of slope of the bed coil was the prime cause for failure, the
next question was how to rectify the design defect.
1. To prevent failure the slope of the tube has to be raised. In many cases the increase in angle would
have resulted in less bed HTA. Alternate configurations have to be thought of to avoid lower
slopes. While replacement of bed tubes increased slopes shall be considered. This conclusion was
based on one boiler operating with 10 deg slope at 110 kg/cm2 pressure.
2. The circulation ratio can be improved by adopting better designed downcomer riser layout. We can
not adopt a common downcomer system for two circuits which have different heat flux. This
mistake is seen in some units: the downcomer is common for water walls that were having less
steaming rates. In such circuits there will be poor flow rates. This also reduces the mass flow rate
in bed tubes depending upon how the branching is done.
3. Rifle bore / internally ribbed tubes are to be used to enhance mixing of steam and water. In the
installations where the tubes had already failed this was the only solution. Rifle bore tubes have
spiral ribs which impart swirling motion to steam-water mixture flowing through the tubes. The
mixing of steam & water ensures the constituents of water inside the tube are the same as that of
bulk water. Rifle bore / internally ribbed tubes are being used in once-through boilers. In future for
88 kg/cm2 and beyond, rifle bore tubes are to be used.
A REVIEW OF CAUSTIC GOUGING MECHANISMS
Caustic gouging is a form of corrosion of steel. It generally results from fouled heating surface and the
active corrodent (sodium hydroxide) in the boiler water. Concentrated solutions of alkali occur in
situations where the normal water washing of tube metal is restricted after the steam bubble release.
The concentrations of corrosive solutions occur at the heat transfer surfaces as the result of fouling by
porous deposits such as iron and copper oxides. These deposits are typically formed from particles
suspended in boiler water. Once the corrosive concentration mechanism is started, the additional
corrosion products are generated from porous deposits. Boiling under the deposits is often referred as
Wick boiling. Boiler water permeates the porous deposit by capillary action through small pores like a
liquid permeating a wick. Steam then escapes through the larger pores (channels) leaving non volatile
solutes behind. These new deposits then concentrate beneath deposits.
Feedwater solids concentrate in the boiler relative to blow down rates. Boiler water solids may
concentrate an additional 2000 times at the heat transfer surface as a result of a concentrating film
produced from non boiling equilibrium. The formation of a steam bubble further concentrates boiler
solids. These conditions are most likely reached in the presence of porous deposit.
Once the local caustic concentrations are reached such that caustic attack occurs, the corrosion can
proceed to failure in a very short time. Caustic corrosion is an irregular thinning or gouging of the tube
water side surface. Areas subject to caustic attack typically show smooth round rolling contours
surrounded by encrusted boiler water solids and crystalline dense oxides. The oxides however are not
protective. Particles of metallic copper may also be embedded in the deposit layer.
Failures due to caustic attack are caused by metal loss. The damage progresses to failure when the tube
wall thins to a point where rupture occurs locally. The microstructure does not change and the tube
metal retains ductility.
Caustic attack can also lead to other type of failures. One form is the hydrogen damage which results
from hydrogen liberated in the corrosion process diffusing in to the metal. The hydrogen can then
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react with iron carbides in the metal to produce methane which develops pressure leading to the
formation of inter-crystalline cracks. Stress corrosion cracking can also occur due to hydrogen
diffusion along the grain boundaries.
DETAILED CORROSION MECHANISM
FORMATION OF MAGNETITE LAYER
The control of corrosion in boiler environment is
based on maintaining conditions which enhance
passive film formation. Magnetite, Fe3O4 is the
preferred high temperature iron oxide form. Well
crystallized (unhydrated) magnetite forms a dense
layer resulting in excellent passivation. The
formation of magnetite takes place as shown below.

Fe2+ Ferrous ion

Fe3+ Ferric Ion
FeO Ferrous oxide Iron II oxide
Fe2O3 Ferric oxide Iron III oxide
Fe3O4 Ferrous ferric oxide Iron II, III oxide
FeOH2 Iron II hydroxide
FeO(OH) Iron II oxide hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 Iron III hydroxide

(Reaction -1) Fe + 2H2O <-> Fe +2 + 2OH- + H2

(Reaction -2) Fe+2 + 2OH- <-> Fe (OH)2
(Reaction -3) 3Fe(OH)2 <-> Fe3O4 + 2H2O + H2

It is seen from reaction 2, that the hydroxyl ions are to help in continuous formation of Fe(OH)2 that
is soluble iron II oxide. Fe3O4 forms over the inner surface of tube offering a continuous protection.
On the whole it is a passivation process is basically due to an active surface of Fe being corroded to a
relatively inactive state of Fe3O4.
Under good operating condition, the oxidation of iron to magnetite at the metal surface is slow
because the magnetite forms a fine, tight adherent layer with good protective properties. The film
generally displays good adhesive strength in part because thermal coefficients of liner expansion for
magnetite and layer are very similar. Therefore varying heat load and surface temperature do not cause
undue stress between the film and the underlying metal surface.
DETERIORATION OF MAGNETITE LAYER IN HIGHLY ALKALINE ENVIRONMENT
Magnetite is considered to be a co polymer of the iron (II) hydroxide FeO and iron (III) oxide
Fe2O3. In this system the bonds of divalent iron are more easily hydrolyzed. That is FeO can become
FeO.OH by the following equation. The iron (II) hydroxide system (aqueous) is considered to be in
solution equilibrium with magnetite as follows.
(Reaction -4) - Fe3O4 + 2H2O <-> Fe(OH)2 + 2FeO.OH

The solubility of magnetite layer in highly alkaline atmosphere (OH-) is explained as below. Under
highly alkaline conditions the ferrous hydroxide in solution may react as follows.
(Reaction -5) - Fe(OH)2 + OH- <-> Fe(OH)3 <-> HFeO2 + 2H2O
(Reaction -6) - Fe(OH)2 + 2OH- <-> Fe(OH)4 <-> FeO2-2 + 2H2O
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Caustic attack occurs in this manner through activation of the carbon steel surface by removal of
passive oxide layer inhibiting its formation. These conditions lead to the formation of a velvet black,
finely crystalline, reactive magnetite. It has low adherence and practically no protective effect.
As a result the magnetite layer is dissolved in the form soluble ferrate ions as the equilibrium in
reaction 4 is driven to the right via removal of ferrous oxide. In addition further formation of
magnetite layer is inhibited as the equilibrium in reaction 2 is driven to favor soluble ferrate ion
formation instead of magnetite as illustrated in reaction 3.
The distortion of equilibrium illustrated in reactions 2 and 4 following the reactions 5 and 6 requires
the presence of very high concentration of hydroxyl ions. Concentration of hydroxyl ions can be found
at boiler heating surfaces where normal washing of surfaces by boiler water is restricted due to either
presence of deposits or the development of a film of superheated steam at the surface of tube.
CONCLUSION
To summarize, steam blanketing can also lead to caustic gouging. This occurs when stratification of
the steam water mixture produces high concentration of caustic. Steam blanketing can occur when the
fluid velocity is insufficient to maintain turbulence and produce phase mixing. Steam blanketing can
also occur in low sloped tubes where the heat flux is high.

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Figure 1: flow patterns in vertical oriented tube.

Figure 2. Flow patterns in horizontal tubes.

Figure 3. Boiling phenomenon in horizontal tubes for various steam fraction.

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Photo 1- shows the deposition of chemical at

top portion of bed tube.

Photo 2- shows the material loss at

top portion of bed tube.

Photo 3- shows the internally ribbed

tube / also known as rifle bore tube.

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CHECK LIST FOR BOILER SPECIFICATION

BY
K.K.PARTHIBAN

NESTLER LIMITED, MUMBAI

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INTRODUCTION
The productivity & profitability is undoubtedly related to the proper selection of utility
equipment. Boiler is one such item where care is to be taken while procurement. In this
paper, a checklist for boiler specification is brought out for the use of Boiler buyers.
IMPORTANCE OF BOILER SPECIFICATION
The boiler specification shall be in the written form so that there is no communication gap
between the buyer and the seller. One can take the Boiler enquiry sheet from the vendor in
order to communicate the requirement clearly to the Designers who engineer the boiler for
you. Often it so happens that the requirement is not clearly transmitted to the Designers due
to failure on the procurement process.
The following checklist would help anyone planning to buy a boiler for any purpose. The
paper is, general in nature as it is addressed to both small and medium size boiler buyers.
CHECK LIST FOR BOILER SELECTION
1. 0 Specify why you need the Boiler.
1.1 For plant expansion!

Specify the present plant capacity and the proposed capacity. This helps to
prevent under-sizing of the boiler.

1.2 For the new plant!

Specify the plant capacity. This will enable the boilermaker to offer a right
capacity boiler. Over sizing / under sizing of the boiler can thus be avoided.

1.3 To reduce the operational cost!

To switch over to alternate low cost fuels. One could highlight the reason why
the same could not be done in the existing boiler.
To switch over to less polluting fuels.

1.4 To replace the existing boiler!

To improve the boiler availability. It is worth mentioning the reason for the
poor availability of the existing boiler.
To remove the manual operation in fuel feeding / ash removal / boiler control.
For faster response of the boiler to meet plant need.
The existing boiler is undersized.
The existing boiler is of right capacity, but not generating the rated steam.
This needs to be analyzed as the new boiler could also land into the same
problem for several reasons such as boiler water quality, Undersized chimney
affecting boiler draft conditions, leakages in airheater, worn out fan impellers,
poor fan assembly, poor fuel quality, etc.

1.5 To have a stand by!

To ensure the continuous availability of steam in the event of boiler break

down / maintenance. This calls for incorporating suitable preservation system

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for the boilers. In addition, most of the existing facilities such as feed water
tank, feed pump station, chimney could be made use of. In addition the layout
implications will have to be taken care of. The change over methodology
needs to be thought of.
1.6 To burn the process waste!

Specify the process waste & give a fuel sample. As received fuel sample is
important for selection of fuel handling system, fuel preparation system. At
times the choice of combustion system will be decided by the fuel nature.
Specify the availability of the process waste such as rate of generation, rate
at which it is to be consumed, or the time duration within which the same is to
be consumed.
Specify the generation process, the conveying mode available to the
proposed boiler. Thought should be given to eliminate unnecessary material
handling.
In case fuel gross calorific value & ultimate analysis values are available, the
same could be given to vendors.

1.7 For Cogeneration or captive power generation!

Give the complete process diagram, heat mass balance diagram. This helps
the boiler designer the plan for auxiliary steam consumption such as
deaerator steam, soot blower steam at low pressure after turbine extraction
conditions. This maximizes the efficiency of the plant.
Specify the upset conditions. In Cogeneration system, sometimes the process
steam demand may be nil, but power demand would be there. The boiler
needs to be designed with suitable turn down facility for this.
Specify all possible plant operating conditions.
Discuss start up power availability and mode of change over to TG power.
You may opt for two sets of boiler auxiliaries such as fans. One set of fans
could be connected to EB / DG supply and the other set to TG.
Specify HT voltage as available so that HT motors can be selected for high
HP motors.

2.0 Are the boiler parameters and steam conditions clearly spelt out?
2.1 Boiler capacity

Boiler capacity to include or exclude auxiliary steam consumption. The

auxiliary steam may be required for deaerator, steam turbine drives, soot
blower, Oil preheating steam.
Always specify from & at 100 deg C or nett steam. Enclosed chart gives the
actual steam produced for various feed water temperature conditions. Specify
the feed water temperature in the case of net steam requirement.
In the case superheated steam boiler, specify saturated steam requirement, if
any, to be directly taken from steam drum.

2.2 Boiler pressure

Specify normal operating pressure instead of boiler design pressure. Boiler

design pressure implies the safety valve set pressure.
Specify the pressure required at consumption end too. Long distance
between the plant and boiler house calls for higher boiler operating pressure.

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In case of connection to existing steam lines and feed water lines, the
approved design pressure needs to be spelt out.

2.3 Boiler Outlet steam temperature

Specify the steam temperature conditions at MCR conditions. Consider the

temperature drop due to distance between the consumption point and the
boiler.

2.4 Steam purity conditions.

Specify the steam purity limit as ppm of solids as required due to process
limitations. In case the existing feed water treatment plant is to be made use
of specify the treated water analysis.

3.0 Are the load conditions and the importance of pressure / temperature explained?

Specify the variable loads, minimum loads, sudden loads expected from process
side.
Specify the minimum load at which the rated steam temperature is required.
Specify the temperature tolerance range at MCR conditions.
Specify the minimum temperature at which the steam will be required at the plant
charging / turbine rolling conditions.

4.0 Specify the fuels for Boiler design.

While specifying many fuels, inform the yearlong / seasonal availability.

In case the alternate fuels are not available for meeting 100% steam generation,
Specify the quantity of fuels to be fired on hourly basis along with a base fuel.
Be specific in mentioning fuels. Low GCV fuels & high moisture fuels will result in
over-sizing the boiler.
Specify the fuel size as received so that the fuel handling / preparation / feeding
system could be optimally chosen. As received fuel samples could be given to
vendors to enable them to take note of fuel size and moisture content.
Specify if you desire the vendor to make use of the existing fuel handling system.
Specify the mode by which the fuels will be brought to the fuel yard.
Specify all the fuel firing combinations based on the feasibility.
Restricting fuels to process wastes / agro wastes could get you excise duty
concessions.

5.0 Efficiency factor

Instead of demanding efficiency, specify desired boiler outlet gas temperature,

excess air, unburnt carbon level. At times unburnt carbon in ash could be a factor
for utilization of ash for other purpose.

6.0 Choice of combustion technology

Opt for the right technology based on overall operating cost. The operating cost
could be more in addition to the cost of technology. This is particularly true for
fluidised bed combustion boiler for small capacity application.

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Pollution control could be a major factor for the plant location or the product of the
Industry. Choice of combustion technology should match this.

7.0 Choice of Boiler configuration

Specify if you would desire water tube / shell tube depending on the maintenance
factors. Shell type boilers are not suitable beyond 21 kg/cm2 for safety reasons.
Also capacity puts limitation on the use of shell type boiler due to abnormal size.
Specify the reasons for your wish so that the vendor could remove your
misconceptions.
Give your feedback to vendors regarding your experience on product failure.
It has been experienced that certain agro waste fuels having ash slagging
characteristics demand water tube configurations so that soot blowers could be
used.
Share your views to improve the features of the boiler from maintenance point of
view. Some boiler configurations do make the maintenance very simple but at an
additional cost.

8.0 Choice of pollution control equipment

State local pollution control norms to enable selection of the right type of pollution
control equipment. Specify the location where the plant is coming up.
Understand maintenance aspects associated with type of pollution control
equipment.
In case sound pollution is not acceptable due to adjacent residential houses,
specify silencers for air vents / safety valve.

9.0 Personnel safety, boiler safety and automation

10.0

When the Boiler is required to be operational?

11.0

Boiler water level is the first factor, which plays havoc. The redundancy in the
level switches, additional remote level indicator should be considered.
Furnace pressurization is second important factor. For balanced draft furnaces,
ID fan interlock system and furnace pressure trip switches are worth.
Spell out the control requirements such as Boiler drum level control, furnace draft
control, superheater temperature control, combustion control, and deaerator
pressure control, deaerator level control.
Use of variable speed drive could give you advantage in power saving particularly
on varying load conditions.
Choice of Data acquisition & control system would be a wiser choice, as
troubleshooting is easiest. Past history can be easily obtained eliminating long
man-hours required for data collection & analysis. Erroneous conclusions based
on opinions can be eliminated.
Specify redundancy required in automation too.

Specify the plant commissioning date. Allow pre commissioning period for boiler.
Specify the magnitude of the loss to you in case the boiler would not be
commissioned on the time required by you.

Have you stated your future plans?

Specify if boiler house layout should be designed for sharing common systems
such as fuel, ash, electrical, feed water, and blow down systems.

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12.0

Existing Plant & Boiler house layout

13.0

Specify if you desire if some of the existing boiler auxiliary systems to be made
use of.
Specify the type of water treatment plant in use. Further the water quality and
regeneration frequent and duration are important in taking a decision for a new
water treatment plant.
Specify the Chimney top diameter, height and boiler capacities, which would
share the chimney at the same time.
Specify if HT supply is available for use in high HP drives.

The plant location

15.0

Boiler room layout has to be matching the existing access road conditions. Fuel
bunker & fuel preparation systems have to match the existing locations.
Ash discharge points in the boiler have to be planned matching the ash storage
area.
The fuel & ash conveying systems have to be decided keeping the future plan in
mind. The capacities of equipment have to be adequately sized to avoid future
investment.
Steam outlet point / main steam line has to match the location of existing steam
header / steam consumption points
MCC location and cabling layout shall be suitable to save cost.
Consider future expansion in sizing of boiler house.
Specify north / east direction and firing direction as per vastu sastra. This would
give better working I environment for the boiler operators.
Specify space limitations if any. In existing boiler house, the available space for
moving equipment could also be a limitation. In such a case the boiler needs to
be designed with site assembly work with less shop preassembly.
Furnish layout of other related equipment coming in the boiler house to avoid
congestion & to ensure necessary operating space.

Specify the facilities as available to be made use of for the new boiler

14.0

Specify additional steam requirement in the future. Sometimes a marginal cost

could save time, effort, and money later.

Specify the plant location, as it would be a critical factor in terms of mode of

transport of the boiler. At times there are even limitations in taking heavy
equipment to the boiler site.

Climatic conditions at site

Wind direction to be taken care of designing ash discharge points in the boilers.
This will avoid spending money later on wind shielding to avoid dust nuisance.
Specify wind velocities to be considered for design. Dust collection systems,
chimney, bunker that are installed in open environment need this input for design.
Dust generating equipment such as coal crusher and screen may have to be
strategically located to avoid dust nuisance to the process industry.
Fuel storage yard & ash storage silo may have to be located to avoid nuisance
due to wind.
Extent of rain would affect the design of fuel storage yard. Closed sheds have to
be planned in the case of agro waste and pre-crushed coal storage yard.

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16.0

Plant topography, soil conditions & flood level

17.0

Specify no of copies of Operation & maintenance manuals for Boiler &

accessories.
Specify the list and no of copies of reference drawings for boiler & critical nonpressure parts.
Mention if you would need specifications of sub vendor items for future use.

Specify scope of supply for sub systems

21.0

Boiler parameters and thermal efficiency are the first set of parameters.
Steam temperature at minimum load condition.
Steam quality is critical for condensing turbine application. Type of drum internals
affects the steam quality.
Specify the period of warranty.

Documentation requirement

20.0

Specify raw water quality and seek boilermakers recommendation for the right
choice of treatment method.
Give the raw water samples taken from the available resources under the worst
seasonal conditions during which the water will be impure.
Very high TDS influences the design of boiler to a very great extent. At times the
water might have to be bought from a totally a different source. The disposal of
high TDS effluent could be a bigger problem.

Have you spelt out the guarantees & warranty?

19.0

Boiler house, fuel, ash-handling layout could be favourably used to reduce the
cost of civil work.
Specify present soil level with respect to mean sea level. Further specify the flood
level based on past records. Select finished floor level accordingly. Specify the
limitations for underground hoppers based on the above.
Specify the water table level during rainy season and the limit for underground
hoppers for fuel handling system.
Plant altitude has a major effect in sizing draft equipment.

Water availability & quality has major effect on the type of boiler

18.0

Maximum & minimum ambient temperatures have to be specified for taking care
in selection of electrical equipment.

Specify sampling system, HP /LP chemical dosing system, feed water preheater
system, Deaerator, Blow down tank system, Dust collection system, Cabling &
earthing, Instrument air system, etc

Specify design standards

Specify the requirement of boiler conformance to Indian boiler regulations or any

other codes.
Specify the electrical & Instrumentation standards as applicable to the plant
standard. Explosion proof, intrinsic safety requirements shall be spelt out.

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22.0

Specify statutory requirement

23.0

Specify inspection requirement

24.0

Specify inspection stages for the boiler & accessories that are must before
despatching the items to site for installations.
Specify if you wish to witness any test / trial run of equipment at vendors works. It
is customary to test boiler auxiliaries, which are designed for the first time.

Specify the make of bought out items

25.0

Specify the statutory formalities to be covered by the vendor.

Specify the make of bought out items. One should think of plant level
standardization. Factors to be considered are minimum inventory, Quick service
availability, reliability, and plant personnel experience, past performance history.

Commercial terms

It is needless to say that commercial terms are important.

CONCLUSION
The above checklist will be useful for specifying the boiler before purchase. The same could
be used for technical discussions with boiler vendors so that the boiler would be the one that
meets all your present and future requirements and brings the satisfaction to you. However it
is also important to obtain detailed specifications of boiler pressure parts, non pressure
parts, Boiler auxiliaries, scope of supply, velocity profile, pressure profile, temperature
profile, draft profile, etc from the vendors. A critical evaluation of the product offered by the
vendor is necessary based on the above. It is hoped that this article would contribute for
better selection of boiler in future.

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CIRCULATION FAILURE IN A BOILER

By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
What it is presented here might be a happening in your boiler too! It has been more than 11 years the
problem was not solved by the well known Boiler Company based at Pune. The Client was hesitant in
referring the mystery to me. The client explained that the water level keep vanishing from the boiler
very often. The problem was solved in a single visit. The problem & the solution are presented below.
THE PROBLEM
There are two 8 TPH boilers in this Plant. The boiler no 1 is a three pass shell type oil cum biogas
fired boiler, supplied by a Baroda based company. When the plant capacity was increased, the client
installed another 8 TPH oil cum gas fired boiler from Pune based company. The new boiler is a threepass shell tube boiler with a separate steam drum. The boiler is illustrated in figure no1. There are six
downcomers feeding the water from the steam drum. The steam generated enters the steam drum via
three risers. The boiler Operating pressure is 14 kg/cm2g.
The plant steam load is steady and the two boilers share the load. The burners were provided with
modulation arrangements initially. Presently the firing rate is set manually by the operator. However,
the high-pressure trips are in action. The boiler will restart automatically on low fire. At times the high
pressure tripping and restarting were proper. At times, when the boiler trips on high pressure there
will be low water level occurrence too. The water in the gauge glass vanishes. It has happened more
than 15 times in day. The boiler would not restart immediately, as the low water level interlock does
not permit the restarting. The steam pressure in the plant header would come down to 5 kg/cm2g.
Once the water level is restored in boiler no2, the firing would commence and the header steam
pressure comes back to normal. The plant has been suffering due to low steam pressure for many
years.
The water level vanishing from gauge glass was something unusual. This was not happening in boiler
no1, which is a shell type boiler. The Client had experienced the problem only year later after the
boiler was installed. After which the client had taken up with the supplier, who had struggled nearly
for a year and the problem remained.
THE SOLUTION
First I suspected the NRV of boiler no 2. Client explained they had removed the NRV flap and seen. I
checked the pump capacity. If it were very much oversized, the downcomers would not be getting subcooled water for circulation (due to long idle time of pump). Further, the load was more than 5 TPH
per boiler. The water level vanishing problem started after a year since the boiler was installed. The
change was that the load had gone up. Then I doubted the adequacy of the downcomers and risers. The
circulation calculation proved that the boiler should work even at full load.
During the visit the boiler was in shut down condition and hence I requested the client to open the
steam drum manhole of the boiler no 2. There was no proper internal arrangement for effective
circulation. There is no arrangement to separate downcomers and risers sections. The risers and
downcomers were located very close. The steam mixture exiting from the riser would enter the
downcomers. Thus there will not be any circulation. The water in Bottom shell and in steam drum
would together swell and produce the steam. Due to restriction for cold water to enter the bottom shell,
the steam ratio in the boiler water would be high. The apparent water level would be very high under
normal condition. When the boiler trips on high water level, the heat input is stopped. Hence the boiler
water would shrink and cause low water level.
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I suggested the modifications as in figure 3. Three separate riser boxes were added so that the rising
steam- water mixture would pass through the box. This helps in reducing the resistance faced earlier.
The feedwater distributor is added so that the downcomers gets sub-cooled water. The client carried
out the modifications and then reported the problem is solved.

CONCLUSION
Boilers without proper circulation can lead to tube failures on starvation. This was a case the
starvation was not there, as it was a shell type boiler with a float switch tripping the boiler on low
water level. Clients who have the same type of boiler installed should be experiencing the problem.

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FEED WATER PIPE

DOWNCOMER

FEED WATER PIPE

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FEED WATER PIPE

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CHORLINE INDUCED HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERHEATER CORROSION IN
BIOMASS POWER PLANTS
By K.K.Parthiban, Venus Energy Audit System
Introduction
There are many Biomass based power plants installed in the past 10 years in India for independent
power production and export to grid. There are varieties of biomass being used in these plants.
There are three types of biomass. First is the woody biomass, which covers all tress such juliflora,
eucalyptus, casuarinas, cashew tree and many more forest trees & country trees. Secondly agro
wastes such as rice husk, ground nut shell, bagasse, Coconut shell, coconut fronds, mustard stalk,
mustard husk which are basically rejected material of our grain / food processing. Specifically
grown grasses fall under third category. These biomasses have certain constituents which cause
damage to boiler pressure parts by corrosion mechanism. I happened to study some biomass fired
boilers which have suffered damage due to corrosion mechanism. In this paper the case studies are
presented for readers understanding along with the fundamental mechanism behind this failure.
Case study 1
The 35 TPH, 65 kg/cm2g, 485 deg C traveling grate bi drum boiler was under shut at the time of
visit. The Boiler is for the 7.5 MW power plant meant for export to grid. The boiler was
commissioned in March 2006. The boiler is provided with separate coal firing & biomass feeding
arrangements. The two number mechanical spreaders are for the coal and the three number
pneumatic spreaders are for biomass. The heat duty split is supposed to be for 70% biomass and
30% coal.
The fuels fired include bamboo chips, Julia flora, all types of country wood, Coconut fiber shell,
Coconut trash stem, Ground nut shell, Saw dust, rice husk, bagasse, cashew shell. The boiler is
designed with a secondary superheater without a screen tube protection. The superheater
arrangement of the boiler is shown in figure 1. The plant had been suffering from frequent
superheater failure in the final superheater. The final superheater is arranged in parallel flow to flue
gas.
At the time of site visit, a portion of secondary superheater in the final loop was cut and inspected.
The superheater coils were inspected insitu and found to be coated with lot of ash deposits. The
soot blower had been in service. Yet it did not seem to have helped removal of ash deposits. The
ash deposit when removed the coil revealed the undergoing corrosion. See the photographs 1 to 4
revealing the corrosion of superheater. The failures have been taking place almost every week.
I explained to customer that the chlorine containing fuels damage superheater. The superheater was
not designed for taking care of chlorine effect in biomass fuels.
Case study 2:
The biomass based power plant is of 1 x 25 MW capacity. The boiler parameters are 100 TPH, 106
kg/cm2, 530 deg C. The design feedwater temperature is 175 deg C. The boiler is designed with
sloped fixed grate with steam assisted grate de-ashing system. The boiler is required to accept
varieties of biomass fuels. The fuel list is quite extensive. The boiler had been facing corrosion
failures in final Superheater & erosion failures in economiser. In the previous year the PLF was

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very much affected by the superheater tube failures. The power plant was basically operated on
ground nut shell, saw dust, rice husk, forest wood. At times Coconut fronds were fired when there
was acute fuel shortage.
The failed tubes were available for inspection. The hotter portion of final SH was found corroded.
The cause of corrosion is the use of chlorine based biomass fuels. The combination of sodium,
potassium & chlorine produce accelerated corrosion when the steam temperature exceeds 450 deg
C. This corrosion mechanism is well understood by European biomass boiler designers & users,
whereas, Indian boiler makers are not aware of this. The steam temperature is limited to 450 deg C
in biomass fired units. Moreover the Superheater tubes are to be positioned in low gas temperature
zone. The superheaters are positioned in 3rd pass as per the experience of the Europeans. This
reduces the fouling of sodium / potassium in SH sections. The photographs of corroded tubes can
be seen in annexure.
At time of visit all the final stage superheater coils were under replacement. I advised not to use
chlorine based biomass. This included coconut fronds, coconut shell. I advised to use non chlorine
fuels for 10 days so that the ash condensation on superheater will be only sodium / potassium
sulfates & silicates. Also I advised not to use the soot blower as it will expose the superheater to
fresh chorine containing flue gas.
Case study 3:
The power plant is a 10 MW biomass based power plant commissioned in April 2008. The main
steam parameters are 66 kg/cm2 & 485 deg C. The continuous operation was not possible due to
high generation cost in the first year. During the first year the main fuel was cashew tree. It was
learnt that the plant would have been in operation for about 30 days before the continuous operation
began.
The plant was started for continuous operation from March 2009. Co firing of Indonesian coal & &
varieties of woody biomass including casuarinas tree & eucalyptus was started in March 2009.
There had been two instances of tube leakages from radiant SH at hot ends near the bottom soot
blower after the continuous operation began. Two failures took place on in May 2009.
The failed superheater tubes clearly indicated the corrosion phenomenon due to chlorine containing
fuels. Since this boiler is equipped with coal firing capability I advised for high ash coal firing so
that totally the fly ash gets modified. The photographs of the failed tubes are presented in the
annexure.
The phenomenon of chlorine corrosion
During combustion of biomass or any other fuel, the chlorine, sulfur together with alkali metals
such as Sodium & potassium are released as vapors in flue gas. The chlorine levels in fuels can be
seen in table 1. When they pass over convection tubes, the vapors are condensed as submicron
particles. Then over the condensed particles further deposition take place. As the thickness of
deposits grows, the deposits indicate that they are in molten form at zone where the gas temperature
is above 700 deg C. When the boiler is shut & inspected, we do see ash flowing like a liquid at high
temperature area. It looks like lumpy deposits further down. At economiser we may find fine dust
sticking to tubes. This is well presented by Bryers in a figure shown in annexure.
Table 1: Average Chlorine Content in various Fuels (% Dry Mass basis)

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Wood
Bark
Straw
Refuse Dump Gas
Textiles
Newspaper
Sewage Sludge
PVC

0.08-0.13
0.02-0.4
0.1-1.5
0.005
0.25
0.11
0.03-1
50

Municipal Waste
RDF
Packages
Car Tyres
Auto Shredder Dust
Computer Parts
Plastic Waste
Medical Waste

0.05-0.25
0.3-0.8
1-4
0.05-0.07
0.5-2
0.1-0.5
3.5
1-4

The condensation of alkalis has been proven at lab scale studies & field studies. The finer particles
contain more potassium, sulfur and chlorine while refractory elements such as silica & alumina
dominate in larger size particles. Chlorine and alkalis (sodium & potassium) causes corrosion either
by molecular chlorine (Cl2), Hydrogen chloride (HCl) or by alkali chlorides (NaCl, KCl).

Corrosion by HCl is limited to furnace where reducing conditions (sub-stochiometric) prevail.

This can happen at furnace tubes only.
Corrosion due to Cl2 does not occur in SH area as the concentration is not high.
Alkali chlorides however lead to a concentration mechanism of chloride at high temperature SH
area. This is explained in figure 3. The molten state of alkali chlorides makes thing worse. All
the chemical reactions now take place much faster.

Take a look at the above figure to know what happens at the Superheater?
At the flue gas layer
We have O2, KCl, SO2, in gaseous form as generated from the furnace. The Cl2 gas can combine
with H2O in flue gas and make HCl in gas form. This can condense in low temperature area such as
APH & Stack.

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At the Ash deposit layer
We have NaCl (S) & KCl (S) in the solid form reacting with SO2 (g) and releasing Chlorine gas.
NaCl & KCl are in molten form at Superheater. The deposit which has condensed first on the tube
may be in the solidified form. But subsequent deposits will be in liquid form as it is not cooled by
the superheater. KCl melting temperature is 770 deg C and NaCl melting temperature is 801 deg C.
The sulfation reaction leaves free chlorine available in the ash layer.
At the corrosion front
The chlorine at the molten layer & gases layer react with Fe in steel. This happens when the metal
temperature is higher than 450 deg C. That is in the superheater where the metal temperature is
high, the FeCl2 is formed. The melting temperatures of some salts would be lower than gas
temperature. At the corrosion front the binary mixtures of KCl FeCl2 and NaCl-FeCl2. Systems
have low temperature eutectics in the range of 340 390 deg C. That is, the local liquid phases can
form within the deposits and react with metal oxides.
At the scale layer
The FeCl2 which is released from parent metal is oxidized to Fe3O4 & Fe2O3 and release chlorine
again. This is oxidation phenomenon which keeps releasing the chlorine again. Again the Cl2 gas
concentration leads to parent metal removal. The cycle of FeCl2 formation & chlorine liberation
continue until the parent metal develops a puncture. This is termed as memory effect by experts.
That is the reason the metal which is peeled of is loose since it has layers of Fe2O3, Fe3O4 and FeCl2.
APPROACHES TO SOLVE CHLORINE CORROSION
Prevention by design
To handle chlorine containing fuels, the superheater should be arranged where the NaCl & KCl
becomes a solid form. This happens where the flue gas temperature reaches 650 deg C. Municipal
waste fired boilers are designed in this way. They are known as tail end Superheater. One such
boiler is already in operation in India with Municipal waste firing.
Co firing with high ash coal
Firing high ash coal along with biomass will help to modify the ash chemistry. When the ash begins
to condense, the acidic ash particles (SiO2, Al2O3 particles) work as nuclei. This avoids the
deposition of KCl & NaCl over the tubes. Further the acidic ash particles perform the cleaning
action on KCl & NaCl deposits thus preventing the buildup. This action can not be done even by
the soot blower.
Reducing the proportion of sodium / potassium content in ash by fly ash addition
The biomass fuels typically contain large amount of sodium & potassium. With mixing of fuels that
contain silica / alumina we can control the ash fusion / slagging / fouling temperature of the ash. In
microscopic levels not all constituents of ash melt at the same temperature. It is the low melting
temperature ash constituents melt first & trap the other part. If the proportion of silica & alumina
part is raised, we can control the overall slagging/ fouling pattern. The same phenomenon occurs in
coal biomass co-fired FBC boilers. Indian coals provide this advantage unlike low ash coals. In co

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firing the ash composition gets modified. This ash constituent modification can be varied by
injecting coal based power plant fly ash along with biomass fuel. There may be a possibility of the
reducing the fouling nature of ash in the final SH section.
Coal ash of Indian coal from power plant would have high silica & alumina & the ash fusion
temperature is +1200 deg C. As biomass contains less ash, the ash chemistry modification would be
easier with as low as 10% ash by weight to present fuel. The fly ash injection process must be
commenced immediately after the replacement of new SH coils. After 6 months we need to assess
the corrosion damage. The ash modification may prevent / reduce the formation of KCl & NaCl
which is the main factor for Chlorine corrosion. Adding fine sand also should help to modify the
ash deposit content.
Fouling by purely sodium based biomass
As the coils are replaced new, do not commence the use of chlorine based fuels immediately. WE
can allow deposits on the SH tubes with purely Sodium based ash for few days. Fuels such as
coffee husk & GN shell would help to foul the SH tubes with sodium based foulants. Sodium
silicates will be the first deposits content in that case. Rice husk mix will also help in building ash
layer that is free of Later we may start using the combination of fuels with Chlorine containing
fuels. The soot blower in final SH area must not be operated. The chlorine corrosion is more when
its partial pressure is more than the oxygen at the base metal, i.e., Fe. If we build up the non
chlorine ash layer then the chlorine may not be able to diffuse easily in to the oxidized iron.
Protection by metal spray / metal bond coating
The covering the SH coils by nickel may increase the life of the coils as the iron is totally cut off
from the chlorine contact. There are boiler companies who had tried the co-extruded tubes.
Use of alloy steel of superior metallurgy
A published literature says that the alloy AC66 is proven to be better for high metal temperature
such as 650 deg C. Major tube manufacturers such as Mannessman / Wolvorine / Studsvik AB
seemed to have austenitic stainless steels to of use in this corrosive atmosphere.
Use of fire side additive
Sulfur in fuel / flue gas is known to reduce the effect of chlorine corrosion. This was tried out in a
plant at Barnala for tackling corrosion due to usage of cotton stalk. A separately sulfur feed system
was incorporated. When the sulfur to chlorine molar ratio is maintained in excess of 4, the KCl &
NaCl formation does not take place. The sulfates are formed as the sodium and potassium are
released as vapor phase in the furnace. Chlorout is an additive developed for low chlorine fuels.
Chlorine removal at before use
Some reports are informing that leeching with hot water may bring down the chlorine content in the
input fuel. This can help to reduce the problem to some extent. This needs to be established by
conducting an experiment. This involves the treatment of samples of sized fuels in hot water of
temperatures 50-90 deg C for different durations say from 1 minute to 5 minutes. We need to send
these samples to laboratory for residual chlorine analysis. Depending on the extent & effectiveness
of dechlorination, we can think of automation & reuse of water with suitable treatment.

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European experience
Straw is a main fuel in Denmark. Straw fired plants are operational since 1989. Straw contains a
maximum of 1.1% chlorine, 2.5% of Potassium, 0.2% of Sodium. Even this small percentage of
chlorine has led to corrosion of superheater when steam temperature is more than 450 deg C. Here
superheaters are excessively surfaced and is provided in platen form. Soot blowing is not done so
that the ash layer builds to a level of melting point. The ash layers are never disturbed. The
superheater material is chosen as TP 347. Air preheaters are designed with steam coil preheater
arrangement to avoid plugging & corrosion. In addition the APH tubes are enameled to have
additional corrosion protection.
Lesson learnt
Cofiring of biomass with coal is an ideal way to make use of biomass that is available near the plant
location. Addition of fly ash from coal fired boiler or fine sand addition can also modify the
behaviour of deposition and modify Boiler designers should review the location of superheater to
avoid corrosion problems.
References:
1- The use of straw as energy source www.dongenergy.dk
2- Corrosion in fire tube boilers of biomass combustion plants by Mr.Rudolf Riedel

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ANNEXURE

Case study 1 : Photo 1- The Superheater coils distorted due to spacer / support clamp corrosion
failure.

Case study 1: Photo 2- Ash deposition over secondary Superheater. Tube showing corrosion
when the ash is removed.

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Case study 1: Photo 3- a portion of secondary superheater was cut & cleaned. The tube revealed
under deposit external corrosion. There is no sign of overheating. However loose iron oxide was
seen inside the tubes.

Case study 1: Photo 4- Ash deposition seen in primary Superheater. Since the DESH outlet
temperature is 285 deg C, the steam temperature at last stage of primary superheater must be
higher and thus attracting ash deposits.

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Case study 2: Figure-1: Superheater arrangement showing the counter flow primary SH &
parallel flow secondary superheater.

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Case study 2: figure 1- The final SH is located after the stage 2 superheater. The primary SH is
located in the gas duct above APH. A boiler bank is available after the Final superheater. The
boiler parameters are 100 TPH, 106 kg/cm2 & 530 deg C.

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Case study 2: Photo-5: The corroded final SH coils removed from the boiler. The corrosion
occurs due to action of KCl, NaCl at the high temperature zone where chlorine is able to deplete
Cr as well as Fe.

Case study 2: Photo - 6: Corroded final superheater coils along with new coils at the rear.

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Case study 3: Photo 1- Pealed of metal exhibiting

yellow, green and blue is appearance similar to
what was experienced at other biomass power
plant.

Case study 4: Photo 2- Tube bearing, rough

and graters after the deposit is removed. It is
typical of chlorine corrosion taking place
under the deposit.

Case study 4: Photo -4: All Super Heater tube

Case study 3: Photo- 3: Tube bearing, rough and length removed from boiler showing the
graters after the deposit is removed. It is typical corrosion of the tubes. The first leakage had
of chlorine corrosion taking place under the occurred near soot blower area.
deposit.

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Figure 2: Volatilization of alkalis & deposition on convective surfaces proposed by Bryers.

Case study 4- photo 1: deposition in a boiler fired with empty fruit bunches of palm fruits.
This fuel contains more sodium and no chlorine. The superheater & economiser are coated
with ash but corrosion failure was not reported.

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CONDENSATE AND ITS UTILIZATION

By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

STEAM AT WORK
Heat always from a higher temperature level to lower temperature level. Starting from the combustion
temperature, heat flows thro the boiler tubes to the water. When the higher boiler pressure pushes the
steam out of the boiler into the distribution system, the steam will be at a higher temperature than the
surrounding air. Hence heat flows from the steam thro the walls of pipe to the air causing some steam
to condense. When the steam reaches the heat exchanger where it is intended to heat some other
medium, the steam returns to return to water form.
WHY CONDENSATE DRAINAGE IS NECESSARY?

Hot steam in contact with condensate may produce water hammer, which is annoying and can
shorten the life of the pipes, tubes and pipe fittings. It is essential to remove the condensate as
heavy dew before it turns into dangerous slug.
Condensate in heat transfer equipment takes up space and thus reducing heat transfer area. This
reduces the performance of the heat exchanger. It must be promptly cleared from the system so
that the heat exchanger is kept full of steam.
Air is always present in inside the steam equipment during start up and comes into the system thro
the feed water too. In addition the feed water may also contain carbonates that dissolve and release
carbon di oxide gas. Air and carbon di oxide must also be removed from the system. Carbon di
oxide forms carbonic acid with condensate and leads to corrosion. Air insulates the heat exchanger
coils thus affecting the heat transfer process.

WHAT A TRAP MUST DO?

The trap must get the air, CO2 and condensate out of the system as fast as they accumulate. In addition
to the trap must also provide

Minimum steam loss while removing the condensate, air and CO2.
Long life against wear.
Working parts must withstand Corrosion due to condensate.
Capable of venting air during start up too.
Capable of venting CO2 at the operating steam temperature.
Must be able to operate against back pressure.
Freedom from dirt and scale problems.

HOW TO ENSURE THE TRAP WORKS EFFECTIVELY?

Make sure the trap is installed properly at the recommended orientation. It is often seen that the
traps are installed in the wrong orientation.
Install correct size of the trap. Many times lower size trap is installed without checking with the
capacity charts of the manufacturer.
Traps need periodical checking. In many installations it is noticed that there is no provision to
check the trap functioning. Failed traps simply drain the steam from the heat exchanger thus
leading to heat wastage. A recommended arrangement is shown in figure 1.
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Traps must be located close to the condensing system. Traps located away from the cheat transfer
equipment do not drain condensate effectively. They open only when the condensate is formed
from the trapped steam in the piping, but not from the heat transfer equipment. See figure 2.
Trap must be installed with suitable collection pots as otherwise the condensate may be pushed
into the system itself instead of draining thro the trap. See figure 3.
Do not provide common trap for two heat transfer equipment. This would lead to short-circuiting.
This would lead to accumulation of condensate in the low-pressure heat transfer equipment. See
figure 4
Provide dirt traps / drain legs in layout to avoid nuisance to the functioning of the traps. See figure
5.

WHAT TO DO WITH CONDENSATE?

Condensate should be utilized in all possible ways as it contains large quantity of heat. A good
concept is to generate flash steam and use further at low-pressure heat transfer equipment. At the end
the condensate must be returned to the boiler house for mixing with feed water. This would give the
plant an overall economy.
WHAT IS FLASH STEAM?
When hot condensate / boiler water is released to a lower pressure part of it is evaporated becoming
what is termed as flash steam. For every pressure there is corresponding boiling temperature and the
water contains fixed amount of heat. Higher the pressure higher the heat content. If the pressure is
reduced, heat content is reduced and the water temperature falls to lower boiling temperature. This
means certain amount of excess heat is available due to the difference in the heat content of water
between the two pressures. This excess heat leads to evaporation of a portion of the water by adding
necessary heat for boiling. This process is called flashing.
HOW TO ESTIMATE THE QUANTITY OF STEAM PRODUCED BY FLASHING?
Flash steam produced is calculated as per the following formula
% Flash steam = (Hp1 Hp2) / Lp2
Where,
Hp1 - enthalpy / heat content of saturated water at operating pressure before the trap.
Hp2 - enthalpy / heat content of saturate water at operating pressure after the trap.
Lp2 - latent heat of evaporation at operating pressure after the trap.
WHERE CAN WE INSTALL FLASH VESSEL IN OUR PLANT?
1. In boilers where the feed water TDS is high, the boiler blow down will be also high in order the
limit the boiler water TDS. In such cases the flash vessel can be installed to recover steam and
preheat the feed water to the boiler.
2. In case of heat transfer equipment functioning at different pressures flash steam recovered from
high pressure heat exchanger can be let into low pressure heat exchanger.
3. In case where direct injection of steam is used at low pressure the flash vessel steam can be used.
CASE STUDY
In a solvent extraction plant we were invited to modify their boiler for generating more steam as the
steam was found to be inadequate for the process. It was found that the fuel consumption was such as
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higher compared to the standard norms. We suspected the functioning of the traps. There was group
trapping and closed trap drainage system in the plant. First the trap drainage system was modified to
facilitate periodical checking and efficient condensate removal. We observed that there was good
potential to generate flash steam and use in for direct steam injection points at bran preparatory
section, toaster and CBDT vessel. We were also interested in avoiding condensate pump for pumping
the condensate to the boiler house. Hence we choose to operate the flash vessel at pressure suitable for
pumping the condensate. A sparger type Dip pipe system was also installed in the feed water tank to
ensure that the condensate does not flash at feed water tank.

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CONSIDERATIONS IN CHANGING OVER FROM OIL FIRED BOILERS

TO SOLID FUEL FIRED BOILERS FOR SMALL BOILER USERS
INTRODUCTION
Small industrial boilers are extensively used in textile processing, pharmaceutical and food
processing Industries. In general these industries have been very specific on using pollution free
boilers so that the end products are within the international quality requirements. Competition from
Industries and the rising cost of oil have started pinching the industries. Some industries who had
worked out the payback on switching over to locally available solid fuels were astonished by the
payback of solid fuel fired boilers. This article is written to assure the industries that there is no
compromise on solid fuel firing. The various aspects to be addressed on selection of boiler are
presented here. A case study of an Industry who successfully switched over is presented here.
FURNACE OIL FIRED BOILERS
FO fired boilers are generally a three pass boilers for application up to 16 TPH and 21 kg/cm2g
operating pressure. The boilers are very compact and occupy very less floor space. Beyond 16
TPH, due to large furnace diameter requirement, D type water tube boilers are designed.
The response of the boiler is excellent when it comes to meeting very wide load fluctuations. With
modulating control oil burners the best response is possible. The large HTA with small water
volume makes the boiler to respond to sudden demand. The burner copes up with the required
firing rate. The boiler runs unattended. The plant is clean as long as there is burner operates soot
free.
Furnace oil fired boiler may be provided economizer with suitable deaerator and drum coil
preheater or by high pressure deaerator. The feed water temperature at economizer inlet should be
above 126 deg C to avoid problems due to acid condensation over the water cooled tubes. In small
capacity boilers, economizers are not provided due to high initial investments on account of
deaerator and its control system. Airpreheater can not be used for the same reason of acid
condensation. The furnace oil fired boilers are prone for chimney corrosion if proper care is not
taken.
SOLID FUEL FIRED BOILERS.
Solid fuel fired boilers are packaged shell type boiler with integral furnace up to 5 TPH capacity.
Up to 3 TPH single furnace is provided. Twin furnaces are used beyond 3 TPH. The furnaces are
hand fired and the grate for firing is a fixed type. Beyond 5 TPH capacity the large furnace sizes
requirement leads to water wall cum shell type design. It is also possible to have a totally water
wall design. Up to 8 TPH boiler capacity it has been observed that manual firing is possible.
Beyond this, it is a must to go in for traveling grate furnaces due to difficulty in fuel feeding. The
fuel has to be properly sized for automated fuel feed equipment. Wood chippers are used to reduce
the wood logs to a size of 25 mm and below. For automated coal feeding chain grate stokers are
used. These grates are also fitted in shell type boilers. (See picture above)
The fuels used for solid fuel fired boilers can be Coal, firewood, any other process waste such as
plywood waste, wood shavings, saw dust.
RATE OF COMBUSTION WITH OIL/COAL/WOOD
Oil burners respond to demand immediately. This is due to the fine oil droplets by the burner
nozzle and the turbulent air mixing at the burner tip and within the flame zone. A solid fuel can also
be made to micron particle and the combustion can be made as rapid as furnace oil. In fact this is
done in the pulverized fuel fired boilers. The coal is made as powder to a size of 76 micron and
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burnt like burner. It is cost prohibitive to prepare a solid fuel to such micron particle for use in
small boiler. Next in order of response we have fluidized bed combustors. The response is fairly
good and it has been found possible with coal the response is as good as oil. With a fluidized bed
pollution is major issue. Cost effective solutions are yet to come for small boilers. Hand fired wood
fired / coal fired boilers are known for less pollution. But when we use a wood log in a furnace the
burning rate is slow for the reason that the oxygen has to diffuse through the wood / coal particles
and react with the fuel to complete the process of heat liberation. This inherently results in poor
response.
Question is how to overcome this. Most of the food processing industries require a steady steam
pressure & temperature. How can this be done is the question?
This can be done in a systematic way as below.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

Quantify the steady state steam consumption in various steam consuming ends.
Decide the lowest pressure required for the process at various consuming ends.
Find out the steam requirements for cold start of each section.
Find out the various combinations of steady state demand and initial start up steam
consumption. The peak demand expected from the boiler is known. The steam piping itself is
to be sized for this purpose.
Apply a factor for the slow response from the boiler and decide the steam generation of the
boiler.
When the drawl of steam is sudden, the pressure is bound to drop. There should be a PRV to
regulate the steam pressure downstream of the boiler at the plant end. When the sudden
demand is required, the boiler pressure would come down. This leads to flashing of steam. The
water hold up of the boiler should be available to produce the needed steam quantity.

There are four different types of plants

A.
B.
C.
D.

One consumer steady load

One consumer unsteady load
Several consumer steady load
Several consumer variable load

CASE A & C
It is simpler. The boiler has to be sized to 1.2 times the steady state requirement. This is required to
meet the time lag between fuel charging and the heat release in the furnace.
CASE B &D
The boiler has to be sized to 1.2 times the peak demand required. In addition the water hold up that
is available between normal water level and low level should be sufficient to meet the sudden steam
drawal. The boiler pressure has to be higher and a PRV will be required at consumer end so that the
pressure is regulated. The boiler responds to varying demand by flashing principle.
FLASHING OF STEAM IN BOILERS
When the pressure in the boiler comes down from a higher pressure to a lower pressure, part of the
boiler water instantaneously evaporates to produce additional steam, termed as flash steam. For
every pressure there is corresponding boiling temperature and the water contains fixed amount of
heat. Higher the pressure, higher will be the heat content. If the pressure is reduced, heat content is
reduced and the water temperature falls to lower boiling temperature. This means certain amount of
excess heat is available due to the difference in the heat content of water between the two pressures.
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This excess heat leads to evaporation of a portion of the water by adding necessary heat for boiling.
This process is called flashing.
Flash steam produced is calculated as per the following formula
% Flash steam = (Hp1 Hp2) / Lp2
Where,
Hp1 Hp2 Lp2 -

Enthalpy/heat content of saturated water at operating pressure before the trap

Enthalpy/heat content of saturate water at operating pressure after the trap
Latent heat of evaporation at operating pressure after the trap

Thus amount of flash steam produced is part of the water hold up in boiler. Higher the water hold
up, more will be the benefit. When the flashing occurs it should not result in low water level of the
boiler. Thus depending on amount of steam required, the water hold up from NWL (normal water
level) to LWL (low water level) must be provided.
For very high steam demand one has to choose external steam accumulators. Steam accumulators
are designed based on the same principle where in the energy is stored in the form of hot water. The
water flashes and gives steam as the pressure is dropped. See the scheme external steam
accumulator below.
In a boiler, the steam space does not decide the additional capacity to offer steam. However amount
of steam space will decide partly on the purity of steam.
EMISSION FROM SOLID FUEL FIRED BOILERS
The wood is low ash fuel and hence the total ash removal is very less. The dust emission would be
there when the fire is kindled. For this purpose, a mechanical dust collector / simple cyclone is a
must. In addition the wet ash trap should be planned for stringent dust control. A rotary feeder is a
must below the dust collector, as otherwise the leakage of air through the feeder would lead to
pollution.
CASE STUDY
M/S SKM egg products is an exporter of egg products. The customer desired to switch over to
wood firing so that the operational cost could be brought down. At present the oil fired boiler was
very close to plant.
1. The new boiler was located away from plant. The distance was 470 meters. The location was
chosen by the customer as per vastu consideration. Moreover the customer did not want to take
a chance on the dust pollution. The boiler was purposely kept away so that the dust due to wind
would not enter to the building from air in takes.
2. There were number of steam consumption sections. The sudden drawal of steam was present in
this plant, when a section starts from cold. The boiler what the customer had was with a twin
drum design. In the case of elevated drum additional water hold up was available. Hence it was
decided to keep the same water hold up in new boiler.
3. The operating pressure of the oil fired boiler was 14 kg/cm2g. The new boiler pressure was
raised to 19 kg/cm2g. A PRV was envisaged at the present Main steam header. It was decided
that the boiler pressure would swing down from 19 kg/cm2g to 14 kg/cm2g and in the process
3% flashing was expected. This additional steam would be instantaneously available to process

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4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.

without dropping the pressure in the operating sections. This was essential to avoid the pressure
drop in operating sections. Otherwise the product under process goes for rejection.
The new boiler was chosen with airpreheater so that the best efficiency is achieved.
The pipe line sizing as done to take care of peak steam requirement. This was calculated back
from the present peak oil consumption. This was basically related to present nozzle discharge
capacity of the burner.
The main steam valve was selected for peak steam capacity.
The pipe line being long pipe section insulation was advised to reduce the heat loss and the long
life required.
Customer wanted to have a hot stand by of the present oil fired boiler, for some time till the
switching over is smooth. For this purpose the burner oil nozzle capacity was reduced.
After the initial commissioning period, the oil fired boiler must be put into proper dry or wet
preservation. The Scheme for preservation of the boiler was finalized and required piping was
added. It was planned to keep the hot water under recirculation through the boiler and return to
condensate cum feed water tank. Since the feed water is the boiler would be kept warm, it will
ensure the boiler gas side also will be protected against atmospheric corrosion.

The plant layout and boiler features are illustrated in attached drawings. The photographs show the
new boiler in operation.
CONCLUSION:
Switching over from furnace oil firing to solid fuel firing can not be taken easy. Going for same
HTA in the manual fired solid fuel fired boiler may prove a blunder. A steam consumption survey
is to be done. Choice of external accumulator shall be reviewed in case of sudden load swings.
Modern boilers have must less HTA to water hold up as compared to old boilers.

By K.K.Parthiban
Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID: parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
Mobile: 098431 13111

FIGURE 1

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FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3

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PHOTO 1: EXISTING OIL FIRED BOILER

PHOTO 2: NEW WOOD FIRED BOILER

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PHOTO 3: PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING THE BOILER FURNACE, SHELL & STEAM DRUM

PHOTO 4:PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING THE WET BOTTOM DUST TRAP

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DESIGN OF FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION BOILERS FOR

MULTIFUELS
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
To be competitive in the market, the cost of production of a product has to be less. For many
products, steam / power cost is the major factor. Many Industries have realized this, and have gone
ahead with Multi fuel fired boilers, Multi fuel fired co generation plants & captive generation
plants. Today, no single buyer thinks about single fuel for the boiler. In this article, the factors and
their effects, which affect the boiler design, have been brought out for the understanding of the
Boiler users.
BASIS FOR SELECTION OF FUELS
The selection of fuels is to be based on the following factors. It is necessary to analyze the long
range availability & economics of the fuels.

Source
Year long availability
Transportation cost
Handling cost at plant
Fuel preparation cost
Wastage / deterioration cost
Initial cost of boiler
Fuel handling system cost

Pollution control equipment cost

Ash handling system investment
Ash disposal cost / difficulties
Government regulations
Fuel storage space requirement
Cost of stocking
Boiler maintenance cost
Fuel price escalation

PARAMETERS WHICH AFFECT THE DESIGN OF BOILER

FUEL HEAT DUTY
The boiler design is based on the design fuel for which the design will be optimum. It is usually
the inferior fuel. The inferior fuel is the one that calls for more fuel consumption. The flue gas
produced will be more for the inferior fuel.
Depending on the location the main fuel chosen is coal / lignite / rice husk / De oiled bran /
Bagasse. At times furnace oil / Natural gas are also being specified for 100 % boiler duty. The
fuels that are specified for co firing are usually Bagasse pith, Rice husk, Biogas, Sawdust,
Wood chips, Coffee husk. Co firing has an advantage that the fuel quantity as received is fired
directly with the support of main supporting fuel. Many times 60 % of heat input may be
substituted by the auxiliary fuel. Twin furnaces that may be required for certain combinations
can be avoided, thus bringing down the initial investment cost.
Table 1 gives the ultimate analysis of fuel & GCV of varieties of fossil & agro waste fuels.
Table 2 summarizes the air requirement, flue gas produced, and flue gas composition on the
basis of One million kcal/hr useful heat output.

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TABLE 1: Gross calorific value & Ultimate analysis of fuels C-carbon, H-hydrogen,
N-Nitrogen, S- Sulfur , M-Moisture, A- ash, O-Oxygen, in % by wt
Fuel

GCV
Kcal/kg
3800

Coal (typical)
Rice husk ( dry &
3275
fresh)
Rice straw
2660

39.9

2.48

0.67

0.38

8.0

42.0

6.76

36.67

4.51

1.25

0.18

9.44

15.01

32.88

36.0

5.0

0.5

15.75

4.75

38

Bagasse

2272

23.5

3.2

50.0

1.3

22.0

Neyveli Lignite

2800

32.0

2.8

0.7

52.0

2.5

10

Kutch lignite

3800

38

2.8

0.5

36

10

10.7

Groundnut shell

4130

47.68

42.9

0.51

0.42

10.12

2.4

34.58

Rap seed Bagda

3350

34.55

4.22

6.12

8.63

46.48

Deoiled bran

3258

34.35

4.89

0.38

8.98

21.42

29.98

Bamboo dust

4235

44.31

4.21

0.77

9.86

6.47

34.38

Tea spent

4010

41.55

3.69

11.8

2.7

40.19

Coffee spent

1172

14.01

1.9

0.15

0.17

74.8

0.4

8.46

Chicken droppings
2102
Coffee
husk
4199
(parchment)
Coffee husk (Cherry)
3726

21.25

1.95

0.62

0.41

5.5

42.6

27.58

44.11

2.89

0.11

7.8

0.8

44.29

39.18

2.71

0.13

11.1

5.0

41.88

Coconut fibre

3838

41.34

4.24

0.21

0.11

11.9

3.1

39.04

Leco

6900

72.5

0.2

0.9

6.07

12.0

6.5

Bagasse pith

4000

41.08

5.21

0.34

0.09

10.19

6.81

36.28

Castor seed cake

4250

46.35

5.18

5.1

0.11

9.7

5.5

28.01

Saw dust

3396

36.92

4.59

0.11

18.22

7.26

32.9

Wood shaving

4278

47.2

5.02

0.1

10.6

0.38

36.6

Mezda

3760

42.26

5.19

0.22

10.49

3.05

38.79

Coffee ground

5009

49.56

5.92

2.62

2.6

2.09

36.61

Char

4109

43.08

0.79

0.63

0.41

5.66

41.44

7.99

Dolo char

4753

49.13

0.88

0.71

0.47

3.77

35.99

9.05

Charcoal

6300

93

2.5

1.5

3.0

**The values in the tables are based on the analytical reports of samples actually tested.
Discrepancies may be encountered, as these values are not based on average values of several
samples.
Table 3 may be used for specifying the fuels to be fired. The fuel samples need to be analyzed for
fuel chemical composition, ash chemical composition & ash fusion temperature.

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Table 3. Fuel Specification & firing combinations
Specification of Solid fuels / Liquid fuels

GCV
kcal/k
g

Fuel
availabil
ity
K
g
All
/
day
yes/ d
a
No
y

GCV
kcal/
m3

Fuel
availabil
ity
K
g
All
/
day
yes/ d
a
No
y

Ultimate analysis by weight

Fuels
C

Ash

Mois
t

A
B
C
D
E
F
Specification of Gaseous fuels
Ultimate analysis by volume

Fuels
CH
4

CnH
N
m
2

O2

CO

CO
2

H2
O

H2
S

G
H
Fuel firing combination in % heat duty wise
Fuel A

Fuel B

Fuel C

Fuel D

Fuel E

Fuel F

Fuel G

Fuel
H

Combination
1
Combination
2
Combination
3
FUEL TYPE FIBROUS / NON-FIBROUS / LIQUID / GASEOUS
Fossil fuels such as coal, lignite are prepared, stored in bunkers and fired in the boiler. The
materials that have good flow properties are stored & fired. Fibrous materials such as Bagasse,
Bagasse pith, bamboo dust, coconut fiber, wood shavings are directly fired without any
intermediate storage system. Though fibrous, groundnut shell can be fired indirectly with
properly designed storage bunkers. Improper bunker design leads to severe flow problems with
groundnut shell. Rice husk, deoiled bran, coffee husk are stored in bunker and fired in FBC
boilers. The size of the fuel is so uniform that flow problems are not encountered.
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The FBC boilers are designed with under bed feeding system / over bed feeding system or with
both the systems depending upon the fuel combinations & flexibility desired. In the case of
multi fuels, it is possible to have metering of all fuels. Or only the main fuel can be metered and
the other fuels may be designed for direct firing. See figure 1 & 2 showing the fuel feed
arrangements. The table 4 compares the merits and demerits of underbed & over bed feeding
systems.
Table 4 : General comparison between underbed & over bed feeding system- fluidized bed
combustion boilers
UNDERBED FEEDING SYSTEM

OVERBED FEEDING SYSTEM

Preferred For Agro fuels such as Rice husk,

Preferred for powdery fuels such as Coal,
Groundnut shell, Bagasse, Wood chips, Saw
Lignite
dust.
Suited for fines. As the combustion will be Leads to Unstable combustion if the fines
stable even if the fines are more than 40 %.
are more.
Start up with fines is not difficult.

Start up with fines is difficult, as the bed

would not catch fire.

Needs minimum two months for operator

Needs less time as compared to underbed.
training.
Compartmentalization to more than two
More compartmentalization is easier & practical
compartments complicates the layout of
to suit load turn down requirement.
fuel handling system.
Power consumption is less, as PA fan is not
Power consumption is more due to PA fan.
required.
Unburnt in the ash is less. Where less unburnt is
Unburnt is a function of fines in the fuel.
demanded for other uses, Underbed is the only
The ash will have more unburnt.
choice.
Excess air required for underbed is less. Usually Excess air required is about 60 %.For rice
20 25 % is sufficient to bring smoke free husk, The combustion efficiency is affected
to 1.8 % due to excess air.
combustion.
Oversize fuels / foreign materials would go
Oversize fuel / foreign material results in
to the bed. More oversize materials lead to
choking of fuel lines. This is due to failure in
defluidization. Over size materials directly
the screen system in the yard. Frequent oversize
fall below the fuel feed point and form
ingress affects interrupts the boiler operation.
clinker.
Back fire in boiler does not allow flame to come Backfire in boiler needs to fire in bunker.
to bunker.
Agro fuels promote bunker fires.
For rice husk / groundnut shell, ash settling
chamber is provided to enable unburnt
carbon within the furnace. The hot ash is to
be removed directly from the furnace. The
There is no settling chamber irrespective of the
removal of hot ash by a feeder is difficult
fuel. Hence the ash is collected at low temp
though not impossible. Water-cooled ash
zones down the flue path.
feeder is required. Hot ash discharge from
furnace increases heat loss by 1 %
compared to underbed feeding system.

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Figure 3 shows the arrangement followed for biogas firing arrangement followed for distilleries.
The gas is fed thro the air nozzles only. This has been found to be very efficient way of burning
since the gas flow may be varying. The support fuel can be increased as required. It has been found
that minimum 30% solid fuel support is required for biogas. The biogas composition & GCV
details are given in table 5.
Table 5. Bio Gas chemical composition & calorific value
GCV, Kcal /m3

CH 4 by vol %

H2S by vol %

CO2 by vol %

4697.0

54.0

2.0

44.0

Very rarely 100 % oil firing along with 100 % solid fuels has been requested by a user. 60 %
furnace oil firing had been given. Pressure jet burners / steam atomized burners have been used.
FUEL BULK DENSITY

Fuel feeder sizing

Higher the bulk density of the fuel, the greater the volume of the feeder. A fuel feeder sized for
coal will be too small for rice husk. Metering coal with a feeder designed for rice husk would be
difficult. The fuel feed regulation can not be smooth. Usually separate metering feeders are
given for such applications. See figure 4. Some boilers are designed with a single bunker so that
the either coal or rice husk can be fired from the same bunker. In such a case the feeders are
provided with multiple sprockets so that wide rpm variation can be achieved.
Underbed fuel piping is selected based on the fuel bulk density of the fuel. Table 6 shows the
design criteria for different fuels for underbed feeding. Again depending on the size & no off
fuel feeding lines the PA fan sizing is done.
Table 6: Maximum fuel carrying capacity in kg/hr per line
Fuel

Fuel line size, nb

100 nb

125 nb

150 nb

Rice husk / DOB

400

600

900

Ground nut shell

300

450

600

Coal / lignite

800

1200

1800

Fuel storage bunker

A bunker that is meant for 16 hrs storage will hold rice husk for 2 hrs only. Table 7 compares
the bulk densities of certain fuels.
Table 7. Bulk densities of fuels, in kg/m3
Coal

1000

Ground nut shell

100

Lignite

800

Bagasse

60

Rice husk

125

Wood shaving

175

DOB

400

Coir pith

60

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Fuel storage & handling

Depending upon the boiler size, fuel storage & reclaiming should be given sufficient thought. A
single feed hopper for coal is usually sufficient. It will not be adequate for rice husk, when it
comes to higher capacity boilers. Multiple hoppers will have to be planned for rice husk. This
helps in matching the filling rate with emptying rate.
For Bagasse & fibrous materials, flight chain conveyor or belt conveyors are selected to convey
the fuel from the yard to boiler. In this applications a horizontal run is planned to enable feeding
the conveyor anywhere along the length. When it comes to regulating the fuel feed to the boiler,
the return Bagasse conveyor is planned so that surplus fuel can be returned to yard.

Hours of operation of fuel handling system

The fuel handling system will have to operate for all three shifts in the case of low bulk density
/ fibrous fuels.
FUEL SIZE
The fuel size is the factor that decides the type of fuel handling system.
Coal will have to be sized to minus 8 mm, whereas minus 10 mm is allowable for lignite in
the case of underbed system. In the case of over bed system, minus 15 mm is recommended.
The groundnut shell / rice husk handling system calls for pre screening as stones and other
foreign materials are likely to get mixed up.
Bagasse if received in bale form needs a debaler. Bagasse shall be in the form of loose fibers
of length below 125 mm.
Wooden logs need a shredder. Saw dust handling system needs to have a screen to limit the
chip size to 25 mm & below.
Bagasse pith can be directly fired using a flight chain conveyor system along with a
pneumatic spreader at the furnace. Alternately the Bagasse pith can be mixed with the main
fuel that may be coal or rice husk. The advantage is that the Bagasse pith can be fed and at
uniform ratio, irrespective of the operational hours of depither. In case depither is not closer
to boiler, mixing with the main fuels is the right option.
ASH MELTING POINT
FBC furnaces are designed for bed temperatures of 800 to 900 deg C in the case of the
underbed feeding system. In the case of the over bed feeding arrangement, the over bed
temperature is likely to exceed 1000 deg C. For fuels which have low ash melting points, it is
desirable that Combustion temperatures are kept lower. For fuels like coffee husk, 100 % firing
has not been practical for its ash melting temperature is as low as 800 deg C. In the case of Cofiring with high ash fuels such as coal, rice husk, the slagging is greatly reduced. The higher the
alkali contents of the ash, the lower the ash-melting temp. Hence, the percent co firing is limited
by the tendency of fuels to slag.
For Kutch lignite recommended combustion temperature is 850 deg C. Only underbed feeding
system has been found reliable since the bed temperature control is much better. Studded bed
coils can not be used for Kutch lignite as the stud tip form as nucleus for slagging. More no of
feed points is desirable for Kutch lignite, as this would reduce the risk of local high
temperatures.
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Ash Slagging calls for soot blowers wherever the high metal temperatures exist. In the case of
convection superheater, the counter flow superheater will have more tendencies to slag
deposition as compared to parallel flow Superheater. Retractable soot blowers have to be used
for the superheater zone.
For Slagging fuels, the water wall furnaces are recommended. Depending upon the moisture
content of the fuel a minimum portion of refractory would be required for drying the fuel.
The spacing of super heater coils / boiler bank tubes is given due consideration for slagging
fuels.
In case of smaller capacity boiler shell type boilers are offered. In such cases, the water wall is
adequately sized so that inlet temperature to I pass tube sheet is lower. When this is not done,
ash deposition and choking have been encountered in the I pass tubes sheet.
ACID DEW POINT
The acid dew point governs the design of cold end block of air preheater. The cold end
preheater is made as a separate block since the tubes would fail due gas side corrosion.
In case of oil firing, air preheater is not recommended following a high combustion temperature
and Nox formation. Economizer is provided for heat recovery in case of oil firing. The feed
water inlet temperature should be 125 deg C to avoid cold end corrosion of economizer tubes.
SULFUR CONTENT IN FUEL
Sulfur content in fuel is an important pollutant. As per the regulations the chimney height is to
be maintained a minimum given as per the formula below.

H = 14 x (Q )0.3
Where,
H = height of chimney in meters
Q = Sulfur dioxide produced in kg / hr
The choice of material of construction of chimney is dependent on the acid dew point of flue
gas. Concrete chimney with inner refractory lining is usually the choice when the fuel is
Bagasse. Concrete chimney will be uneconomical for smaller diameter.
In the case of high sulfur fuels, limestone feeding has to be fed to the fluidized bed. This
material absorbs the SO2 produced and the Sox emission comes down. The absorption reaction
is as below.

CaCO 3 = CaO + CO 3 by dissociati on

CaO + SO 2 = CaSO 4
ASH CONTENT

Ash discharge equipment

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The ash feeders are selected for the worst fuel. The total ash produced is calculated and based
on the percentage collection expected in the various collection zones, the ash discharge
equipment are selected. Table 8 suggests the % ash collection rate and sizing philosophy for ash
feeders for Bi drum type boiler. Bed ash removal is dependent on the size of the fuel particles
and the fuel itself. For fuels like coal, bed ash cooling system shall be sized for 40 %.
Table 8. % Fly ash Collection at various zones
Boiler Bank Economizer

Airheater

ESP field 1

ESP field 2

10

10

10

40

20

ESP
field 3
10

Design 20

20

20

60

60

60

Actual

Fly ash collection equipment

Depending upon the local pollution control act, 1200 /500 / 350/ 150 / 115 mg/nm3 may be the
permissible dust emission in chimney. The mechanical dust collector (multi cyclone type) is
offered for smaller capacity boiler. When it comes to lower limits, bag filter / venturi scrubber /
Electro static precipitator. Ash chemical composition, flue gas composition, particle size
distribution, flue gas temperature, water availability, effluent disposal arrangement are critical
factors in selection & sizing of type pollution control equipment.

Ash handling system & ash silo

The bed ash discharged from the bed is in the range of 800 to 900 deg C. Fluidized bed ash
coolers are available to extract heat from the bed ash. The bed ash is negligible in the case of
the Rice husk and other agro wastes. Hence for fossil fuels such as coal / lignite only the bed
ash cooling system & bed ash conveying systems are planned. For fly ash, lean phase system
and dense phase system are preferred as the dust nuisance is less.

Ash erosion

The % ash content in the fuel and erosive ness of ash decide the flue gas velocities to be
adopted. The recommended gas velocities are given in table 9.
Table 9: Typical design gas velocities for Various fuels
Location
Coal Lignite
Rice husk
At superheater
8
10
8
Shell flue tube entry
18
18
18
Bank tubes
8
10
8
Economizer
8
10
8
Airheater
16
16
16
Mechanical dust collector
15
15
11

Bagasse
10
18
12
12
18
12

Oil / Gas
25
30 -45
25
20
-

FURNACE HEAT RELEASE RATE

In an FBC boiler the Fluidized bed area is selected based on a fluidization velocity of 2.5 to 2.8
m/s. The free board height is based on the manufacturers practice for a complete combustion of
unburnt particles before the flue gas enters the convection bank zone. Usually 4 m is found to be

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adequate for Underbed FBC system. In the case of over bed system the residence time needs to be
improved. For this purpose, ash settling chamber is given in furnace.
Design of furnaces for Natural gas / Oil cum solid fuel fired boilers (all 100% firing) is more
complicated. The free board furnace has to be sized for permissible heat release rate. Table 10 gives
the recommended heat release rates. The combustion temperatures are much higher than the FBC
furnace. Accordingly the furnace exit temperatures are higher and the superheater surfacing
required is much less. Whereas, the boiler bank, economizer surfacing has to be more. Bed
Superheater is required in order to obtain the required superheating when the solid fuel firing is
done.
In Underbed FBC boilers, where only solid fuels are fired the Waterwall fin width can be 50 mm
even for pressures up to 66 kg/cm2 g. The same fin width can not be adopted for oil firing as the
heat flux & combustion temperatures are higher. The heat flux & combustion temperature govern
the selection of fin width.
Table 10 : Recommended furnace volumetric heat loading

Furnace
oil
Furnace
oil
Natural
gas

Field
assembled
Shop
assembled
Any

MW /m3
minimum

MW / m3
maximum

Kcal / hr / m3
minimum

Kcal/ hr / m3
maximum

0.6

0.8

258000

344000

0.3

0.4

516000

688000

0.3

0.46

258000

395600

MOISTURE CONTENT IN FUEL

Wet fuels would need drying before feeding into the furnace or within the furnace. Mill
Bagasse has as much as 50 % moisture. The furnace Volume should be adequate for drying &
release of heat. The recommended furnace volume is given by the following formula.

Furnace volume reqd, m3 =

Fuel firing rate in kg/h x NCV in kcal/kg x 0.1124

28000

Where,
NCV = (4250 (4850*moisture content by wt in a kg of fuel))
While designing the fluidized bed for furnace for Bagasse & rice husk, the fluidized bed sizing is
based on rice husk. The furnace volume will be based on the above volume. In addition the
convection bank will be located a height of 7 to 8 meters from fuel feed point. Refractory lining
will be required to improve the Furnace outlet temperature in order to obtain desired convection
superheater outlet steam temperature. Traveling grate furnace is not the right solution for coal /
Bagasse or rice husk/ Bagasse firing. Because it is not possible to obtain the steam temperature as
the combustion temperature is different for the different fuels and the furnace heat absorption
pattern is different between high & low moisture fuels.
For e.g., the adiabatic combustion temperature for mill Bagasse is 1079 deg C where as for rice
husk this is 1400 deg C.
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BED COILS SURFACING & EXCESS AIR.
In under bed FBC system the bed coil surfacing is done based on the fuel to be fired. The fuel
chemical composition and the volatile matter are the deciding factors. Table 11 shows a heat
balance of the bed for selected fuels. The heat balance is drawn assuming recommended bed
temperatures.
Table 11: Percentage bed duty to the heat input by fuel
Coal
Rice husk
Carbon loss
4.0
4.0
Loss due to air
0.947
0.93
moisture
Loss due to fuel
8.53
16.5
moisture
Heat loss due to
2.09
0.87
sensible heat in ash
Dry flue gas loss
40.28
41.91
Radiation loss
5.25
4.83
Total losses
61.1
69.04
% heat duty of bed
coil to the fuel heat 38.9
30.96
input

Kutch Lignite
2.0
0.92
28.35
0.23
41.97
4.4
77.87
22.13

As the figures indicate, a coal fired FBC boiler would need more bed coil surface in order to
maintain the combustion temperature.
The recommended bed temperatures are given in table 12. The bed coil surfacing is based on the
worst fuel, that is the one that need the least bed coil surface. For other fuels, the bed will be
operated on slightly high excess air (25 % to 35 %).
Table 12 : Recommended bed temperatures for various fuels
Bed temperatures, deg C
Fuel
Normal
Minimum Maximum
Coal
900
800
950
Rice husk
850
750
900
Kutch lignite
850
750
850
Neyveli lignite
850
750
900
Char / Dolochar
900
800
950
Bagasse pith
900
750
900
Ground nut shell
850
750
850
De oiled bran
850
750
850
Coffee husk
750
650
750
VOLATILE MATTER IN FUEL
The fuels, which contain more volatile matter, tend to burn above the bed. In such
circumstances the coil surfacing is reduced accounting certain % heat release above the bed.
This is to an extent of 15 % to 25 %.

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BOILER DESIGN PARAMETERS
The boiler configurations can not be a standard one when it comes to multifuels. Further, the
boiler design parameters such as Steam pressure, Steam temperature, steaming capacity, load
down desired, fuel flexibility range.

CONCLUSION
The FBC boilers have been able to perform to the expectations of customer in terms of fuel
flexibility, turn down, faster load response, best efficiency. Several boilers are in operation ranging
from 6 TPH to 100 TPH with many fuels. A through understanding of fuel characteristics before
design will help the designer to offer the best reliable & flexible Boiler.

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FIGURE 1: OVERBED FUEL FEEDING ARRANGEMENT

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FIGURE 2. UNDERBED FEEDING ARRANGEMENT IN FBC BOILERS

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BIO GAS PIPING

AIRBOX

FIGURE 3. BIO GAS FEEDING ARRANGEMENT IN UNDERBED FBC BOILERS

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FIGURE 4. MUILT FUEL FED UNDERBED FBC BOILER WITH FUEL METERING

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A FREAK INCIDENT OF A BED SUPERHEATER FAILURE
Case studies are interesting. This case is very interesting one. The customer had a bed SH failure.
At the time of the visit, the failed bed SH tube was not available at the plant. It was sent to boiler
manufacturer for their analysis. However the photograph was available to see the nature of failures.
A brief on the boiler
This is a 100 TPH, 105 kg/cm2, 520 deg C coal fired AFBC boiler. The unit has been in operation
for more than 3 years. The boiler is equipped with under bed feeding arrangement. The boiler has 5
compartments.
Occurrence of failure
It was informed that there had been coal flow problems in the bunker & fuel line choking problems.
This had led to the frequent non availability of the compartments. The turbine had come to base
load often and at times the turbine had to be tripped. During the turbine trip, the MSSV was closed
after slumping of the boiler. As the lines were being cleared, the compartment no 3 was activated
and at this moment the bed SH had bursted. The bed SH tubes are located in 3rd, 4th & 5th
compartments. The failure had occurred just above the fuel feed point.
Analysis of the appearance of the failed portion
As the failed bed SH tube edge appeared sharp ( see photo 1) and there was no long term swelling
of the tubes, it was concluded that the tube had failed due to sudden & localized overheating (no
indication of starvation). Other bed tubes did not indicate any burning appearance nor did the tubes
show up any swelling in OD.
Suggested failure mechanism
Localized overheating failure takes place when the metal is insulated from steam cooling by the
presence of a dirt / deposit. The dirt gets transported from the steam drum to the failure spot. Above
the fuel feed point the heat flux being high, the tube can fail. The combustion can take place when
the coal is available from the fuel line or when the coal is spilled from the adjacent compartments.
Diagnosis of the failure
Up to this point summarizing the cause was easy for me. I had to now prove the carryover
mechanism. I requested for the inspection of steam drum.
1. The steam drum was opened and checked for possible carryover. The evidence of foaming &
carryover was seen inside the drum.
2. The foaming had occurred due to high phosphate chemical dosage in the slumped boiler. In the
discussion, it came out that the HP dosing pump used to be in operation during the when the
boiler was hot slumped for attending coal jamming in fuel lines. On restart of the boiler, water
being hot and concentrated with phosphate, foaming had taken place. The presence of foams
could be seen up to the secondary drier. See photographs 2 to 7. At two or three places the
whitish powder accumulations were seen.
3. For the last three months prior to failure, the boiler had been on high pH (values seen up to 9.8)
and phosphate level was seen up to 15 ppm. Though this is not a direct cause for this failure, but

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the boiler had been corroding and the drum water is seen to be dirty. The drum surface up to
NWL is seen to be brownish indicating there had been corrosion at times. The corroded iron
particulate remains could be seen in the surfaces of drum internals.
4. It was learnt that the boiler was filled always through the economiser for hydrotest purpose.
This can transport any dirt from the boiler water to SH circuit. At some point of the time the dirt
can get inside the tube and lead to localized overheating failure.
I suggested following remedial actions to avoid future failure
1. The HP dosing pump start / stop shall be interlocked with the boiler feed pump.
2. The chemical dosing shall be regulated with respect to steam flow. For this purpose VFD is
required at HP dosing pump. There can be additional control loop.
3. Always the SH should be filled first and the water should spill in to the steam drum and then
filling can be continued through the economiser. A 65 nb filling line can be connected to SH
drain header with suitable valves for isolation.
4. I advised customer not to operate the bed SH compartment unless the compartments with
evaporator tubes are in operation.
I suggested the following permanent remedial actions to avoid boiler operational disturbances
1. The root cause of the problem is basically from the coal handling plant. The vibratory screen
blinding seemed to have caused all the troubles. Screen blinding is a serious problem during
monsoon in the conventional vibratory screen. Flip flop screen is the right choice to handle high
moisture coals.
2. The present coal feed arrangement above the drag chain feeder is not OK. The load of coal in
the bunker allows compacting of coal. This sort of defect is seen in several installations. The
feeder chute should be designed in such a way, that the pressure from the coal column is used
for loosening the coal.
3. When the coal has more powder content and water content, the lumps form in the bunker.
Rectangular shaped bunkers have sharp corners where the hopper walls join. Circular bunker
with conical hoppers avoid this problem. A static bar screen above the feed hopper was
recommended so that lumps could get filtered. This will prevent the lumps going to feeder &
fuel feed line. This will avoid the PA line choking.
Lesson learnt
For every problem the diagnosis must be completed before simply putting back the boiler in
operation. I liked the customer approach that he did not give up after the manufacturer failed to
identify the cause. At least the future failure can now be avoided. I was very happy to talk in the
group discussion arranged for the entire operating team.
The author is a Graduate from IIT (Madras) and Postgraduate from Madras
University in Thermal Engg. He is a Boiler specialist with 28 years
experience and had worked for Indian boiler manufacturing companies. He
extends service for trouble shooting of boilers and systematic auditing of
boilers at design / construction / operation / shut down.

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Photo 1: This is the bed SH tube failure experienced. The failed portion is in the 3rd
compartment. The edge of the failed portion of the tube is thin in nature. This indicates there has
been sudden overheating situation.

Photo 2: The drum is with the mark of excess of phosphate in the drier area.

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Photo 3: Presence of whitish deposit in the second stage drier.

Photo 4: The presence of whitish marks along the edge of the primary drier in the steam space.

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Photo 5: The whitish sparkling particles seen above the normal water level in the drum. This
must be due to foaming created by excess phosphate chemical dosing in the drum. The dosing
had been on when the boiler was under slumped condition.

Photo 6: The whitish deposit seen at the weldment. The sparkling particles are seen above the
normal water level. The dark colored water indicates that there had been high pH in the boiler
water corroding the boiler.

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Photo 7: The boiler water chemistry had not been alright. The boiler water regime had been
outside the even the coordinated phosphate control curve.

Photo 10: Presence of mud in the boiler water. The back filling of SH to be practiced to avoid
carryover of dirt to SH sections.

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Photo 11: This is a boiler wherein the drum internal surface & turbo separators indicate the
perfect boiler water chemistry.

Photo 12: The fuel feeding on the left side is what is in this plant. The weight of the coal acts on
the feeder. It makes cakes of coal. The one on the right is what is in another plant. The coal
slides through by virtue of the hydrostatic head of coal. The lump formation will be avoided.

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Figure 1: This is an illustration of the bunker outlet chute in which the hydrostatic pressure does
not act on the feeder. At the same time the pressure helps in loosening the coal avoiding the coal
flow problems and caking of coal powder during monsoon times.

Figure 2: The flip flop screen is designed to work on high moisture.

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A FREAK INCIDENT OF A BED SUPERHEATER FAILURE
Case studies are interesting. This case is very interesting one. The customer had a bed SH failure.
At the time of the visit, the failed bed SH tube was not available at the plant. It was sent to boiler
manufacturer for their analysis. However the photograph was available to see the nature of failures.
A brief on the boiler
This is a 100 TPH, 105 kg/cm2, 520 deg C coal fired AFBC boiler. The unit has been in operation
for more than 3 years. The boiler is equipped with under bed feeding arrangement. The boiler has 5
compartments.
Occurrence of failure
It was informed that there had been coal flow problems in the bunker & fuel line choking problems.
This had led to the frequent non availability of the compartments. The turbine had come to base
load often and at times the turbine had to be tripped. During the turbine trip, the MSSV was closed
after slumping of the boiler. As the lines were being cleared, the compartment no 3 was activated
and at this moment the bed SH had bursted. The bed SH tubes are located in 3rd, 4th & 5th
compartments. The failure had occurred just above the fuel feed point.
Analysis of the appearance of the failed portion
As the failed bed SH tube edge appeared sharp ( see photo 1) and there was no long term swelling
of the tubes, it was concluded that the tube had failed due to sudden & localized overheating (no
indication of starvation). Other bed tubes did not indicate any burning appearance nor did the tubes
show up any swelling in OD.
Suggested failure mechanism
Localized overheating failure takes place when the metal is insulated from steam cooling by the
presence of a dirt / deposit. The dirt gets transported from the steam drum to the failure spot. Above
the fuel feed point the heat flux being high, the tube can fail. The combustion can take place when
the coal is available from the fuel line or when the coal is spilled from the adjacent compartments.
Diagnosis of the failure
Up to this point summarizing the cause was easy for me. I had to now prove the carryover
mechanism. I requested for the inspection of steam drum.
1. The steam drum was opened and checked for possible carryover. The evidence of foaming &
carryover was seen inside the drum.
2. The foaming had occurred due to high phosphate chemical dosage in the slumped boiler. In the
discussion, it came out that the HP dosing pump used to be in operation during the when the
boiler was hot slumped for attending coal jamming in fuel lines. On restart of the boiler, water
being hot and concentrated with phosphate, foaming had taken place. The presence of foams
could be seen up to the secondary drier. See photographs 2 to 7. At two or three places the
whitish powder accumulations were seen.
3. For the last three months prior to failure, the boiler had been on high pH (values seen up to 9.8)
and phosphate level was seen up to 15 ppm. Though this is not a direct cause for this failure, but

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the boiler had been corroding and the drum water is seen to be dirty. The drum surface up to
NWL is seen to be brownish indicating there had been corrosion at times. The corroded iron
particulate remains could be seen in the surfaces of drum internals.
4. It was learnt that the boiler was filled always through the economiser for hydrotest purpose.
This can transport any dirt from the boiler water to SH circuit. At some point of the time the dirt
can get inside the tube and lead to localized overheating failure.
I suggested following remedial actions to avoid future failure
1. The HP dosing pump start / stop shall be interlocked with the boiler feed pump.
2. The chemical dosing shall be regulated with respect to steam flow. For this purpose VFD is
required at HP dosing pump. There can be additional control loop.
3. Always the SH should be filled first and the water should spill in to the steam drum and then
filling can be continued through the economiser. A 65 nb filling line can be connected to SH
drain header with suitable valves for isolation.
4. I advised customer not to operate the bed SH compartment unless the compartments with
evaporator tubes are in operation.
I suggested the following permanent remedial actions to avoid boiler operational disturbances
1. The root cause of the problem is basically from the coal handling plant. The vibratory screen
blinding seemed to have caused all the troubles. Screen blinding is a serious problem during
monsoon in the conventional vibratory screen. Flip flop screen is the right choice to handle high
moisture coals.
2. The present coal feed arrangement above the drag chain feeder is not OK. The load of coal in
the bunker allows compacting of coal. This sort of defect is seen in several installations. The
feeder chute should be designed in such a way, that the pressure from the coal column is used
for loosening the coal.
3. When the coal has more powder content and water content, the lumps form in the bunker.
Rectangular shaped bunkers have sharp corners where the hopper walls join. Circular bunker
with conical hoppers avoid this problem. A static bar screen above the feed hopper was
recommended so that lumps could get filtered. This will prevent the lumps going to feeder &
fuel feed line. This will avoid the PA line choking.
Lesson learnt
For every problem the diagnosis must be completed before simply putting back the boiler in
operation. I liked the customer approach that he did not give up after the manufacturer failed to
identify the cause. At least the future failure can now be avoided. I was very happy to talk in the
group discussion arranged for the entire operating team.
The author is a Graduate from IIT (Madras) and Postgraduate from Madras
University in Thermal Engg. He is a Boiler specialist with 28 years
experience and had worked for Indian boiler manufacturing companies. He
extends service for trouble shooting of boilers and systematic auditing of
boilers at design / construction / operation / shut down.

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Photo 1: This is the bed SH tube failure experienced. The failed portion is in the 3rd
compartment. The edge of the failed portion of the tube is thin in nature. This indicates there has
been sudden overheating situation.

Photo 2: The drum is with the mark of excess of phosphate in the drier area.

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Photo 3: Presence of whitish deposit in the second stage drier.

Photo 4: The presence of whitish marks along the edge of the primary drier in the steam space.

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Photo 5: The whitish sparkling particles seen above the normal water level in the drum. This
must be due to foaming created by excess phosphate chemical dosing in the drum. The dosing
had been on when the boiler was under slumped condition.

Photo 6: The whitish deposit seen at the weldment. The sparkling particles are seen above the
normal water level. The dark colored water indicates that there had been high pH in the boiler
water corroding the boiler.

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Photo 7: The boiler water chemistry had not been alright. The boiler water regime had been
outside the even the coordinated phosphate control curve.

Photo 10: Presence of mud in the boiler water. The back filling of SH to be practiced to avoid
carryover of dirt to SH sections.

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Photo 11: This is a boiler wherein the drum internal surface & turbo separators indicate the
perfect boiler water chemistry.

Photo 12: The fuel feeding on the left side is what is in this plant. The weight of the coal acts on
the feeder. It makes cakes of coal. The one on the right is what is in another plant. The coal
slides through by virtue of the hydrostatic head of coal. The lump formation will be avoided.

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Figure 1: This is an illustration of the bunker outlet chute in which the hydrostatic pressure does
not act on the feeder. At the same time the pressure helps in loosening the coal avoiding the coal
flow problems and caking of coal powder during monsoon times.

Figure 2: The flip flop screen is designed to work on high moisture.

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DOSE THE RIGHT AMOUNT OF CHEMICALS
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
Recently I had come across a case of erratic chemical dosing and boiler water pH dipping below 7.5. It
can happen on many occasions.
1. When we base blow down on silica in steam, we may not be able to make up the phosphate
level suitably.
2. When we try intermittent blow down, there is a heavy drain of boiler water & phosphate. We
will not be able to make up for the drained phosphate with regular dosage rates of chemicals.
3. During start up and during very high load variations, chemical make up may not be sufficient.
4. When there is a time lag between analysis and dosage setting, the chemical level would vary
heavily.
5. When the deaerator water temperature is low, the boiler water pH may get upset.
6. When the condensate contamination is possible, then again we may not able to main boiler
water chemistry.
When there are several reasons for the boiler water chemistry upset, we need to know how much we
need to dose to bring back normalcy. We need to know the fundamentals of chemical dosing
calculations. The calculation sheet given in this paper briefs how to calculate the chemical
requirement. Instead of looking at the water sample results and then correcting the dosage we can
decide how much is to be dosed. If the chemical dosing pump is a limitation, then % dilution can be
changed for some time to bring back to normalcy. This calculation is for the boilers where the basic
chemicals are used. The calculations will however be similar for proprietary chemical as well.
Knowing the water volume in boiler is necessary to decide the dump dosage of chemical during
upsets.
WATCH THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CHEMICAL DOSING!
Many boiler users leave the water chemistry management to chemical supplier. The dosage practices
are decided by the chemical suppliers. But then how to ensure that the chemicals are protecting the
boiler? The best way is to inspect the wetted surfaces of the boiler. In Shell type boiler it is rather easy
to see the tubes for scale or pitting. But in water tube boiler, the steam drum only speaks. The best way
is to open the steam drum and take a wipe of the drum internal surface with your palm. Generally the
water tube boiler is fed with well treated water. Hence scale related problems are not experienced.
However the corrosion of economizer / boiler could be a serious problem. The presence of loose
reddish powder indicates the boiler is corroding. Presence of grey powder indicates the economizer /
pre-boiler system corrosion.

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ENWS-212-00
LP / HP CHEMICAL DOSING CALCULATIONS
INPUTS
Steam generation rate Nett =
TDS in feed water =
TDS permitted in boiler water =
Oxygen in feed water =
Oxygen permitted in feed water =
Residual phosphate level in boiler water =
Concentration of phosphate solution =
Residual sulphite in feed water =
Concentration of sulphite solution =
Residual Hydrazine in Feed water =
Concentration of hydrazine solution =
HP CHEMICAL DOSING CALCULATION
Chemical Dosed in HP Dosing System =
Maximum steam generation capacity of boiler =
TDS in feedwater =
TDS permitted in Boiler water =
Percentage blow down =
=
Actual blow down rate =
=
Recommended phosphate ppm in boiler water =
Loss of phosphate in blow down water =
=
Loss of TSP in blow down water =
=
Tri sodium phosphate consumption per day =
=
LP CHEMICAL DOSING CALCULATION
Chemical dosed =
Maximum steam generation capacity of boiler =
Oxygen in feedwater =
Required oxygen level in feed water =
Oxygen to be removed =
=
Oxygen to be removed in moles per hr =
=
Sulphite required in moles per hr =
=
Sulphite required in gms per hr =
=
=
Concentration of sodium sulphite solution =
Rate of dosing =
=
Sodium sulphite consumption per day =

10000
0.1
25
0.02
0.002
4
0.3
15
0.04
0.02
35

kg / hr
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
gm / 100 ml
ppm
gm / 100 ml
ppm
%

TRI SODIUM PHOSPHATE

10000 kg /hr
0.1ppm
25 ppm
100 x 0.1 / (25-0.1)
0.4 %
10000 x 0.4/100 kg/ hr
40 kg/hr
4 ppm
4 x 40 / 1000 g / hr
0.16 gm / hr
0.16 x 4
0.64 gm/h
0.64 x 24 / 1000 kg / day
0.01536 kg / day
SODIUM SULPHITE
10000 kg / hr
0.02 ppm
0.002 ppm
0.02 - 0.002 x 10000 x 0.000001 kg / hr
0.00018 kg / hr
0.00018 / 32
0.000005625 kg / hr
2 x 0.000005625
1E-05
molecular wt (Na2SO3)x moles/h
{1000x[(2X23)+ (32)+(3x16)]} x0.00001125gm/hr
1.4175 gm / hr
0.04 gm / 100 ml
100 x 1.4175 / 0.04 ml /hr
3543.75 ml / hr
(1.4175 x (24 / 1000)) kg / day

Sh
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ENWS-212-00
=
LP CHEMICAL DOSING CALCULATION
Chemical dosed =
Maximum steam generation capacity of boiler =
Oxygen in feedwater after deaeration @105 deg C =
Required oxygen level in feed water =
Oxygen to be removed =
=
Hydrazine reqd (30 times depending on reaction =
kinetics) =
Residual hydrazine to be kept =
Total hydrazine required =
=
Total hydrazine required in kg/kg of evaporation =
=
Hydrazine required per hour =
=
Concentration of hydrazine solution =
Hydrazine to be dosed @35% conc =
=
Hydrazine consumption per day =
=

0.034 Kg / Day
HYDRAZINE
10000 kg / hr
0.02 ppm
0.002 ppm
0.02 - 0.002 ppm
0.018 ppm
30 x 0.018 ppm
0.54 ppm
0.02ppm
0.54 + 0.02 ppm
0.56 ppm
0.56 x 0.000001 kg / kg
0.00000056 kg / kg
10000 x 0.00000056 kg / hr
0.0056 kg / hr
35%
0.0056x100 / 35 kg / hr
0.016kg / hr
0.01600x 24 kg / day
0.384 kg / day

Sh
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DUST NUISANCE AT FUEL FEED SYSTEMS IN AFBC BOILERS
By K.K.Parthiban, Venus Energy Audit System
Introduction
Few cases had come to us to solve the issue of dust nuisance at fuel feed system in AFBC boilers. In
some boilers, two PA fans are provided in order to have reliability of the system. In some cases, both
fans are being run in order to avoid choking problems in fuel lines. This results in high power
consumption by boiler auxiliaries. We had diagnosed these cases with engineering approach. In this
paper we present how we have solved a case of dust nuisance. In a running plant no one takes a risk
unless there is a conviction to adopt a trial & improvement. The plant manager went ahead with us
though the OEM was reluctant to take the risk.

Photo 1: The dust nuisance experienced at PA lines. The lines get choked often and then
dechoking led to coal accumulations at feeder floor.

Problem
There are two AFBC boilers at this plant. The plant uses Indonesian coal with total moisture of 25%.
The surface moisture exceeds 15%. The fuel lines used to get choked. There was dust nuisance due
to this. OEM maintained that the surface moisture has to be limited to a maximum of 10%. There are
installations with higher moisture levels, for e.g. Kutch & Neyveli Lignites.
There were three stages of the diagnosis and improvement made in solving the problem. At the 1st
stage, the mixing nozzles were studied insitu. Mixing nozzle itself was used as flow meter. In 2nd
stage, the PA fan flow studies were done using pitot tube. In stage 3, new mixing nozzles were
installed and the performance improvements were realised.

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PART 1- MIXING NOZZLE STUDIES
The customer desired that we do something about the dust nuisance. We conducted air flow studies
with and without coal. We even dismantled some mixing nozzles to understand what makes to choke
the lines.
Mixing nozzle suction at throat
We checked whether there is suction at venturi throat area with & without fuel. We found that there
was +ve pressure when the fuel was dropped. Positive pressure at throat can create dust deposits in
fuel feed chutes. Slowly lumps begin to form and these lumps interrupt the fuel flow in lines.
Positive pressure could occur if the PA fan is undersized or if the throat size is larger than
requirement. Table below shows operating with two PA fans could create more suction at throat.
PA damper %

PA header pr, MX nozzle inlet Throat

mmWC
pr, mmWC
mmWC

No coal with one PA fan

70% open
1030
100%
1092
With coal- with one PA fan
70% open
1028
100%
1075
With coal- with two PA fans
35% open
1300

pr, MX
nozzle
outlet pressure,
mmWC

990
1055

-120
-170

530
530

990
1055

125
90

530
530

1250

-260 to -60

560

The mixing nozzle works on the Bernoulli principle. Suction should be available at throat when the
fuel drops in. Minor pressurization up to + 25 mmWC can be accepted and will not be creating dust
nuisance. If not, the fuel would back out causing troubles in line choking / feed chute choking.
Sufficient suction would not develop when the air flow is less / mixing nozzles are not as per design.
PA fan capacity
Then we checked that the fan design parameters and we found that the PA fan had good amount of
margin too. When we operated two PA fans there was enough suction at throat. There was a need to
establish the air flow rate taking place in present condition. This was because the fan was consuming
more power than what was as per test at MCR flow.
Mixing nozzle as a flow measurement device
Venturi tube is a flow measuring device and regularly being used by engineers. The Bernoulli
principle is used here to measure the air flow. Since we measured the pressures at inlet, outlet and at
throat without / with air flow, the air flow can be calculated using Bernoulli principle. The
fundamental principle and our findings are as below.
The tappings available at mixing nozzle inlet, throat and at outlet were provided with manometer.
The pressure profiles were taken and presented in table 1. Applying Bernoulli equation we could find
out the air flow.

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The theory
As long as the fluid speed is sufficiently
subsonic (V < mach 0.3), the
incompressible Bernoulli's equation (
equation 1) describes the flow. Applying
Bernoulli equation to air stream
travelling down the axis of the horizontal
tube gives the equation 2 & 3.
V
V
Pa a gZ a Pb b gZ b (equation 1)
2
2

Va
V
Pb b (equation 2)
2
2

Pa

V V
P Pa Pb b a (equation 3)
2
2

1
2 Aa
1 (equation 4 )
P V a
2
Ab

2P

Q C*

Aa

A 2
a 1

Ab

2 * P

( equation 5)

Aa
A 2

a 1
Ab

( equation 6 )

From continuity, the throat velocity Vb

can be substituted out of the above
equation to give, Solving for the
upstream velocity Va and multiplying by
the cross-sectional area Aa gives the
volumetric flow rate Q,
Ideal, non-viscous fluids would obey the
above equation. The small amounts of
energy converted into heat within
viscous boundary layers tend to lower
the actual velocity of real fluids
somewhat. A discharge coefficient C is
typically introduced to account for the
viscosity of fluids, C is found to depend
on the Reynolds Number of the flow,
and usually lies between 0.90 and 0.98
for smoothly tapering venturis.
Higher PA header pressure results in
increased pressure drop (P) and thus
the Q increases. If PA header pressure is
increased and as the downstream
pressure is fairly constant due to
fluidized bed back pressure, the suction
at throat improves.

Calculation & inference

1. Using Bernoulli principle, we calculated that the line velocity to be as high as 24 m/s. Even then
the suction was not enough. It meant the energy was not used up in creating good suction at
venturi.
2. It was also seen that the PA lines were currently operating on high line velocities. The erosion
seen in bed coils confirmed this. The erosion rate was more where the coils were close the fuel
nozzle cap.
3. Two mixing nozzles were dismantled & seen. The throat diameters were measured to be 50 & 48
mm. We recommended that the mixing nozzle is replaced with 42 mm throat mixing nozzles so
that the air flow is reduced simultaneously improving the suction.

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4. From the current readings of PA fan, we could see that the PA fan was operating with utterly low
efficiency. We advised to carry out the performance testing of PA fan insitu. The performance
test done at fan manufacturers works would be with a test rack that is done without IGV /
without a suction box. There can be ducting engineering defect which can cause poor
performance of the PA fan. Many cases have been observed to be related to poor inlet conditions.

Photo 2 & 3: It is seen the protective coating by phoscast is seen dislodged. Right above the
fuel nozzles only the erosion is seen. This can happen due to high fuel line air flow.

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PART 2: AIR FLOW MEASUREMENT IN PA DUCT SYSTEM BEFORE MIXING NOZZLE

CHANGE
The Fan supplier was reluctant to carry out the performance test, perhaps he knew the result would not
be favorable to his company. In the meantime, we procured a pitot tube only to do it ourselves. The test
was conducted on PA fans of both boilers.
Fundamentals of Pitot tube
The picture below shows a S type pitot tube used for inferring the velocity in a air / gas duct.

The Pitot tube has two ports. One port faces fluid flow directly and hence measures the pressure and
velocity head. The second port which faces downstream of flow measures only pressure head. Hence the
differential pressure measured is nothing but the velocity head. This equation 1 is Bernoulli equation. In
a horizontal duct this Z1 equals Z2. Hence equation reduces to equation 2.

V1
V
gZ1 P2 2 gZ 2 (equation 1)
2
2
2

P1

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V1
V
P2 2 (equation 2)
2
2
2

P1

The front port measures the total head of ( P1 + (V12 )/2 )

At port facing downstream we measure only static pressure P2

and hence the differential pressure P is nothing but a measure of (V12* / 2). Therefore V1 = Sqrt ( P
* 2 /). Since the P is measured in mmWC (manometer fluid), conversion to actual fluid density is
required. Pitot measurement is resorted to for fan performance studies / to resolve combustion problems.
Details of Pitot study
The velocity of air in PA fan discharge duct was inferred using a Pitot tube meter. The measurements
were taken through the tappings in the duct along the length and height. The duct width and height were
650 mm and 1000 mm respectively. The velocity measurements were carried out at various traverse
points and they were found to be approximately equal. The measured differential pressure readings are
given in table 1.
Table 1: Differential pressure measurement readings by Pitot
S.no

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Avg

P
(mmWc)
Width
wise
14.9
14.0
15.2
14.3
15.5
14.2
14.3
14.63

P
(mmWC)
Height
wise
14.6
14.2
14.8
15.0
14.3
14.8
14.62

Pitot tube

Actual velocity inside duct, V = Kp * Cp * sqrt (P (avg)) * sqrt (Ts / Ps * Ms)

Kp, Dimensional constant =

34.97

Cp, Pitot tube coefficient =

0.85

P(avg), Average differential pressure =

Ts, Temperature inside the duct =
Ps, PA fan header pressure =
Ms, Molecular weight of air =
V, Actual velocity, m/s =

14.62 mmWC
433 K
1054 mmWC (g) = 83.75 mmHg ( a)
28.3
34.97*0.85*sqrt (14.62)*sqrt(433/83.75*28.3))

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15.364 m/s

Actual power consumption from voltage and current readings

Power

sqrt (3) * V * I * Cos

V, Voltage

430 V

C, Current

174 A

Cos , power factor

0.85

Power consumed by PA fan

sqrt (3) * 430 * 174 * 0.85

110153 Watts

110.153 kW

PA fan efficiency calculated from Power consumption

V, velocity of air flow

15.364 m/sec

A, duct flow area

(650 * 1000 / 106) m2 = 0.65 m2

Q, PA fan flow

A * V = 9.98 m3/sec

H, head developed by fan

discharge pressure - suction pressure

1054 707 = 347 mmWc

PA fan shaft power

(Q * H * 100)/ (efficiency * 101) kW

PA fan motor power

1.05 * shaft power

Shaft power

PA fan motor power /1.05

110.153/1.05

104.90 kW

(Q * H * 100)/ (motor shaft power *101)

(9.98 * 347 * 100) / (104.91 * 101)

32.68 %

Efficiency

FINDINGS AFTER THE PITOT TEST

1. The actual flow from PA fan was greater than the rated flow. Rated flow of PA fan was 8.43 m3/s,
whereas actual flow was 9.98 m3/s.
2. The PA line velocity as per calculation was calculated to be 24.3 m/s. This tallied with flow
calculated from venturi method. Design velocity for a PA line is 16 m/s.
3. It was clear that the new mixing nozzles could be tried to improve the conveying and to reduce the
erosion of bed coils.
4. The low efficiency of PA fan could be due to poor inlet duct condition of PA fan.

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PART 3: STUDY OF NEW MIXING NOZZLE PERFORMANCE
The new mixing nozzles were procured and installed in boiler no 1. We took up the study on the
performance of new mixing nozzles as per customer requirement. At the time of test, both the boilers
were running at full load. Boiler no 1 was running with a single ID fan. The boiler no 2 was being run
with two PA fans. The two PA fans were being run in boiler no 2, in order to avoid line choking. The
study included the measurement of throat pressure with & without coal. At the time of testing the coal
fired was having inherent moisture of 14%. The total moisture of coal as received was 25%. Hence the
surface moisture was in the range of 11%. By mixing the fly ash to an extent of 3%, the resultant
surface moisture is 10.67%.
Measurement of PA fan flow rate in Boiler 1 and check on fan efficiency
The first study was on the need for the minimum header pressure to make the throat pressure negative
while feeding coal. It was seen that the throat pressure could be made negative even at 1200 mmWC
header pressure with a wind box pressure of 830 mmWC. At 1500 mmWC, higher suction pressures
could be obtained. See photos at the end. At the fuel feeder inspection door, the suction was felt to be
quite high.
Though 1200 mmWC pressure was adequate, operators preferred to keep 1500 mmWC. This was
done, as it helped to keep the leg chutes & mixing nozzle chutes free from blockages. Hence the PA
flow was checked at 1300, 1400 and 1500 mmWC pressures. The following are the findings.

The air flow was measured to be 8.82, 7.67 & 7.49 m3/s when the header pressures were 1520,
1404 & 1304 mmWC.
The PA line velocities were calculated to be 21.5, 18.7 & 18.3 m/s respectively.
The PA fan current was measured to be 184, 171 & 164 amps, when the header pressures were
1520, 1404 & 1304 mmWC respectively.
The power consumed by the PA fan was 120.5, 111.9 and 107.4 kW, when the header pressures
were 1520, 1404 & 1304 mmWC respectively.
The head added by PA fan was 690, 574 & 474 mmWC, respectively.
The PA fan efficiencies were worked out to be 50, 38.9 & 32.7 %, when the header pressures were
1520, 1404 & 1304 mmWC respectively.
The PA fan efficiencies as per predicted performance curve should have been 74, 76 & 76.5 %,
when the header pressures were 1520, 1404 & 1304 mmWC respectively.

Measurement of PA fan flow rate in Boiler 2 and check on fan efficiency

The first study was on the need for the minimum header pressure to make the throat pressure negative
while feeding coal. It was seen that the throat pressure could be made negative at 1260 mmWC header
pressure. Two PA fans were to be run to achieve this effect. The air flow was measured using pitot
tube.

The head added by fan was 520 mmWC.

The PA fan power consumed was 177.4 kw. The PA fan power consumed at boiler no 2 was 107.4
kW to produce a minimum suction at throat of mixing nozzle.

Comparison of performance of new mixing nozzle

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The new mixing nozzle had reduced the air flow as indicated by the air flow measurement and the
power consumption. The high suction that could be created helped in sucking the wet coal without
causing a bridging effect and venturi throat. The fuel feeder floor is now clean and the leg chute
jamming by wet coal is reduced drastically. The fuel feeder was seen to be at high vacuum as can be
seen from photographs.
Comparison of power consumption by PA fan in boiler 1 & 2
The new mixing nozzle consumed 107.4 kW as against 177.4 kW to produce the minimum vacuum at
throat. However the boiler operators now preferred to keep higher header pressure so that the bridging
of wet coal in leg chute was reduced greatly. The power consumed for the same is 120.5 kW. On the
net comparing boiler 1 & 2, there is a power saving of 57 kW.
What could be the reason for reduced fan efficiency?
For the condition of 1520 mmWC header pressure, the fan power should have been 86 kW only (with
an efficiency of 70% as per fan performance curve) as against present 120.5 kW. If the header
pressure was only 1304 mmWC, with a fan efficiency of 70%, the fan power should have been only
50 kW. At least one can say, there is a loss of 120.5-86 = 34.5 kW now by virtue of poor efficiency of
PA fan. The reason can be defective inlet conditions assuming the impeller design is correct.

It is possible that the suction box is undersized producing an effect of 90 deg turn at inlet of fan.
Further the IGV provided at fan inlet with a high entry velocity can be an added disadvantage. The
preferred free length at front of fan has to be three times the inlet diameter.
The recirculation of air flow through standby fan is possible. Guillotine gate eliminates the
possibility of recirculation.

Problem bridging in mixing inlet chute & leg chute

During the visit, the problem of leg chute choking was studied. When the mixing nozzle develops
negative pressure, the fuel that is fed into the mixing nozzle flows freely. In case of any occasion of
choking at throat cross by a coal powder lump, the positive pressure created at throat leads to bridging
of wet coal in the mixing nozzle inlet chute. This is unavoidable. On inspection of each chute at
mixing nozzle inlet, the following points were noted to be a concern for bridging of wet coal.

It was seen that the SS liner plates were tack / stitch welded to chutes. These weld beads offered as
sites for the dust to build up. Instead of liner plates, the chute should have been made of SS plates.
Or else the liner plates should have been plug welded from back, through some drilled holes in the
chute.
It was seen that the flange setting was not proper in a chute that was removed for inspection.
It was seen that the packing ropes were projecting inside the coal flow path. These can form sites
for coal dust to build up.

Final conclusion

The mixing nozzles have met the intentions of its purpose of achieving suction effect with lesser
air flow.
The mixing nozzle inlet chutes need to be corrected for smooth flow of coal.
The PA fan needs a properly designed suction box to reduce the power consumption.
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Photo 4: The suction effect seen at feeder in boiler no 1, where the mixing nozzles were replaced
by a lower diameter throat. The feeder area was now seen to be free of dust.

Photo 5: Suction effect seen at feeder discharge chute to mixing nozzles.

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Photo 6: The effect of new mixing nozzle in boiler no 1 could be seen here. The feeder was
operating at 1300 mmWC at this time.

Photo 7: The feeder was seen to be under positive pressure in boiler no 2, where two PA fans
were in operation. With this puffing, the coal dust would choke up the mixing nozzle inlet chute
due to dust coating the inlet chute. The caked dust could ultimately fall in to the mixing nozzle
stopping the coal flow.

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Photo 8: As per the PA fan performance curve, for the PA flow range of 27000 to 32000 m3/h,
the efficiency of the PA fan should have been above 70%. The efficiency of PA fan was actually
seen to be 30 to 40% only.

Photo 9: The asbestos pad provided above the mixing nozzle was seen to be projecting in to the
coal path. Wet coal dust could get a support over this and eventually lead to arching.

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Photo 10: Coal dust seen to build up on the sloped plate of mixing nozzle inlet chute. The
coating was seen to be quite strong. Incidentally all the old mixing nozzle inlet chutes were seen
to be like this.

Photo 11: The same chute plate after cleaning is seen here. The dust is seen to have built up on
the weldment of liner plate.

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Photo 12 & 13: The effect of tack / stitch weld was seen very well in this chute, which was
dismantled from position in boiler no2 during the visit. The weld beads had acted as nuclei for
dust build up. Ideally the weld should not be present in the coal path.

Photo 14: Mismatch in flange setting is seen here. Such protrusions can act as support for wet
coal dust.

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Photo 15: In one of the mixing nozzles, it was found that the coal lump was lying above throat.
The Coal dust could build up from here.

Photo 16 & 17: The above were snaps from old mixing nozzle inlet chutes. The coal dust was
seen sticking inside the mixing nozzle inlet chute. This must have occurred more in the old
mixing nozzles, as they were always on positive pressure at throat.

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Photo 18: The drawing of PA fan is seen here. The inlet box seemed to be small as compared to
fan impeller size. Moreover IGV comes in the path of air flow at high velocity zones. The IGV
could block the air flow instead of swirling it.
700x1800

700x1530
400

125

400

225
355x800

1,428.5

750

175

810

1,700

350
365

950

850

255

158

350

425

865.5

400

Figure 1: The PA fan inlet box was found to be too small in comparison with a better
performing PA fan of almost same design parameters. Small suction box with IGV would work
as sharp ell duct instead of uniformly distributing suction box.

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Figure 2: This is a recommended configuration of inlet box by AMCA. The liberally sized
suction box would ensure that the test rack performance is achieved.

Figure 3 & 4: This is an illustration of air flow into the eye of impeller with a sharp bend &
without a bend. Later is preferred by the fan manufacturers.

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TANJORE PAINTINGS
Tanjore (or Thanjavur or Thanjavoor) paintings have a
very rich heritage. This style of painting has been followed
widely by the people in Southern Tamil Nadu for the past two
centuries. The art flourished in Tanjavoor, pronounced
Tanjore, the capital city of the Chola dynasty, and thus got its
name. Maratha princes, Nayaks of Vijaynagar dynasty, Rajus
communities of Tanjore and Trichy and Naidus of Madurai
patronized the art of Tanjore painting from 16 to 18th
centuries. Tanjore paintings are deeply rooted in tradition and
still innovative within limits. This art is sacred and dedicated.
The paintings are notable for their adornment in the form of semi-precious stones, pearls, glass
pieces and gold. The rich vibrant colors, dashes of gold, semi-precious stones and fine artistic work
are characteristics of these paintings. They add beauty and culture to a variety of surroundings and
dcor. The paintings are mostly of Gods and Goddesses because this art of painting flourished at a
time when fine-looking and striking temples were being constructed by rulers of several dynasties.
The figures in these paintings are large and the faces are round and divine.
Tracing its roots to the historical golden era of the early 18th century, Tanjore artwork is one of the
many indigenous art forms for which India is noted. Originating in Tanjore about 300 kms from
Chennai ( Madras), which was the then capital of the Gupta empire, this form of art developed at the
height of cultural evolvement achieved during that period. Crafted with meticulous care the
Thanjavoor (Tanjore) pictures are unique. What sets them apart from Indian paintings in general are
the embellishments made over the basic drawings with precious and semi-precious stones as well as
the relief work which gives them a three dimensional effect. The pictures are of various sizes,
ranging from huge works spanning whole walls to small miniatures no longer than 6-inch square.
The paintings decorate the puja rooms in residences, arcades in major hotels and lobbies in Corporate
Offices. They also make nice gifts for Diwali, Weddings and other special occasions.
Technique
The process of making a Tanjore painting involves many stages. The first stage involves the making
of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The base consists of a cloth pasted over a wooden
base. Then chalk powder or zinc oxide is mixed with water-soluble adhesive and applied on the base.
To make the base smoother, a mild abrasive is sometimes used. After the drawing is made,
decoration of the jewellery and the apparels in the image is done with semi-precious stones also
known as Jaipur stones. Laces or threads are also used to decorate the jewellery. On top of this, the
gold foils are pasted. Finally, dyes are used to add colors to the figures in the paintings. High-quality
gold foil is used to ensure that the paintings last generations. They generally appreciate in value and
are considered collectibles. Paintings come in three finishes, Classic, Antique Style and Embossed.
In the classic finish, bold colors and striking backgrounds are combined with high-glitter gold foil,
while in the antique style, the gold's glitter is more sober, with more subtle colors and plain
backgrounds. The embossed paintings are similar to the classic style but are embossed to bring about
more depth.
In case you are interested in having a Tanjore painting of your favourite God / Goddess, contact
Mrs.Meena Asokkumar at email ID- kasokku@gmail.com,meenaasokkumar@gmail.com.

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Translated from Pandit Shriram Sharma Acharyas work forwarded by Mr.M.M.RathiShree Cements Ltd
Oh child of God ! be God !
Human powers, abilities are unlimited and are as infinite as the sky. Every human being is a
symbolic representative of the divine consciousness. He possesses within himself all those abilities
that are present in his Father - the Almighty.
If the Yog [union] of a soul and the Supreme Soul is made possible; even a meek and most normalseeming human being can become the Supreme Being - God and his greatness will be equally vast.
Maya is the one, which fabricates the difference between the soul and Supreme Soul, and she is
nothing more than a mere veil of ignorance.
As we are entangled in worldly attractions, running after fickle wealth and ridiculously greedy
desires it's difficult for us to understand that the unusually rare opportunity of possessing a human
body has been given to us and it must be used for the fulfillment of a specific purpose. Let us just not
worry about the pleasures of the body but also keep in mind the contentment of the soul.
If we realize our true nature, understand our duties and resolve promptly to do as needed, we can
easily get rid of the sense of insignificance and unrest, which constantly unnerves us.
To break free from this spell of ignorance is the supreme duty of any human being. The person who
performs this duty faithfully can lay claim to the greatness of God the Almighty and become God
Himself.
Be Good and Do Good
The truth behind performing good deeds to gain entry into heaven may be debatable. There are some
references about such idea in the scriptures but its fundamental aim is to motivate people to follow
the path in life which is moral and good for the self and the society at large.Getting a sick child take
medicine is a great challenge. A mother has to resort to cajoling the child into taking medicine by
saying that she would reward him with a toy. The child does not know the worth of the medicine, but
he does know the worth of a toy. In the hope of getting rewarded with a toy, he takes the medicine
which works in his best interest.
Similarly, an average individual does not appreciate the worth of living a high ideal life. Sensual
pleasures are what interests him more. He can visualize his interest of securing the heavens which is
the happiness he is seeking for. The prospects of heaven makes him take up a worthy course in life.
This cant be thought of as a deceit or a lie as it would indeed usher him in the direction which has
much more to offer than the said reward.
Why society?
The main difference between man and animal is that man establishes and lives in a society and
progresses together through cooperation and mutual support whereas animals mostly live isolated
self-contained lives. Animals fulfill their own needs one way or another by themselves or live in
groups and jointly defend themselves against predators. This, however, this isnt good enough to be

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tagged as living in a society. On the other hand, it is mans second nature to live in society or have a
community spirit. It is absolutely inherent in his nature or his innate instinct.
The offspring of birds and animals become self-reliable very quickly after their birth and therefore,
they forget their intimate connection (blood relation) with their parents. This may one of the
underlying factors responsible for the lack of lasting mutual loving and caring feelings amongst
them. On the other hand, human beings remain dependent on their parents or guardians for very long
after birth which may be one of the main reason for their lasting mutual bond.If we ponder a bit more
deeply on this subject, we will understand that the dependence of offspring on their parents or
guardians do not end when they become adults but keep existing as have to rely on the society in
countless areas in life.
Be Good and Do Good
The truth behind performing good deeds to gain entry into heaven may be debatable. There are some
references about such idea in the scriptures but its fundamental aim is to motivate people to follow
the path in life which is moral and good for the self and the society at large.Getting a sick child take
medicine is a great challenge. A mother has to resort to cajoling the child into taking medicine by
saying that she would reward him with a toy. The child does not know the worth of the medicine, but
he does know the worth of a toy. In the hope of getting rewarded with a toy, he takes the medicine
which works in his best interest.
Similarly, an average individual does not appreciate the worth of living a high ideal life. Sensual
pleasures are what interests him more. He can visualize his interest of securing the heavens which is
the happiness he is seeking for. The prospects of heaven makes him take up a worthy course in life.
This cant be thought of as a deceit or a lie as it would indeed usher him in the direction which has
much more to offer than the said reward.
Just make not break too
Secret to good gardening lies not only in nourishing the plants but also in pruning the weeds. Plants
need to be cared after, given nourishments, yes but the weeds need to be trimmed too. Only then the
dream of a beautiful garden can be realized.
In much the same way, secret of self-progress lies in not only constructive activities like reading,
contemplation, pious company, religious observances but also in performing corrective actions
necessary for self reform. For the eradication of negative imprints and inferior traits we need to
undergo the arduous penance of introspection and self-reform.
For progress and reform it is necessary to adopt a balanced approach that does justice to both aspects
of the process. It was the vile side effect, of our extremist, inappropriately lax and one-sided
religiousness that India had to suffer the curse of long political enslavement, which lasted for a
thousand years.
Yes we must foster that which is good and noble, but the eradication of what is bad and vile is our
pious duty too. Only if we fully understand and appreciate this eternal truth, can each one of us
uphold justice and strike down injustice like it was done in the days of yore.

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LOVELY ARTICLE SHARED ------IN A RELATIONSHIP, MARRIED OR NOT... YOU SHOULD READ THIS!
by Kimmies Floral
When I got home that night as my wife served dinner, I held her hand
and said, I've got something to tell you. She sat down and ate quietly.
Again I observed the hurt in her eyes. Suddenly I didn't know how to
open my mouth. But I had to let her know what I was thinking. I want
a divorce. I raised the topic calmly.
She didn't seem to be annoyed by my words, instead she asked me
softly, why?
I avoided her question. This made her angry. She threw away the
chopsticks and shouted at me, you are not a man! That night, we didn't
talk to each other. She was weeping. I knew she wanted to find out what had happened to our
marriage. But I could hardly give her a satisfactory answer; she had lost my heart to Jane. I didn't
love her anymore. I just pitied her!
With a deep sense of guilt, I drafted a divorce agreement which stated that she could own our house,
our car, and 30% stake of my company.
She glanced at it and then tore it into pieces. The woman who had spent ten years of her life with me
had become a stranger. I felt sorry for her wasted time, resources and energy but I could not take
back what I had said for I loved Jane so dearly. Finally she cried loudly in front of me, which was
what I had expected to see. To me her cry was actually a kind of release. The idea of divorce which
had obsessed me for several weeks seemed to be firmer and clearer now.
The next day, I came back home very late and found her writing something at the table. I didn't have
supper but went straight to sleep and fell asleep very fast because I was tired after an eventful day
with Jane.
When I woke up, she was still there at the table writing. I just did not care so I turned over and was
asleep again.
In the morning she presented her divorce conditions: she didn't want anything from me, but needed a
month's notice before the divorce. She requested that in that one month we both struggle to live as
normal a life as possible. Her reasons were simple: our son had his exams in a month's time and she
didn't want to disrupt him with our broken marriage.
This was agreeable to me. But she had something more, she asked me to recall how I had carried her
into out bridal room on our wedding day.
She requested that every day for the month's duration I carry her out of our bedroom to the front door
ever morning. I thought she was going crazy. Just to make our last days together bearable I accepted
her odd request.

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I told Jane about my wife's divorce conditions. . She laughed loudly and thought it was absurd. No
matter what tricks she applies, she has to face the divorce, she said scornfully.
My wife and I hadn't had any body contact since my divorce intention was explicitly expressed. So
when I carried her out on the first day, we both appeared clumsy. Our son clapped behind us, daddy
is holding mommy in his arms. His words brought me a sense of pain. From the bedroom to the
sitting room, then to the door, I walked over ten meters with her in my arms. She closed her eyes and
said softly; don't tell our son about the divorce. I nodded, feeling somewhat upset. I put her down
outside the door. She went to wait for the bus to work. I drove alone to the office.
On the second day, both of us acted much more easily. She leaned on my chest. I could smell the
fragrance of her blouse. I realized that I hadn't looked at this woman carefully for a long time. I
realized she was not young any more. There were fine wrinkles on her face, her hair was greying!
Our marriage had taken its toll on her. For a minute I wondered what I had done to her.
On the fourth day, when I lifted her up, I felt a sense of intimacy returning. This was the woman who
had given ten years of her life to me.
On the fifth and sixth day, I realized that our sense of intimacy was growing again. I didn't tell Jane
about this. It became easier to carry her as the month slipped by. Perhaps the everyday workout made
me stronger. She was choosing what to wear one morning. She tried on quite a few dresses but could
not find a suitable one. Then she sighed, all my dresses have grown bigger. I suddenly realized that
she had grown so thin, that was the reason why I could carry her more easily.
Suddenly it hit me... she had buried so much pain and bitterness in her heart. Subconsciously I
reached out and touched her head.
Our son came in at the moment and said, Dad, it's time to carry mom out. To him, seeing his father
carrying his mother out had become an essential part of his life. My wife gestured to our son to come
closer and hugged him tightly. I turned my face away because I was afraid I might change my mind
at this last minute. I then held her in my arms, walking from the bedroom, through the sitting room,
to the hallway. Her hand surrounded my neck softly and naturally. I held her body tightly; it was just
like our wedding day.
But her much lighter weight made me sad. On the last day, when I held her in my arms I could
hardly move a step. Our son had gone to school. I held her tightly and said, I hadn't noticed that our
life lacked intimacy.
I drove to office.... jumped out of the car swiftly without locking the door. I was afraid any delay
would make me change my mind...I walked upstairs. Jane opened the door and I said to her, Sorry,
Jane, I do not want the divorce anymore.
She looked at me, astonished, and then touched my forehead. Do you have a fever? She said. I
moved her hand off my head. Sorry, Jane, I said, I won't divorce. My marriage life was boring
probably because she and I didn't value the details of our lives, not because we didn't love each other
anymore. Now I realize that since I carried her into my home on our wedding day I am supposed to
hold her until death do us apart.
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Jane seemed to suddenly wake up. She gave me a loud slap and then slammed the door and burst into
tears. I walked downstairs and drove away.
At the floral shop on the way, I ordered a bouquet of flowers for my wife. The salesgirl asked me
what to write on the card. I smiled and wrote, I'll carry you out every morning until death do us apart.
That evening I arrived home, flowers in my hands, a smile on my face, I run up stairs, only to find
my wife in the bed - dead.
My wife had been fighting CANCER for months and I was so busy with Jane to even notice. She
knew that she would die soon and she wanted to save me from the whatever negative reaction from
our son, in case we push thru with the divorce.-- At least, in the eyes of our son--- I'm a loving
husband....
The small details of your lives are what really matter in a relationship. It is not the mansion, the car,
property, the money in the bank. These create an environment conducive for happiness but cannot
give happiness in themselves. So find time to be your spouse's friend and do those little things for
each other that build intimacy. Do have a real happy marriage!
If you don't share this, nothing will happen to you.
If you do, you just might save a marriage.
Many of life's failures are people who did not realize how close they were to success when they gave
up.

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SIR CHANDRASEKHARA VENKATA RAMAN, FRS
(7 NOVEMBER 1888 21 NOVEMBER 1970)
He was an Indian physicist whose work was influential in the
growth of science in the world. He was the recipient of the Nobel
Prize for Physics in 1930 for the discovery that when light traverses
a transparent material, some of the light that is deflected changes in
wavelength. This phenomenon is now called Raman scattering and
is the result of the Raman effect.
On February 28, 1928, through his experiments on the scattering of
light, he discovered the Raman effect. It was instantly clear that this
discovery was an important one. It gave further proof of the
quantum nature of light. Raman spectroscopy came to be based on
this phenomenon, and Ernest Rutherford referred to it in his
presidential address to the Royal Society in 1929. Raman was
president of the 16th session of the Indian Science Congress in
1929. He was conferred a knighthood, and medals and honorary doctorates by various universities.
Raman was confident of winning the Nobel Prize in Physics as well, and was disappointed when the
Nobel Prize went to Richardson in 1928 and to de Broglie in 1929. He was so confident of winning
the prize in 1930 that he booked tickets in July, even though the awards were to be announced in
November, and would scan each day's newspaper for announcement of the prize, tossing it away if it
did not carry the news. He did eventually win the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his work on the
scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him. He was the first Asian and first
non-White to receive any Nobel Prize in the sciences. Before him Rabindranath Tagore (also Indian)
had received the Nobel Prize for Literature.
C.V Raman & Bhagavantam, discovered the quantum photon spin in 1932, which further confirmed
the quantum nature of light.
Raman also worked on the acoustics of musical instruments. He worked out the theory of transverse
vibration of bowed strings, on the basis of superposition velocities. He was also the first to
investigate the harmonic nature of the sound of the Indian drums such as the tabla and the
mridangam.
Raman and his student Nagendranath, provided the correct theoretical explanation for the acoustooptic effect (light scattering by sound waves), in a series of articles resulting in the celebrated
Raman-Nath theory. Modulators, and switching systems based on this effect have enabled optical
communication components based on laser systems. lo
In 1934, Raman became the director of the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore, where two years
later he continued as a professor of physics. Other investigations carried out by Raman were
experimental and theoretical studies on the diffraction of light by acoustic waves of ultrasonic and
hypersonic frequencies (published 1934-1942), and those on the effects produced by X-rays on
infrared vibrations in crystals exposed to ordinary light.

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International Journal of Computational Engineering Research||Vol, 04||Issue, 1||

Studies on the Variation in Coal Properties of Low Volatile

Coking Coal after Beneficiation
Vivek Kumar1, V.K. Saxena2
1

M.Tech, Ism Dhanbad,

P.Hd, Ism, Dhanbad

ABSTRACT
Coal is the main ingredient for the various industries like; Iron & steel industries, Power
generation industries, Cement industries etc. and its calorific value is the back bone for the processing.
The calorific value of coal depends on various factors on which ash content is the major one.Coking
coal is an essential prerequisite for production of Iron & Steel through blast furnace route. Systematic
R&D studies on the availability of desired quality coking coal from indigenous resources have become
imperative to minimize the dependence on imported coals. The Low Volatile Coking Coal (LVCC)
constitutes about 50% of the total coking coal reserves in India. These coals are characterized by high
ash content and difficult in cleaning potential. This high ash content will be reduced by washability
process. Washability analysis is the basis for nearly all coal preparation plant and it is carried out for
the analysis of ash reduction in different specific gravity portion of coal and its characterization
defines how and which process can be applied for the certain quality of coal for specific separation

I.

INTRODUCTION

The relative abundance of coal in India compared to other fossil fuels makes it a natural choice as the
primary source of fuel, be it for steel making, power generation or for other uses. Total reserves of coal in the
country are estimated to the order of 267 Billion Tons. Coking coal, which is merely 14% of the total deposits,
is available mainly in Eastern part of India. Coking coal is an essential prerequisite for manufacture of Iron &
Steel through blast furnace route. In India, the annual requirement of coking coal for various metallurgical
purposes may be up to the tune of 35 million tones, out of which the availability from the indigenous sources is
about 10 million tones only. The rest of the coking coal requirements are managed through imports from
different countries.To meet the increased demand of coking coal concerted efforts have to be made to correct the
imbalance between need and availability by increasing the production of coal of desired quality through better
management of available resources of inferior grade. Low volatile coking coal (LVCC), though inferior in
qualities but abundantly available in Eastern part of the country may be an immediate choice. The present
production from LVCC is about 16 to 18 mt per year, and is primarily used for power generation. These coals,
being of lower seams are likely to be more matured (Ro~1.30%) than the upper seams and consequently exhibit
lower values of volatile matter. The country has a moderate reserve of such coal, amounting to about 50% of the
total coking coal reserve. Proper utilization of these LVCC coals for metallurgical purpose after suitable may
minimize improper utilization of scarce commodity coking coal.(Ref. Geological Survey of India (GSI) Report,
Government of India 2009: Inventory of Indian Coal Resources.)
1.1 Definition of Coal:
Coal is a combustible compact black or dark-brown carbonaceous sedimentary rock formed from
compaction of layers of partially decomposed vegetation and occurs in stratified sedimentary deposits.
1.2 Formation of coal:
Coal is formed by biological, physical and chemical processes, governed by temperature and pressure,
over millions of years on plant remains, deposited in ancient shallow swamps. The degree of alteration
(metamorphism), caused by these processes, during the temporal history of development determine their
position or rank in the coalification series which commence at peat and extend through lignite to bituminous
coal and finally anthracite. The relative amount of moisture, volatile matter, and fixed carbon content varies
from one to the other end of the coalification series.
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Studies on The Variation In Coal Properties
The moisture and volatile matter decrease with enhancement of rank while carbon content increases
i.e., carbon content is lowest in peat and highest in anthracite.
1.3 Type / Grade:
Coal: It is classified into different types mainly on the basis of certain chemical (ash, moisture and volatile
matters) and physical (caking index, coke type and swelling index) parameters. However, different modes of
classifications are being followed in different countries mainly on the basis of prevalent industrial need. The
Indian coal is broadly classified into two types Coking and Non-Coking. The former constitute only a small
part of the total coal resources of the country. These two are further subdivided as follows on the basis of certain
physical and chemical parameter as per the requirement of the industry.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

Coking Coal
Prime Coking - Mainly used for metallurgical purpose.
Medium Coking - Mainly used in steel industry.
Semi Coking - Mainly in cement, fertilizer and sponge iron industries.

Non Coking Coal: Non- coking coal comprises lions share of Indian coal. Based on Useful Heat Value
(UHV), it is classified into grades A to G for commercial use. A to C grades are considered as Superior and are
used in cement, fertilizer and sponge iron industries. D to G grade, available in almost in all the coalfields, is
considered as Inferior and is mostly used in power sector.
Lignite: Lignite is the youngest coal from geological perspective. It is a soft coal composed mainly of volatile
matter and moisture content with low fixed carbon.
It is commonly known as
brown coal and is classified into grades A to C on the basis of Gross Calorific Value as per the requirement of
the industries. It is considered as apt fuel for power generation especially due to its low ash content.
The common coals used in Indian industry are bituminous and sub-bituminous coal. The gradation of Indian
coal based on its calorific value is as follows:
Grade

Calorific Value Range

( in Kcal/kg)
Exceeding 6200
5600 6200
4940 5600
4200 4940
3360 4200
2400 3360
1300 2400

A
B
C
D
E
F
G

Normally D,E and F coal grades are available to Indian Industry.

1.4 Intrusion Of Ash Forming Material In Indian Coking Coal
Indian coking coal is drift originated coal. During the drifting process coal swamp are contacted with
marine environment. Volcanic eruption zone & igneous zone.On this time various volcanic igneous and marine
materials are mixed with the coal swamp and they affect the properties of Indian coal. Some coking coal gets
contacted with sulfuric environment and some ironic environment. That creates different type of impurities in
coal forming zone. These intrusions are mixed thoroughly with coal so difficult to wash some time.For the
utilization coal should have certain properties. For the characterization of coal different analysis are carried out.
The basic analysis for the separation of coal is based on specific gravity difference. For these purpose we
concerned with particle size distribution not about particle size. For these analysis washability characteristics of
coal is determined. That characterizes significance of particle size distribution and washing parameter like yield,
ash, cut point density, NGM.
1.5 Objective:
Washability of coal is carried out for the analysis of ash reduction in different specific gravity portion
of coal. Washabilty characterization defines how and which process can be applied for the certain quality of coal
for specific separation. So the objective of washability is ash reduction with maximum utilizable coking coal.

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Studies on The Variation In Coal Properties
1.6 Method For The Analysis
For the washabilty characterization Standard float and sink test is used. This is based on the specific
gravity of coal. In different specific gravity portion have different density because of some heavy particle in
coal. These heavy particle causes ash in coal. That is undesirable for use.
Washability characteristics of coal are generated from float/sink analysis of core samples, as mined samples, or
from preparation plant feed samples. In addition to the float/sink analysis. Different steps in float and sink test:
[1] Sample Collection
[2] Sample Preparation For float and sink test.
[3] Different Density Media Preparation.
[4] Utilization of Media for the coal flotation.
[5] Ash determination in different density fraction of floated coal.
[6] Preparation of Washability Data.
[7] Graph of washability Data
Bulk sample Preparation:
The bulk sample should be spread on an impervious base, preferably under shelter. The sample should
be dried and sieved in accordance with ASTM test Method.
1.7 Preparation Of Washability Data:
Run of mine coal comprises fragments of material which have density from the lower to highest in a
continuous range. But the proportion of each varies. Those with low density have the lowest ash but the higher
heat value and those with the highest density vice versa.Washability curve shows the relationship between ash
content and the amount of float and sink produced at very particular relative density. Because the test is
conducted under very controlled condition the result obtained relate to an almost perfect separation.From the
sink & float masses together with the individual ash content of each relative fraction the washability data can be
calculated. Different terms which used for the Data preparation are specific gravity, weight percentage, ash
percentage, cumulative float weight and ash percentage, cumulative sink weight and ash percentage,
characterize, NGM.
1.8 Washability Curve:
A curve or graph showing the results of a series of float-and-sink tests. A number of these curves are
drawn to illustrate different conditions or variables, usually on the same axes, thus presenting the information on
one sheet of paper. Washability curves are essential when designing a new coal or mineral washery. There are
four main types of washability curves: characteristic ash curve, cumulative float curve, cumulative sink curve,
and densimetric or specific gravity curve.
II.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK:
The following experimental work was carried out.
Coal is thoroughly investigated through various tests. Proximate test gives general overview of coal;
Ultimate Analysis gives its elemental composition. HGI test gives idea about the hardness of coal, sink float test
for different size fraction and analysis the ash.
2. Collection Of Coal Sample:
The coal samples were taken for the desired objective of project. Coal sample was taken from
Ghanuadih coal mine. The coal sample was low volatile coking coal.
The coal sample was subject to Proximate analysis, Ultimate analysis, Gross CalorificValue, Free Swelling
Index, Hardgrove grindability index, Specific Gravity, sink-float tests for categorization of sample.

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SAMPLE CHARACTERIZATION
Original sample (54.3Kg)

Coining and Quartering

2.504 Kg

Reserved

12.5mm sieving

1.222Kg

1.218 Kg

3mm sieving
0.596 Kg

0.584Kg

1mm sieving

0.298Kg0.283Kg

(-72 mesh) fine coal size occurs, when it pulverizes in pulverizers for proximate analysis of overall coal sample.
2.1. Proximate AnalysisDetermination of Moisture Content:About 1 gram of finely powdered (-212 ) air dried coal sample was weighed in a silica crucible and
was then placed inside an electronic hot air oven, maintained at 1082C. The crucible with the coal sample was
allowed to remain in the oven for 1 hours and was taken out with a pair of tongs cooled in a desiccator for about
15 minutes and then weighed. The loss in weight is reported as moisture (on percentage basis). The calculation
is done as per the following:
% moisture (% M) = (Y-Z)/(Y-X)*100
Where, X=Wt. of crucible in grams
Y=Wt. of coal + Crucible in grams (Before heating)
Z= Wt. of coal + Crucible in grams (After heating)
Determination of Volatile Matter content (VM):About 1 gram of finely powdered (-212) air dried coal sample was weighed in a VM crucible and was
then placed inside a muffle furnace maintained at 925C. The crucible was then covered with its lid. The heating
was carried out for exactly 7 minutes, after which the crucible was removed, cooled in air and then in a
desiccators and weighed again. The calculation is done as follows:
% volatile matter (% VM) = (Y-Z)/(Y-X)*100
Where, X=Wt. of crucible in grams
Y=Wt. of coal + Crucible in grams (Before heating)
Z= Wt. of coal + Crucible in grams (After heating)
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Determination of Ash content (Ash)
About 1 gram of finely powdered (-212) air dried coal sample was weighed and taken in an empty
silica crucible. Before that the crucibles were heated at 850C for about 1 hr. to remove any foreign particles in
the crucible. The crucible along with the sample was put in a muffle furnace at 450C for about 30 minutes.
After that the temperature of the furnace was raised to 850C and the sample was heated for about 1 hr. at that
temperature.
The calculation is done as follows:
% Ash = (Z-X)/(Y-X)*100 Where,
X= Wt. of crucible in grams
Y=Wt. of coal + Crucible in grams (Before heating)
Z= Wt. of coal + Crucible in grams (After heating)
Estimation of Fixed Carbon (C)
The fixed carbon content of coal is given by the following formulae- %FC = 100 (%M+%VM+% Ash)
2.2. Ultimate Analysis
Determination of total carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur percentages in coal comprises
its ultimate analysis. Ultimate analysis give the elemental composition of coal i.e. carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
sulphur and oxygen content of coal. Vario EL III CHNS analyser from Elementar Germany was used for
determination of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Sulphur. Oxygen was calculated using the following
relations:
O% = 100 (C% + H% + N% + S + M +Ash %).
Procedure for Analysis
To start the analysis first of all the carousel from the Vario EL III was removed and the position of
carousel hole was adjusted to zero. The main power of analyser was switched on, after a while the carousel of
the analyser start moving and comes to original position i.e. zero. Now the carousel was placed at top at original
position. Before performing the sample analysis the analyser is first run with few blank determination (No
sample) and thereafter few samples of standard Sulfanilic acid (whose composition is known) is run to calibrate
the analyser. It is to be ensured that calibration factor of the analyser should not be less than 90%.
To perform the ultimate analysis of coal, pre manufactured tin boat was weighed in precession digital
balance. Few mg (say 4-5 mg) of Tungsten oxide, which acts as a catalyst, is mixed with approximately 10 mg
of coal sample of -200 mesh size. The tin boat inside with tungsten oxide and coal samples was made to pellet
with the help of pellet maker. Now the pellet is transferred to the slots provided in the Carousel (upper portions)
of Vario EL III CHNS analyser. There are 79 slots in the analyser.Two types of gases namely helium and
oxygen are used for the analysis. Helium is used as carrier gas and oxygen for combustion purpose. During the
experiment helium gas flow is maintained at the rate of 200 ml/min and oxygen dosage is 90 sec for each
sample. Before the gases come into contact with the pellet it is passed through drying agents. Vario EL III
CHNS analyser consists of various parts and instrumentation which includes; oxidation tube, reduction tube and
absorption columns for absorbing N2, CO2, water vapour, SO2. In the oxidation tube there is ash finger.
Oxidation tube is placed in the oxidation furnace the temperature of which goes to around 1150oC. The product
gas which is emitting from oxidation tube passes through reduction tube having temperature of 850 0C first and
then these gases goes to absorption columns for absorbing N2, CO2, water vapour, SO2. TCD detects the
presence and quantity of these gases by measuring the peaks and the area under peaks. The quantity of gases
absorbed under the peaks is converted in to the elemental composition i.e., N, C, H, and S in the instrument
itself by way of a machine dedicated programme. The results are displayed in the computer attached to analyser
machine after giving required commands. After completion of analysis the result was obtained by printing the
result from the computer. Approximately one sample takes 15 min. for complete analysis.
Determination of Oxygen: It is deduced indirectly as follows.
% of oxygen in coal = 100 (% of C +H+N+S+Moisture+Ash %)

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Fig .1: Vario EL III CHNS analyser

Relationship Between Ultimate Analysis and Proximate Analysis
%C

0.97FC+ 0.7(VM - 0.1A) - M(0.6-0.01M)

%H

0.036FC + 0.086 (VM -0.1xA) - 0.0035*M*2* (1-0.02M)

%N2

2.10 -0.020 VM

where
FC

% of fixed carbon

% of ash

VM

% of volatile matter

% of moisture

Note: The above equation is valid for coal containing greater than 15% Moisture content.
2.3 HGI (HardgroveGrindability Index) of Coal:-The grindability of Coal is a measure of the ease with
which it can be ground fine enough for Use a pulverized fuel, & it also shows the physical properties of coal like
hardness, tenacity and fracture. There is a fixed relationship between Grind ability and rank of coal in the
natural series from brown coal to lignite & anthracite. Coals easier to grind have 14 to 30 percent volatile
matter. Coals with higher volatile matter are more difficult to grind. However Petrography & mineral
constituents influence grindability. The Hardgrove Index of coal is affected by its moisture content and hence on
the humidity of the atmosphere in which the test is carried out.

Figure 2 Cross section of HGI test apparatus

Experimental Procedure:
1 kg of coal sample was taken and crushed to pass through 4.75mm sieve. The resulting Sample was
put in two sieves of 32 mesh sieve (upper sieve) and 16 mesh size (lower Sieve). Sieve the material for 2
minutes until the entire material pass through 32 mesh sieve. 150 grams of the coal sample passing through
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30mesh sieve retaining on 16 mesh size sieve was collected for HGI test. Three coal samples of 50 gm. are
prepared for HGI test. The 50gm Sample was taken in a ball mill along with 8 iron balls having diameter of
one inch. The mouth of the ball mill was closed and it was set to rotate for about 60 revolutions, after 60
rotations, the machine was stopped. The sample left in the ball mill was then collected along with any powdered
substance sticking to the surface of the machine with the help of a brush. This sample was then put in a sieve of
200mesh size and was shaken for about 10 minutes. After sieving for about 5 minutes, the sample which passes
through 75 Size was Collected and weighed on the balance.
Calculation- The hard groove grind ability index of coal is calculated using the following formula.
HGI = 13 + 6.93 W, Where
W = weight of the test sample passing through 200 mesh size sieve after grinding.
2.4 Calorific Value
Calorific value determination of coal sample was done in Bomb Calorimeter. In this a known amount
fuel is burnt and heat liberated was absorbed in water to increase its temperature. The rise in temperature of
water is determined and water equivalent of bomb is taken into account and from this heat of combustion is
determined. The empty weight of crucible of bomb calorimeter was weighed and the balance was tarred. Now
coal, diesel and coal oil mixture sample was taken in the crucible and weighed. Burette of two liters which was
attached to the calorimeter was allowed to fill and after filling, the bottom tap was open and water was collected
in the calorimeter bucket. Crucible was put in the bomb assembly and the two terminals in the bomb assembly
were joined by platinum wire. Now the lid was tightened. The bomb was filled by oxygen up to a pressure of
410 psi. The bomb is placed in the bucket filled with water and electrical terminal is inserted in the bomb. The
lid is put on machine and current is supplied. Due to flow of current the platinum wire ignites and the sample
catches fire. After 8 minutes the result was displayed and it was printed by printer attached to it.
2.5 Free Swelling Index (Fsi):
For the determination of Free swelling index the method specified in IS (Indian Standard) 1353: 1993
was used. One gram of coal was taken in a standard silica crucible with lid. After that it was lightly tapped for
10 to 12 times on the table to level the surface. Covered silica crucible was placed in free swelling furnace for 4
minutes. It is essential that apparatus be adjusted to give proper temperature in the crucible in the specified time
i.e. 800 +10C in the first 1.5 minutes and 820 +/- 5C in the next 2.5 minutes from the start of the tests. The
crucible was removed from the furnace and allows cooling. The coke bottom obtained was compared with
standard profile, numbered from 1 to 9.
FSI 1.0, Semi Coking coal - Mainly used in cement, fertilizer and sponge iron industries.
2.5, Medium Coking coal- Mainly used in steel industry.
3.5, Prime Coking - Mainly used for metallurgical purpose.
(Ref. O.P.GUPTA., 1990, Fuels, Furnaces and Refractory, 1st edition, Khanna Publication, Delhi.)
2.6 Determination Of Specific Gravity Of Different Samples: The specific gravity of the coal samples is
largely affected by the particle size distribution of the coal. This is because the void space between the
coal particles is lesser if the size of the coal particle is small, whereas the void space is more in the bigger coal
particle size. So the packing density is much more affected by particle size distribution of the coal.
PROCEDURE: A specific gravity meter of 25 ml was taken and cleaned & dried well so as no moisture left in
it. Now the weight of the empty specific gravity meter was taken. Then it is filled fully with water and its weight
was taken. After this it is again dried fully and now the specific gravity meter filled fully with kerosene oil and
its weight was taken. Then it is again cleaned, dried and approximately 50% filled with coal and weight was
taken. Now it is partially filled with kerosene oil and cap was loosed and shakes well so as to dissolve the coal
fully in the kerosene oil. After dissolving the specific gravity meter was filled fully with kerosene oil and cap
was closed. The outer surface was of the specific gravity meter was cleaned with cotton and then its weight was
taken.
Calculation:
Weight of empty specific gravity meter bottle = w1
Weight of empty specific gravity meter bottle + full water = w2
Weight of empty specific gravity meter bottle + full kerosene = w3
Weight of empty specific gravity meter bottle + 50% filled with coal sample = w4
Weight of empty specific gravity meter bottle + 50% filled with coal sample +50% filled with kerosene oil = w5
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Specific gravity = [ (w4 - w1) * (w3 - w1) ] / [ { (w3-w1) (w5-w4) } * (w2 - w1) ]
Specific gravity of various samples is shown in Table in chapter 4.
2.7 Calculating Washability Data (Tromp,1937.)
There are many ways washability data can be manipulated to show results of combining the various
screen and gravity fractions. These mathematic manipulations involve nothing more than multiplication,
division, and an understanding of weighted averages. There is no difficulty in calculating the washability data in
a usable form.
Plotting Washability Data:As the full value of the washability data cannot be interpreted until the data has
been plotted on graph paper. There are two types of graph paper that can be used, rectangular coordinate graph
paper and a combination of semi-log and rectangular coordinate graph paper. Plotting on rectangular coordinate
paper is most common because rectangular coordinate paper is easy to obtain, but the combination semi
log and rectangular coordinate gives results that can be read accurately and easier (Keller., et al 1948.) The latter
type of graph paper can be home made by pasting a sheet of semi.log paper beside a sheet of rectangular
coordinate paper or it can be especially printed. Rectangular coordinate paper must be used in conjunction with
semi.-log paper since the specific gravity curves must be plotted on rectangular graph paper.
There are five washability curves plotted on this chart. They are:
Cum. floats Ash curve, cum. Sinks Ash curve & Washability Characteristic curve or Instantaneous Ash
curve. The representation of the above said curves are as follows:
Curve 1 Total floats Ash curve
Curve 2 Total Sinks Ash curve
Curve 3 Characteristic curve
Curve 4 Yield curve
Curve 5 NGM curve
[1] The specific gravity curve is a plot of the cumulative float weight percent against the specific gravity.
[2] The cumulative float curve is a plot showing the cumulative float weight percent plotted against the
cumulative float ash percent.
[3] The cumulative sink curve is a plot of the cumulative sink weight percent against the cumulative sink ash
percent.
[4] The elementary ash curve is drawn by plotting Ordinate Z against the direct percent of ash.
Ordinate Z =A+B/2
in which,
A = the cumulative weight percent of the float material down to but notincluding the specific gravity fraction.
B = the weight percent of the material in the gravity fraction.
5. The 0.1specific gravity distribution curve is drawn by plotting the cumulative float weight percent, against
the corresponding specific gravities. If the wash ability study includes material that has a gravity higher than
1.90 the 0.10% values are calculated slightly different.
2.8 Float & Sink Analysis
Heavy liquids used in laboratory:
Zinc Chloride
Bromoform
CTC (Carbon Tetra Chloride)
Float & Sink analysis: Procedure
[1] Correct densities in series of containers (test with hydrometer).
[2] Place sample in container (start at lowest or highest relative density depending on sample).
[3] Remove floats, remove sinks.
[4] Remove dense liquids from floats and sinks filtering and/or washing.
[5] Dry samples.
[6] Weigh and analyses samples.
[7] Calculate washability and plot curves
The specific gravity at which a coal is to be cleaned is determined from the washability data and economic
considerations. The ease of washing at this specific gravity may be judged from the amount of near gravity
material (ngm) present in the coal. The amount of this material is defined as the percentage of the coal that will
float in a range within plus minus 0.10 specific gravity of the separation value. The presence of ngm causes
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misplacements of sinks in floats and floats in sinks. The larger the amount of ngm, the more difficult the
cleaning operation, and vice versa. The following table shows the estimate of coal washing problem from the
amount of near-gravity material.
Degree of separation difficulty according to B.M.Bird
Amount of ngm %
Greater than

Degree of difficulty

Comments

Less than

simple

Almost any process, high tonnages

10

Moderately difficult

Efficient process, high tonnages

10

15

Difficult

Efficient process, good operation, medium

tonnages

15

20

Very difficult

Efficient
tonnages

20

25

Exceedingly difficult

Very efficient process, expert operation, low

tonnages

25

Formidable

Limited to a few exceptionally efficient

processes, expert operation, low tonnages

process,

expert

operation,low

(Ref. Bird, B. M., 1931, Interpretation of Float-and-sink Data, Proceedings of the Third International
Conference on Bituminous Coal, Pittsburgh. Vol. 2)
2.9 Washability Characteristics
The raw coal contains impurities after its primary sizing operations. It contains the minerals matter with
which it was associated underground and some other materials getting mined up during handling. But these
should not be operation by which coal is cleaned is known as coal cleaning. The properties which are used in
coal cleaning are specific gravity, shape and size of the particles, friction, resilience, surface tension etc.
Cleaning process generally depends upon differences in density between clean coal and its impurities. They
suitably remove the free dirt but not the inherent dirt. The extent of removal of free dirt on the amenability of a
coal to improvement in quality is more commonly known as the washability of coal and is more commonly
indicated by the float and sink analysis of coal. These washability investigations are conducted before average
proposal for installation of a coal washery is considered.
(Ref. James G. Speight, Mercel Dekker, 1994, The Chemistry and Technology of coal . 1st edition.D.V.
SubbaRao, Coal Its Beneficiation, M.K. Publications, 2003.
Tsai, S. C., Fundamental of Coal Beneficiation and Utilization, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1982)

III.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the results obtained from the experiment carried out during the course of study,
related discussions are presented. Experimental results obtained from characterizations study, size analysis,
proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, gross calorific value (GCV), HGI, free swelling index (FSI), Specific
gravity, washability analysis tests in the forms of tables.
3.1 Characteristics Of Feed Coal
Table 3.1: Proximate Analysis
ASH(%)

MOISTURE (%)

VOLATILE MATTER (%)

FIXED CARBON (%)

35.13

0.37

17.56

46.94

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Table 3.2: Ultimate Analysis
CARBON
(%)
54.50

HYDROGEN
(%)
3.62

NITROGEN
(%)
1.09

SULPHER
(%)
0.37

OXYGEN
(%)
4.92

GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE = 5169.30 kcal/kg

HARDGROVE GRINDIABILITY INDEX =87.08
FREE SWELLING INDEX= 1
3.2 Size Analysis
Table 3.3: Size Analysis Of Each Size Fraction Of Rom Coal
SIZE(MM)

WEIGHT (%)

50.8
-50.8+38
-38+25.4
-25.4+19
-19+12.6
-12.6+6.3
-6.3+3.2
>3.2

11.52
12.04
13.70
8.44
10.07
12.11
7.37
24.75

CUMMULATIVE
PASSING
88.48
76.44
62.74
54.30
44.23
32.12
24.75

CUMMULATIVE
RETAINING
11.52
23.56
37.26
45.70
55.77
67.88
75.25
-

Fig.3 Size analysis of each size fraction of rom coal

Table 3.4: Size analysis of each size fraction of rom coal
d50
d90
d10

10mm
39mm
48mm

3.3: Screening And Size Wise Proximate, Ultimate, Gcv, Hgi, Fsi & Specific Gravity Analysis
Table3.5: Proximate Analysis
SIZE
(mm)

ASH
(%)

MOISTURE
(%)

VM
(%)

FC
(%)

50.8
-50.8+38
-38+25.4

31.03
35.49
33.54

0.21
0.29
0.19

17.32
17.64
17.37

51.44
46.58
48.90

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-25.4+19
-19+12.6
-12.6+6.3
-6.3+3.2

37.47
36.39
35.87
35.05

0.18
0.13
0.33
0.35

17.43
17.61
17.32
17.23

44.92
45.47
46.48
52.63

>3.2

30.12

0.39

18.46

51.03

Table 3.6: Ultimate Analysis

SIZE
(mm)
50.8
-50.8+38
-38+25.4

CARBON
(%)
59.55
54.38
56.09

HYDROGEN
(%)
3.36
3.52
3.58

NITROGEN
(%)
1.06
1.07
1.04

SULPHER
(%)
0.42
0.37
0.50

OXYGEN
(%)
4.37
4.88
5.06

-25.4+19

53.23

3.47

1.10

0.39

4.16

-19+12.6

53.00

3.65

1.06

0.28

5.49

-12.6+6.3

49.89

4.30

1.02

0.86

7.73

-6.3+3.2

54.67

3.56

1.06

0.42

4.89

>3.2

59.95

3.76

1.24

0.78

3.76

Table 3.7: Gross Calorific Value:

SIZE(mm)
50.8
-50.8+38
-38+25.4
-25.4+19
-19+12.6
-12.6+6.3
-6.3+3.2
>3.2

GCV(KCAL/KG)
5707.9
5275.8
5388.7
5086.1
5163.3
5214.3
5228.0
5652.4
Table 3.8: Hardgrove Grindability Index:

SIZE(mm)
50.8
-50.8+38
-38+25.4
-25.4+19
-19+12.6
-12.6+6.3
-6.3+3.2
>3.2

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HGI
88.26
84.17
96.16
79.94
83.82
89.50
81.74
119.37

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Fig. 4 Hardgrove Grindability Index

Table 3.9: Free Swelling Index:
SIZE(mm)
50.8
-50.8+38
-38+25.4
-25.4+19
-19+12.6
-12.6+6.3
-6.3+3.2
>3.2

FSI
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1.5
Table 3.10: Specific Gravity Of Rom Coal

SIZE

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

-200#

1.5123
Table 3.11: Specific Gravity Of Each Size Fraction Of Rom Coal

SIZE(mm)
50.8
-50.8+38
-38+25.4
-25.4+19
-19+12.6
-12.6+6.3
-6.3+3.2
>3.2

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SPECIFIC GRAVITY
1.7059
1.6328
1.5953
1.5804
1.5514
1.5311
1.5283
1.5047

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3.4 Washability Characteristic Of Low Volatile Coking Coal:
Table 3.12: Washability Characteristic For Size Fraction -6.3+3.2 mm
Sp.
Gravity
<1.3

Wt.%

1.3-1.4

9.41

1.4-1.5

22.68

1.5-1.6

28.20

1.6-1.7

10.99

>1.7

27.28

Ash%

Cumulative
Float Wt.%

Cumulative
Float Ash%

Cumulative
Sink Wt.%

Cumulative
Sink Ash.%

ngm

5.45

1.44

5.45

100

32.8

10.85

0.72

10.76

10.85

10.05

98.56

33.19

32.09

6.14

20.24

33.53

16.94

89.15

35.56

50.88

22.19

28.37

61.73

22.16

66.47

40.79

39.19

47.63

35.27

72.72

25.83

38.27

49.94

38.27

67.22

55.86

100

32.8

27.28

55.86

35

86.36

1.44

Fig.5 washability characteristic for size fraction -6.3+3.2 mm

Acc
(%)
17

Ycc
(%)
34

CDcc/m
1.4

NGMcc/m
(%)
51

Am
(%)
31.41

Ym
(%)
44

CDm/r
1.63

NGMm/r
(%)
35

Ar
(%)
60

Yr
(%)
22

Table 3.13: Washability Characteristic For Size Fraction -12.6+6.3 mm

Sp.
Gravity
<1.3

Wt.%

Ash%

Cumulative
Float Wt.%

Cumulative
Float Ash%

Cumulative
Sink Wt.%

Cumulative
Sink Ash. %

NGM

0.75

4.93

0.75

4.93

100

33.71

6.65

0.37

1.3-1.4

5.90
11.77

6.65

10.99

99.25

33.93

30.62

3.7

1.4-1.5

24.72
20.24

31.37

18.28

93.35

35.33

60.33

19.01

1.5-1.6

35.61

30.78

66.98

24.92

68.63

40.77

46.81

49.17

1.6-1.7

11.20

>1.7

21.82

39.78
57.58

78.18
100

27.05
33.71

33.02
21.82

51.54
57.58

33.02
24

72.58
89.09

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Fig.6 washability characteristic for size fraction -12.6+6.3 mm

Acc
(%)

Ycc
(%)

CDcc/m

NGMcc/m
(%)

Am
(%)

Ym
(%)

CDm/r

NGMm/r
(%)

Ar
(%)

Yr
(%)

17

26

1.38

55

31.49

53

1.62

31

60

21

Table 3.14: Washability Characteristic For Size Fraction -19+12.6 mm

Sp.
Gravity
<1.4
1.4-1.5
1.5-1.6

Wt.%

Ash%

Cumulative
Float Wt.%

Cumulative
FloatAsh%

Cumulative
Sink Wt.%

Cumulative
Sink Ash.%

NGM

4.15
20.45
40.27

13.11
19.83

4.15
24.6

13.11
19.69

100
95.85

34.64
35.97

24.6
60.72

2.07
14.37

29.02

64.87

25.1

75.4

39.84

48.32

44.74

1.6-1.7

8.05

37.64

72.92

26.48

35.13

52.25

35.13

68.89

>1.7

27.08

56.6

100

34.64

27.08

56.6

25

86.46

Fig.7 washability characteristic for size fraction -19+12.6

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Acc
(%)
17

Ycc
(%)
13

CDcc/m

NGMcc/m
(%)
40

1.35

Am
(%)
29.11

Ym
(%)
64

CDm/r
1.62

NGMm/r
(%)
33

Ar
(%)
60

Yr
(%)
23

Table3.14: Washability Characteristic For Size Fraction -25.4+19mm

Sp.
Gravity

Wt.%

Ash%

Cumulative
Float Wt.%

Cumulative
Float Ash%

Cumulativ
e
Sink
Wt.%

Cumulative
Sink Ash.%

NGM

<1.4
1.4-1.5
1.5-1.6
1.6-1.7
>1.7

3.28
19.23
39.23
10.31
27.95

14.98
20.37
27.23
36.57
57.32

3.28
22.51
61.74
72.05
100

14.98
19.58
24.44
26.18
34.88

100
96.72
77.49
38.26
27.95

34.88
35.55
39.33
51.72
57.32

22.51
58.46
49.54
38.26
27

1.64
12.89
42.12
66.89
86.02

Ar
(%)
60

Yr
(%)
24

Fig.8 washability characteristic for size fraction -25.4+19mm

Acc
(%)
17

Ycc
(%)
10

CDcc/m
1.34

NGMcc/m
(%)
40

Am
(%)
28.45

Ym
(%)
66

CDm/r
1.62

NGMm/r
(%)
36

Table 3.15: Washability Characteristic For Size Fraction -38+25.4mm

Sp.
Gravity
<1.4
1.4-1.5
1.5-1.6
1.6-1.7
>1.7

Wt.%

Ash%

2.44
17.78
37.92
13.26
28.60

16.51
20.69
27.31
35.03
56.66

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Cumulative
Float Wt.%
2.44
20.22
58.14
71.4
100

Cumulative
Float Ash%
16.51
20.18
24.83
26.72
35.28

Cumulative
Sink Wt.%
100
97.56
79.78
41.86
28.6

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Cumulative
Sink Ash. %
35.28
35.75
39.11
49.81
56.66

NGM

20.22
55.7
51.18
41.86
30

1.22
11.33
39.18
64.77
85.7

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Fig.9 washability characteristic for size fraction -38+25.4mm

Acc
(%)
17

Ycc
(%)
6

CDcc/m

NGMcc/m
(%)
26

1.32

Am
(%)
28.82

Ym
(%)
71

CDm/r

NGMm/r
(%)
39

1.62

Ar
(%)
60

Yr
(%)
23

Table 3.16: Washability Characteristic For Size Fraction -50.8+38mm

Sp.
Gravity
1.4-1.5
1.5-1.6

Wt.%

Ash%

Cumulative
Float Ash%
18.41

Cumulative
Sink Wt.%
100

Cumulative
Sink Ash. %
37.24

NGM

18.41

Cumulative
Float Wt.%
10.43

10.43
37.92

48.35

5.21

1.6-1.7

27.86

28.18

48.35

26.07

89.57

39.43

65.78

29.39

>1.7

23.79

38.68

76.21

30.68

51.65

47.69

51.65

62.28

58.26

100

37.24

23.79

58.26

42

88.1

Fig.10 washability characteristic for size fraction -50.8+38mm

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Acc
(%)
17

Ycc
(%)
7

CDcc/m
1.37

NGMcc/m
(%)
35

Am
(%)
33.32

Ym
(%)
74

CDm/r
1.62

NGMm/r
(%)
47

Ar
(%)
60

Yr
(%)
19

Table :3.17 Washability Characteristic For Size Fraction +50.8mm

Sp.
Gravity

Wt.%

1.4-1.5

8.01

1.5-1.6

25.04

1.6-1.7

14.23

>1.7

52.72

Ash%

Cumulative
Float Wt.%

Cumulative
Float Ash%

Cumulative
Sink Wt.%

Cumulative
Sink Ash. %

NGM

20.51

8.01

20.51

100

45.85

33.05

29.67

33.05

27.44

91.99

48.06

39.27

20.53

37.48

47.28

30.46

66.95

54.94

66.95

40.16

59.66

100

45.85

52.72

59.66

48

73.64

Fig.11 washability Characteristic For Size Fraction +50.8mm

Acc
(%)
18

Ycc
(%)
3

CDcc/m
1.35

NGMcc/m
(%)
23

Am
(%)
30.70

Ym
(%)
44

CDm/r
1.60

NGMm/r
(%)
67

Ar
(%)
60

Yr
(%)
53

3.5 Discussions: On the basis of experimental results the following discussion are made;

From float and sink test of the coal sample, size of (-6.3 + 3.2mm), it was found that from the Table 4.11
the ash at lowest specific gravity (1.2) was 5.45 % and at highest specific gravity (>1.7) the ash % of coal
was 55.86 %.
From the Fig. 4.3, it was observed that the optimum specific gravity of separation is 1.4 with total float
yield 34% at cumulative ash % of 17 i.e. on beneficiation of the coal in a medium of specific gravity 1.4 ,
34 wt. % of coal having 17 % ash was obtained. From the washability data and curves, Characteristic ash%
of clean coal is 24%, Characteristic ash% of reject coal is 46%, Characteristic ash% of middling coal is
between 24% and 46% and near gravity material of clean coal is 51%. If the near gravity material is very
high, it may be regarded as difficult to wash category coals.
From the Table 4.12 of the coal sample size of (-12.6+6.3mm), it was observed that the ash at lowest
specific gravity (1.2) was4.93% ash and at highest specific gravity (>1.7), the ash % of coal was 57.58 %.

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From the Fig 4.4, it can be seenthat the optimum specific gravity of separation is 1.38 with total float yield
26% at cumulative ash % of 17 i.e. on beneficiation of the coal in a medium of specific gravity 1.38,26%
wt. of coal having 17 % ash is achievable. From the washability data and curves, Characteristic ash% of
clean coal is 23%, Characteristic ash % of reject coal is 49%, Characteristic ash % of middling coal is
between 23% and 49% and Near gravity material of clean coal is 55%.
From the Table 4.13 of the coal sample size of (-19+12.6mm),it was found that the ash at lowest specific
gravity (1.3) was13.11% ash and at highest specific gravity (>1.7), the ash % of coal was 56.60 %.
From the Fig 4.5 , it can be depictedthat the optimum specific gravity of separation is 1.35 with total float
yield 13% at cumulative ash % of 17 i.e. on beneficiation of the coal in a medium of specific gravity 1.35,
only13 wt. % of coal having 17 % ash could be obtained. From the washability data and curves,
Characteristic ash% of clean coal is 20%, Characteristic ash % of reject coal is 46%, Characteristic ash % of
middling coal is between 20% and 46% and Near gravity material of clean coal is 40%.
From the Table 4.14 of the coal sample size of (-25.4+19mm), it was observed that the ash at lowest
specific gravity (1.3) was14.98% ash and at highest specific gravity (>1.7), the ash % of coal was 57.32 %.
It was It may be observed from Fig 4.6, that the optimum specific gravity of separation is 1.34 with total
float yield 10% at cumulative ash % of coal having 17 % ash. From the washability data and curves,
Characteristic ash% of clean coal is 19%, Characteristic ash % of reject coal is 45%, Characteristic ash % of
middling coal is between 19% and 45% and Near gravity material of clean coal is 40%.
From the Table 4.15 of the coal sample size of (-38+25.4mm), it was found that the ash at lowest specific
gravity (1.3) was16.51% ash and at highest specific gravity (>1.7), the ash % of coal was 56.66 %.
It was observed from the Fig 4.7 that the optimum specific gravity of separation is 1.32 with total float yield
6% at cumulative ash %of coal having 17 % ash. From the washability data and curves, Characteristic ash%
of clean coal is 19%, Characteristic ash % of reject coal is 46%, Characteristic ash % of middling coal is
between 19% and 46% and Near gravity material of clean coal is 26%.
From the Table 4.16 of the coal sample size of (-50.8+38mm), it was found that the ash at lowest specific
gravity (1.4) was18.41% ash and at highest specific gravity (>1.7), the ash % of coal was 58.26 %.
It was observed from the Fig 4.8 that the optimum specific gravity of separation is 1.37 with total float yield
7% at17 % cumulative ash %. From the washability data and curves, Characteristic ash% of clean coal is
20%, Characteristic ash % of reject coal is 51%, Characteristic ash % of middling coal is between 19% and
46% and Near gravity material of clean coal is 35%.
From the Table 4.17 of the coal sample size of (+50.8) it was found that the ash at lowest specific gravity
(1.4) was20.51% ash and at highest specific gravity (>1.7), the ash % of coal was 59.66 %.
From the Fig4.9, it was observed that the optimum specific gravity of separation is 1.35 with total float
yield 3% at18 % cumulative ash. From the washability data and curves, Characteristic ash% of clean coal is
23%, Characteristic ash % of reject coal is 49%, Characteristic ash % of middling coal is between 23% and
49% and Near gravity material of clean coal is 23%.

IV.

CONCLUSION

From the experimental result and subsequent discussion the following conclusion are drawn.
Large size fractions of coal contains very high ash% so small size fraction of coal was used for the washing
purpose because it contain comparatively low ash% as it is observed in washability data such as size
fraction from +50.8mm contain high ash% as compare to small size fraction from -6.3+3.2mm as very low
ash%.
Generally, washability of low volatile medium coking coal can be improved by crushing it to lower size.
Most of the washaries wash the LVMC coal up to a size of -13mm but on further grinding it to lower sizes
of around -3mm increases the yield further. Difficult washability characteristics of LVMC coal is due to
fine dissemination of mineral particles with macerals and ash% of marketable product which can further be
improved by making coal blendable with prime coking coal, so that this coal can be used in various steel
plants.
On the basis of results obtained by conducting different experiments and considering different aspects of
beneficiation, a complete cost-benefit analysis is necessary prior to taking decision of washing these coals.
Crushing at lower size involves increased cost of size reduction, cost of beneficiation and the handling cost
of materials although there is increase in the yield of the beneficiated coal.
From the washability analysis, crushing of coal to less than inch is economical.
From the washability data it is observed that for coal crushed to 1/8 -1/4 inch at 17% ash the yield is 34 %
at 1.4 cut gravity.
Washing at 17% ash, NGM is very high. It indicates difficult washing. So there is need for blending LVMC
(after beneficiation) with prime coking coal.

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The clean coal can be used as a blend constituent for coke making in steel plants and the middlings can be
used in power plants.
Utilization of LVMC coals after suitable beneficiation can reduce the import of coking coal, thereby saving
considerable amount of foreign exchange.

REFERANCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]

Geological Survey of India (GSI) Report, Government of India 2009: Inventory of Indian Coal Resources.
J. W. Leonard Coal Preparation, Ed., SMME, CO. 1991.
Osborne, DG 1988. Coal Preparation Technology, Vol. 1
SAMEER SARKAR,1996, Fuels and Combustion, 2nd edition, Orient Longman Publication, Mumbai.
Indian Standard: 13810, 1993, Code of Practice for Float and Sink analysis of Coal, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
O.P.GUPTA., 1990, Fuels, Furnaces and Refractory, 1st edition, Khanna Publication, Delhi.
Bird, B. M., 1931, Interpretation of Float-and-sink Data, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Bituminous Coal,
Pittsburgh. vol 2,
James G. Speight, Mercel Dekker, 1994, The Chemistry and Technology of coal. 1st edition
D.V. SubbaRao, Coal Its Beneficiation, M.K. Publications, 2003.
Tsai, S. C., Fundamental of Coal Beneficiation and Utilization, Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 1982
Hills L M, Solid fuel grindability: Literature review
SN 2986 Portland cement Association, Skokie,
Illinois USA 2007

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ECONOMISER FAILURE IN A HIGH PRESSURE BOILER
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

Photo 1- Tube exhibiting deposits

Photo 2- Failed portion from inside

I had been to a sugar mill last month on an assignment for boiler performance improvement. During
the discussion the plant manager mentioned about the economizer tube failures due to external
corrosion near support. I reacted that we can resort to washing if the left over ash is leading to
corrosion during off season. The plant manager confirmed that the economizer was being washed
since two seasons. He was smart in preserving the failed tube.
Seeing the tube I requested to have a longitudinal cut of the tube, so that we could see the inside of the
tube. It was an internal corrosion at the weld. It appearance of inside of the tubes confirmed that is a
deposit induced corrosion. The photos above show what I stated here. I probed into the reasons
possible for pre-boiler system corrosion. My queries and the answers were as belowQuery:
Is the condensate pH low?
Is the condensate return line to feed water tank
made of SS material?
Do you have a DM plant for make up? What is
the pH?

:
Answer:
: No. The pH is always above 8.5.
: Very much.

: We have a DM plant. But before this season

we had added a mixed bed and thus the pH is
6.5 to 7.
What is the DM water storage tank material?
: The tank is MS and rubber lined in sides.
What about the roof? Is it rubber lined?
: It is not.
Please check the condition of roof. It may : During next shut we shall inspect.
corrode due to acidic vapor.
What is the material used for make up water : It is Stainless steel.
line?
Where is the make up going to?
: It is to the feed water tank. Not to the
Deaerator.
Where do you correct the pH? Is it in the feed : In the Deaerator we dose ammonia to correct
water tank or in Deaerator storage tank?
the pH.
Please correct the pH at Feed water tank or : We will take care. We even used DM water
without raising pH in the beginning of the
preferably at DM plant outlet itself. Please
season due to limitation in dosing pump
inspect the Feed water tank for corrosion
capacity.
products in the next shut.

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Why the failure should take place at the weld? The loose corrosion product which peeled off due to
low pH / O2 travels and halts at locations where surface irregularities are available. This is the site for
corrosion where an electrode cell is formed.
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE PH WAS LOW?
The H+ ions in water are more when pH is low. The
hydrogen ions are ready to acquire electrons from
metal. Hence the Fe++ ions break away from the FeFeC structure of steel. The figure by the side explains
what happens when H+ ions are available. The iron
hydroxide peels off and gets transported to other
locations.
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN O2 IS AVAILABLE?
In the presence of oxygen, which is generally
available in make up water tank, rust is formed. Rust is the common name for a very common
compound, iron oxide. Iron oxide, the chemical Fe2O3, is common because iron combines very
readily with oxygen -- so readily, in fact, that pure iron is only rarely found in nature.
Iron (or steel) rusting is an example of corrosion -- an electrochemical process involving an anode (a
piece of metal that readily gives up electrons), an electrolyte (a liquid that helps electrons move) and a
cathode (a piece of metal that readily accepts electrons). When a piece of metal corrodes, the
electrolyte helps provide oxygen to the anode. As oxygen combines with the metal, electrons are
liberated. When they flow through the electrolyte to the cathode, the metal of the anode disappears,
swept away by the electrical flow or converted into metal cations in a form such as rust.
For iron to become iron oxide, three things are required: iron, water and oxygen. Here's what happens
when the three get together:
When a drop of water hits an iron object, two things begin to happen almost immediately. First, the
water, a good electrolyte, combines with carbon dioxide in the air to form a weak carbonic acid, an
even better electrolyte. As the acid is formed and the iron dissolved, some of the water will begin to
break down into its component pieces -- hydrogen and oxygen. The free oxygen and dissolved iron
bond into iron oxide, in the process freeing electrons. The electrons liberated from the anode portion
of the iron flow to the cathode, which may be a piece of a metal less electrically reactive than iron, or
another point on the piece of iron itself.
At anode, Fe
Fe ++ + 2eAt cathode, O2 + H2O + 2 e2 OH++
Overall,
Fe + 2OH
Fe(OH)2
WHAT HAPPENS AFTER THE CORROSION PRODUCTS ENTER THE BOILER?
It can damage the boiler easily with under deposit corrosion. The failure mechanism can be Oxygen
pitting / Hydrogen embrittlement / phosphate attack.
Oxygen pitting is typically broad and shallow and it leads to pinhole leak. Sometimes the covering
deposit may still remain at the failure site.

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Hydrogen damage leads to inter granular cracking of metal. This can happen only in very low pH
condition following heat as well. The deposits prevent the H2 leaving to water side. Instead it travels
through grains. It picks up carbon and forms CH4- methane and causes fissures of metal.
Phosphate damage occurs beneath deposits when the water contains phosphates. Locally OH- ions
concentrate beneath deposits. The metal is pulled out in the form of Fe(OH)2.
WHAT IS TO BE DONE NOW TO GET RID OF DEPOSITS?
Clean the tubes and keep it clean. It is a tough job. One has to do acid cleaning followed by
passivation to get rid of the deposits and establish the uniform magnetite layer, Fe3O4.

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EFFECT OF AIR INGRESS IN BOILERS
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

Figure 1

Many boiler users are ignorant about the air ingress in their boilers. In this article, the detrimental
effects of air ingress are brought out. Some of the readers may feel that I have exaggerated some
points. Reality is that some of our fellow boiler users are carrying losses with air ingress.
WHAT IS AIR INGRESS?
In balanced draft furnace, the FD fan / SA fan / PA fan pump the air in to the furnace. The flue gas
produced is drawn through the boiler by the ID fan. Hence the furnace and downstream the furnace the
boiler is under negative pressure. Thus if some leakage spots are there, the ambient air is drawn
through such openings.
WHY IS THIS AIR INGRESS?
By virtue of boiler configuration, openings are to be made in the boiler enclosures / Waterwall
enclosure. If a seal is improperly designed or improperly erected the seal may fail and develop
leakages. The seals may not have been erected properly. It is possible some of the seals are not taking
care of thermal expansion or the service conditions and thus leakage may develop. One step further the
repairer has not put back the seals as per design. A user can be pardoned for not doing the seal work
during a maintenance since he may not have the blue print of the original design. Let us begin on what
is this air ingress.
WHERE IS THE AIR INGRESS?
In the balance draft furnace there are several areas for ingress. The possible locations include
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Roof top where SH coils penetrate in

Membrane walls where the convection banks penetrate
Roof tubes termination in steam drum
Boiler bank tubes termination in side, front, rear of steam drum
Boiler bank tubes termination in side, front, rear of water drum
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6. Between boiler bank hopper and water drum
7. Hopper manholes
8. Hopper isolation gates & flanges
9. Worn out rotary ash feeders
10. Failed fabric expansion joints
11. Corroded metallic expansion joints
12. Incomplete fastened flange joints
13. Improper roped flanged joints
14. Refractory wall cracks
15. Eroded / corroded APH tubes
16. Economiser casing joints
17. Access doors
18. Roof panel to side walls side joints
19. Water drum to bank casing plates
20. Nose panel to Water drum termination
21. Soot blower openings
22. Gas pressure tappings
23. Leaky view holes
24. Boiler bank casing plate joints
HOW TO LOCATE THE AIR INGRESS?
There can be many more possible locations where the air leaks in. An easy way in solid fuel fired
boiler is of course the ash would leak out in locations where the air goes in. You can always see the
fresh ash spillages around leakage points.
To locate the leakage points the smoke test is done. Another way is to carryout a flame test with ID
fan running. Having identified the leak points measures are to be taken to arrest the leakage. Some
leakages are simply rectified. But at some locations, the design may be faulty, for which one has to
call up the designer / consultant for help. The seals may call for better contemporary design. The
design may need for a review from the boiler thermal expansion point of view.
FINE, SO WHAT IF THE AIR GOES INSIDE?
The list is quite long. Some of the points cost heavy for some boiler users.
1. High unburnt carbon in fly ash
It is a general practice to trim the air flow based on O2 indication from flue gas. When the air leakage
is present the O2 indicated by the on-line O2 meter would mislead the operator. The furnace runs in to
substochiometeric condition. This ultimately leads to increased to unburnt.
2. Increased fuel consumption.
The air ingress downstream the flue path leads to increased heat loss in the chimney. To compensate
for the heat loss one has to feed more fuel.
3. Overloaded ID fan
When we experience that the ID fan is falling short of capacity, we tend to invest in new ID fan / we
start with fan vendors for increasing the fan capacity. In many cases the second ID fan is opted with
higher capacity with the assumption that the existing ID fan is short of capacity. In some cases even
the second ID fan may also prove useless as the leakage persists and the furnace still goes with
positive pressure. The boiler operating expenses increase due to additional power consumption.

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4. Back fire in furnace
The back fire is continuously experienced. The ID damper is at full open position. The operator has no
option except to continue with the problem. The unsafe situation persists. The Insulation of the boiler
is spoilt on this account. Soot is seen around the furnace access doors.
5. Secondary combustion in superheater zones
The furnace begins to starve when the air ingress is more from roof seal box / Convection SH seal box.
The leakage air allows secondary combustion of volatiles. The SH temperature becomes
uncontrollable. Particularly at the time of load variation, the fuel feeder rpm is regulated by the
operator and he finds the SH steam temperature rises faster than the pressure. This is seen in boilers
fired with biomass fuels.
6. Secondary combustion in Boiler bank hoppers
The Unburnt fuels burn at the boiler bank ash hoppers, since the furnace is at substochiometeric
conditions when there is air ingress is present downstream. The unburnt fuel travels downstream
instead of completely burning in the furnace. The ash hoppers get distorted due to secondary
combustion.
7. Ash blockages in boiler bank Baffles
When the ash is not fully burnt in the furnace, the flow ability of ash comes down. The ash particles
now contain fuel particles which may be fibrous / irregular in nature. Thus the fuel and ash settle at
every possible location, where the surfaces are less inclined or flat. The ash does not flow freely and
thus ash accumulates at baffles. Whatever the draft is set the ash does not flow due to nature of the
accumulations.
8. Ash blockages in Hoppers
Carryover of fuel particles to ash hoppers would lead to combustion in ash hoppers. Lumps form due
to static combustion. We try to poke the ash drain pipes but situations repeat often. The combustion is
not complete at the furnace and hence the troubles.
9. Excess Desuperheater spray
In most of the designs the furnace is designed to be hotter as the combustion is to take place here. The
furnace dimensions are so chosen, to achieve the necessary residence time for the fuel particle to burn
fully. Starvation occurs when the air can bypass the furnace and enter the flue gas downstream. No
one can assess the amount of air ingress at leaky zones. Under such conditions the combustion zone
shifts to SH section. Simultaneous combustion and heat transfer at SH section leads to excess Steam
temperature. To our luck if excess capacity is available in the spray control valve, we tend to spray
more. More spray will lead to solids added to SH section. The solids leave behind in SH leading to
deposit related failures. More the spray the turbine blade deposition is experienced.
10. Clinkers formation in furnace
The furnace temperatures are controlled by incorporating necessary heat transfer surface and by
admitting required excess air to cool down the gas below the ash melting temperatures. The excess air
can not be given in the furnace when the ID draws the leakage air downstream. Refractory furnaces
get coated ash deposits. Honey combing of ash accumulations is seen in some agro waste fired boilers.
Refractory roof tops eventually collapse due to increased weight.
11. High furnace temperatures and refractory walls cave in
The excess air when not given in the furnace, the furnace temperature exceeds the design gas
temperatures. When the fuel does not have much of ash, the furnace temperatures go up. The
refractory walls expand unusually leading to furnace walls caving in.

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12. Furnace doors failures
Furnace doors in balanced draft furnaces are refractory lined to thickness of not more than 250 mm.
The doors get cooled by the outside ambient air present around the door. When the furnace is under
+ve pressure the ambient air is not present near the vicinity of the doors. Then the doors bulge. The
manhole frame and manhole distort due to heat. We think the doors fail due to material defect.
13. Furnace refractory failures
The refractory totally collapse often since they loose strength at higher temperatures. The High
temperatures are experienced when the excess air is less and the furnace temperatures go up. The
refractory design would be unstable at higher service temperatures unless the design is modified for
the new service conditions.
14. Furnace seal plates run hot
Many furnaces, particularly in small boilers, are provided with casing plates to prevent air ingress.
When the furnace temperatures are controllable due to insufficient excess air, the casings run hot.
When the furnace goes positive, the gas reaches the air gap between the casing plate and the
refractory. The flame / smoke is seen. Particularly in gas fired boilers the gas burns inside the casing.
15. Fly ash nuisance around the boiler
The fly ash poses a great nuisance not only harming the eyes but also lungs. The boiler house becomes
shabby. The industrial standards go down in front of your customers. The costs for cleaning the boilers
go up. During maintenance, hours are to be allocated only for cleaning. The boiler downtime increases
due to this.
16. Metal wastage due to corrosion beneath ash accumulations
Some fuel ash / coal ash has alkali content. Coupled with flue gas condensation, it would lead to
corrosion of metals.
17. Injuries to personnel
Some of the boilers are provided with penthouses where, the ash accumulates to high level. It poses
safety hazard for any one who enters the penthouse. The hot ash lying underneath could cause hot
burns as well.
It is true not all the points apply to all boilers. Persons who have had experience of operating several
types / makes of boiler would appreciate. Let us attack the leakages henceforth.

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Photo 1: Furnace ash deposits in bio mass due to

high furnace temperature

Photo 3: Fresh ash spills around leakage points in

roof seal box

Photo 2: Marks of outside air ingress below

water drum in a boiler

Photo 4: Ash waterwall roof panel inside

penthouse. Wherever the cracks are there, the air
gets inside.

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Photo 5: The failed metallic expansion joint is

seen after removal of insulation cladding at
Economiser inlet duct. Such leakage locations
lead to wrong to O2 indications.

Photo 6: Indications of smoke at penthouse

confirm air ingress. When the furnace pressure
goes positive at times, the flue gas comes out.

Photo 7: Indications of dust below waterwall

nose panel. The seal was not done as per
drawing.

Photo 8: Ash inside airpreheater confirms failure

of preheater tubes. FD air directly mixing with
flue gas can lead to starvation inside furnace.

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EROSION PHENOMENON IN BOILERS & REMEDIAL MEASURES
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

Last two months had been a special month of erosion diagnosis for me. The cases attended include
high pressure high capacity AFBC & PC fired boilers. I always preferred to have a personal inspection
of the boilers designed by me at least after the first year of operation. My focus was to understand the
preferential erosion pattern which comes inherently due to preferential flow in the gas path
arrangement. When the designers fail to take a feedback, the users suffer. Often users try their own
ideas based on their past experience which may not really extend the availability but continues to give
the failures quite often.
In this article I would try my best to introduce the readers to possible erosion mechanisms that occur in
boilers.
CONVECTION SUPERHEATERS / ECONOMIZER / EVAPORATOR
There are many locations possible
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Erosion in the end coils which come closer to the waterwall / cage wall
Erosion in the coils inside the bank
Erosion at the penetrations in the roof / side wall / casing
Erosion in coils facing ash impingement
Random erosion inside the bank due to ash clogging
Preferential erosion near hanger supports
Erosion caused by soot blower
Preferential erosion due to layout related mechanism
Erosion due to ash fouling

Mode 1: Erosion Of End Coils Near To Waterwall / Cage Wall

This happens when the end coils are very close to waterwall. It is preferable to have a clear gap of 40
mm from the waterwall / cage wall. Apart from this the relative gap between the coils versus the coil
to wall matters. If the gap is more then the preferential gas flow takes place. I see many designers try
to maintain closer pitch than the end clearance. This makes the gas flow to take place at the end gap.
This can show up in erosion of tube bends of manholes.
Use of staggered pitch inside the coils can make the gas to flow preferentially between the end tubes &
casing. If the coils to cage wall / waterwall / casing space is less than 40 mm, the erosion rate increases.
Mode 2: Erosion Of Coils Inside The Bank
Case 1: when the coil spacing is non uniform due to improper erection the coil can fail due to erosion.
During the erection some coils may come out of lane abnormally making it susceptible for erosion.
Case 2: Coil spacing can be non-uniform due to inadequate number of hanger tubes or coil alignment
bands.

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Mode 3: Erosion Of Coils At The Penetrations
Case 1: Wherever the coils penetration through the casing / side wall, there has to be sleeves to protect
the tubes against erosion. There can be erosion due to the preferential flow of ash along the casing /
wall.
Case 2: Inadequate sealing can cause erosion of tubes due to air ingress. The ash that comes out
through the leaky location can fall back under negative draft cutting the tube.
Mode 4: Erosion In Coils Facing Ash Impingement
Case 1: There are possibilities of ash slagging in radiant SH due to fuel ash characteristics. As the ash
fuses, there is slagging & recrystallisation and creation of ash with sharper edges. If there are tubes
facing the ash stream, then there is erosion. The erosion rate is high if the tubes are placed in the gas
lane.
Case 2: when there is pitch change / alteration in pitch from the previous bank, the trailing bank
suffers erosion due to ash impingement. In sufficient space between the two banks causes erosion. The
tubes are seen with ash impingement / erosion marks.
Mode 5: Random Erosion Of Bank
Case 1: when there are possibilities of ash bridging due to narrow spacing of coils, the gas streams
takes a tortuous path through the free gas flow area. The ash clogging can happen due to trapping of
ash lumps inside the bank. This happens in horizontal bank. Staggered pitch causes such erosion.
Mode 6: Preferential Erosion At Hanger Tube Support Points.
Case 1: when hanger tubes are pitched closer, they act as impingement separators for the dust. The
dust preferentially travels along the hanger tubes. Erosion is seen in between the hangers & the coils.
Mode 7: Ash Deposition On Uncooled Supports
When the ash has fouling / slagging properties, there is deposition on uncooled supports & spacer bars
/ alignment bands. The ash builds over the uncooled support. Nearby areas, erosion is experienced.
Mode 8: Erosion Due To Soot Blower
Worn out soot blower nozzles, stuck lance tubes, higher soot blowing pressure, presence of condensate
in the soot blowing steam, frequent operation of the soot blower can cause erosion of tubes. Soot
blower can elutriate the settled ash in to gas steam and cause erosion.
Mode 9: Preferential Erosion Due To Layout
The layout of the pressure parts can matter to a great extent on preferential erosion.
Case 1: Accommodating headers inside the flue path causes reduction in apparent gas flow area. This
can accelerate the gas velocity and thus erosion.
Case 2: Sharp gas turns cause preferential erosion. There is more gas flow & dust load causing erosion
in certain locations.

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REMDEIAL SOLUTIONS
Gas baffles: gas baffles are provided to slow down and to reduce the preferential gas flow.
Protective shields: Shields are engineered to protect the parent tubes. The shields would be replaced as
per the frequency
Sleeves: Full cover on tubes are provided to avoid damage to parent tube at the penetrations in
waterwall / steam cooled wall / casing

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FANS AT WORK IN BOILERS

By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

Today many Boiler users are quite knowledgeable, to buy a boiler with high heat transfer surfaces at a
competitive price. After installation suddenly they are perplexed why the boiler does not generate the
required steam to meet the process demand. Sometimes the problems are related to fan and the draft
system design.
Author wishes to share his design and trouble shooting experience for the benefit of boiler users and
the boilermakers. In this article the case studies are presented.
CASE 1
The boiler was a 30 TPH bagasse fired one. In this installation two 60 % capacity ID fans were
provided. Both ID fans had to be kept in operation to meet the steam demand. The furnace draft was
inadequate. There was lot of back firing whenever the boiler load was increased beyond a point. The
ID fan inlet ducting arrangement was provided as shown in figure 1. The pressure drops were checked
along the Flue gas path and found to be OK as per design.
It was doubted that there could be interrupted gas flow, as the gas had to split into two streams in
opposite directions. Hence a partition plate was introduced in the inlet ducting as shown. And it
worked. The smooth flow of gas in to the ID fan inlet now ensured the design performance of the ID
fans.
CASE 2
The boiler was provided with a high pressure FD fan to meet the combustion air requirement of a 30
TPH FBC boiler. Client reported problem of noise & vibration from the FD fan particularly at partially
loaded condition. FAN vendor could not resolve the problem. The sound could be heard at the factory
entrance which was nearly half a kilometer away from the boiler house. On a close inspection of the
inlet guide vane (IGV), it was observed that the IGV would induce a swirl motion to the entering air in
a direction opposite to that of Fan rotation. The linkages were removed and the IGV was totally
modified so that the rotation of swirl was in the same direction to that of FAN. Incidentally the Fan
vendor had tried just reversing the IGV. This would not change the swirl direction.
The problem was solved after the turbulence created by the IGV was removed. See figure 2.
CASE 3
The boiler was provided with a fluidized bed combustor. The capacity of the boiler was 6 tph. The FD
fan was not developing the required head. The bed could not be fluidized under cold condition.
Client had planned for replacement of FD fan. Yet it was felt that the problem could be related to
obstruction at Fan mouth. The FD fan was provided with a circular damper as shown in figure 3. The
fan was too small to provide an Inlet guide vane. The FD fan inlet damper was too close to the Fan
inlet. As such the FD fan entry velocities are kept as high as 25 m/s by fan vendors. It is very
necessary to have a proper inlet system, which would ensure a free uninterrupted flow to the eye on
the impeller.
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A small length of duct was provided in between the Damper and the Fan. The fan served its purpose. It
is necessary to check the velocity at the inlet flange of fan and provide necessary transition to reduce
the velocity and thus the damper draft loss.
CASE 4
In this case the fan assembled by the vendor was wrong there was no overlapping of the Inlet
mouthpiece in to the Impeller. This overlapping is very important to realize the design performance of
the Fan. Recirculation of air / gas is reduced by the overlap. The overlap was provided and the fan
proved its capacity.
CASE 5
It was a case again related to improper assembly. There was excess overlapping and the impeller had
been placed much forward than what was designed. Some manufacturers do specify the back plate to
impeller clearance. Since this was a shop-assembled fan from vendor, this information was not
available. Once the impeller was pulled out, keeping a minimum overlapping between impeller and
inlet mouth, the problem got solved. In narrow width impellers this would be a common problem.
When the mouthpiece is projected too much inside, the full impeller width is not utilized and hence
both volume handled and head developed will be low.
CASE 6
There were 5 x 35 TPH boilers with this client. The client had complained that the boiler performance
was OK for the four years. Later on the boiler never generated rated steam capacity. The entire flue
path was checked for any air ingress. The leakages were arrested. Yet there was a shortfall in capacity.
The ID fan was opened and inspected. It was found that the portion of inlet mouthpiece was cut and
removed. On inquiry with maintenance staff, it was learnt that this had to be done for replacement of
ID fan impellers in all five boilers.
It was true that the ducting system did not have any provision for removal arrangement of the impeller.
The suction ducting should have been provided with a spool piece or an expansion joint, to facilitate
easy replacement of the impeller.
CASE 7
Once a client owning a rice mill called up for solving his chimney vibration problem. Not only that.
The residents around the plant could not use their phone, as there was noise interference. People who
have the habit of sleeping on floor complained that they hear humming noise.
The problem boiled down to fan design. There is a minimum clearance to be maintained between the
casing and the impeller at the cut off. When this is less, the fan develops high frequency air pulsation
equal to no of blades multiplied by fan rpm. This high frequency noise had lead to chimney vibration.
The clearance at cut off was reduced and this solved not only the chimney vibration but also the
nuisance to the surrounding residents. See figure 5.
CASE 8
A common ducting arrangement followed by the boilermakers is shown in figure 6. In one case, the ID
fan was mounted on concrete slab of the first floor. The ducting arrangement was as shown in figure 6.
The Client experienced vibration of the floor slab. He had procured a new ID fan from different
manufacturer to solve the problem. The vibration continued. Client always blamed the vibration due to
improper balancing. The ID fan was brought to ground and run without any connected ducting on
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suction side. Of course on the discharge side a damper was put to avoid overloading of the motor. The
fan ran smooth. Client realized that the circular damper and the bend ducting in front of the fan were
the causes. The bend & damper had prevented the smooth flow of gas in to the impeller eye. A suction
box design was adopted as shown in figure 7, to remove the vibration.
CONCLUSION
The fan performance is linked to ducting system associated with it, both at suction side and discharge
side. Improper ducting leads to poor performance of fan. Before we blame it on the boiler / combustor,
a closer examination of ducting system is required.

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Photo 1: One more installation with flap damper right at the fan inlet.

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FINE TUNING EXPERIENCE OF A CFBC BOILER
By K.K.Parthiban / Boiler specialist / Venus Energy Audit System
Introduction
The Industrial boilers have been seeing a growth in capacity in the recent years. Current trend is to
install CFBC boilers to realize better combustion efficiency. Boiler operators are now required to
learn the tricks & tips of CFBC boiler operation. I share my experience on tuning a CFBC boiler
during its post commissioning phase. The readers may find this case interesting with respect to the
minimum instrumentation requirement for CFBC. Readers will appreciate that instrumentation has
helped to tune the CFBC unit operation.
About the boiler
The CFBC boiler supplied by Chinese company has been in operation for about 3 months prior to
my visit to this plant. The boiler is designed for 100% coal, 50% coal & 50% petcoke. The boiler
parameters are 70 TPH, 88 kg/cm2, 510 deg C and feed water temperature is 124 deg C. The design
boiler efficiency is 87% with a D grade Indian coal of 36.57 % ash. The arrangement is as shown in
figure 4. The boiler is provided with twin refractory cyclones. A platen SH (secondary) is placed
inside the combustor. The final SH & economizers are arranged in the second pass.
CFBC working principle
The circulating fluidized bed combustion technology, CFBC, uses greater combustor superficial gas
velocities than the bubbling bed combustor. See figure 1 & 2.
CFBC operates under a special fluid dynamic condition, in which the fine solids particles are
transported and mixed through the furnace at a gas velocity exceeding the average terminal velocity
of the particles. The major fraction of solids leaving the furnace is captured by a solids separator
and is recirculated back to the base of the furnace. The high recycle rate intensifies solids mixing
and evens out combustion temperatures in the furnace.
CFBC systems operate in a fluid dynamic region between that of BFB and pulverized fuel firing.
This fluidization regime is characterized by high turbulence, solid mixing and the absence of a
defined bed level. Instead of a well-defined solids bed depth, the solids are distributed throughout
the furnace with a steadily decreasing density from the bottom to the top of the furnace.
CFBC is characterized by:

High fluidizing velocity of 4.0 -6.0 m/s

Dense bed region in lower furnace without a distinct bed level

Water-cooled membrane walls.

Optional in-furnace heat transfer surfaces located above the dense lower bed. This can be
evaporator panel / SH panel in platen form.

Solids separator to separate entrained particles from the flue gas stream and recycle them to
the lower furnace. The solid separator can be water cooled / steam cooled / refractory lined.
Design of solid separator can be different from manufacturer to manufacturer.

Aerated sealing device, loop seal, which permits return of collected solids back to the
furnace.

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For the CFBC, gravity feed of fuel directly into the combustor has proven satisfactory for meeting
the desired level of efficient mixing.
A solids separator located at the outlet of the combustion chamber separates entrained particles
from the flue gas stream. The separator is designed for high solid collection efficiency with nearly
100 per cent efficiency for particles greater than 90 microns in diameter. Fuel can also be fed in the
recirculation solids stream at the seal pot.
The collected solids are returned to the combustion chamber via the loop seal, which provides a
pressure seal between the positive pressure in the lower furnace and the negative draft in the solids
separator. This prevents the furnace flue gas from short circuiting up the separator dip leg and
collapsing the separator collection efficiency. The recirculation system has no moving parts and its
operation has proven to be simple and reliable. By injecting small amounts of high pressure
fluidizing air into the loop seal, the solids movement back to the lower furnace is maintained.
The following are the problems experienced by the operating team
1. Efficiency of the boiler is low. The unburnt coal in fly ash is around 1.79%.
2. Boiler does not generate the rated steam at rated furnace temperature.
3. Even with a furnace temperature of 950 deg C & flue gas O2 at 8%, the steam generation is 62
TPH.
The operating engineers shared their experience during the commissioning phase. There has been
heavy air ingress in II pass roof & where economiser tubes penetrate the casing. There was shortage
of ID fan capacity with all these leakages. The client had installed penthouse for the second pass &
seal boxes for economiser headers. Further the seal welding of entire second pass casing to
structure was done. Only after this the boiler draft problem got removed.
Review of efficiency of the boiler
At the time of visit the boiler was operating at 60 TPH with O2% of 8%. The as-fired moisture of
coal is around 14%. The GCV on air dried basis more or less matched the design GCV. Assuming
effect of air infiltration is nil, the excess air for design coal worked out to be 61.2%. With an LOI of
1.79% in fly ash the efficiency was predicted to be 86.89%. A comparison of losses is given below.
Design
coal

Comparative efficiency performance

Moisture

Standard
coal

% by wt

14

14

Carbon

% by wt

45.17

43

Hydrogen

% by wt

0.82

2.69

Oxygen

% by wt

5.44

5.6

Sulphur

% by wt

0.55

0.47

Nitrogen

% by wt

0.17

1.05

Ash

% by wt

33.85

33.19

100

100
4207

total
GCV- as fired

Kcal /kg

3760

ADB moisture

% by wt

7.09

GCV - ADB

Kcal /kg

4062

4500

HLS1, Unburnt carbon loss

1.07

0.94

HLS2, Total Heat loss through the ash

0.37

0.33

HLS3, Heat lost through moisture in air

0.28

0.27

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HLS4, Heat lost thro moisture & H2 in fuel

3.6

5.76

HLS5, Heat lost through dry flue gas

7.29

6.91

HLS6, Radiation loss

0.5

0.5

Total losses

13.11

14.71

Therefore, Boiler efficiency,

86.89

85.29

My client used direct method for evaluation of boiler performance. The reasons for not achieving
even these values were due to the following. In fact the same problem is faced among many boiler
users. I pointed out the following facts to client.
1. There is a difference in total moisture between as received coal & as fired coal. In the input coal
to coal handling plant the moisture can be at least 2-3% higher. Coal can dry up in the crushing
& screening process. The boiler consumes less fuel but the weight booked is with additional
moisture. Hence there is a need to establish the variation in Total moisture in raw coal & fired
coal.
2. In direct method, the GCV & weight of coal should be both on the as fired basis. Taking GCV
on crushed coal & weight on raw coal is not correct. Moisture & GCV estimation of raw coal
can be very erroneous due to sampling error. The moisture & GCV on crushed coal is reliable
since the coal is homogenized in crushing & screening process.
3. Total moisture estimation has to be done immediately after sampling. The GCV should be done
on bone dry basis. If lab humidity conditions are constant in all season / in all hours air dry
basis will not add error. Boiler users need to know that GCV is reported on air dried basis by
lab. We need to calculate the GCV on as fired basis.
4. The coal feeding is normally varied depending on the load. This variable can affect the
efficiency practically. The oxygen reduces when coal is fed. This leads to unburnt CO /
hydrocarbon leaving the furnace. Relying on O2 for air adjustment was not correct. LOI of ash
is also to be watched for O2 trimming.
Shortage of steam generation capacity & steam temperature
CFBC boilers do not have bed coils as in AFBC. The steam is generated across the entire furnace.
The heat transfer coefficient is dependent on the amount of fines present in the recirculating ash.
The following are the possible causes for loss of steam generation.

Less fines in the feed itself.

Poor performance of cyclone separator / separators
Loop seal reversal.

In case the ash content itself is very less the boiler should be provided with fly ash recirculation
arrangement. Incidentally the boiler bank ash, Economiser ash, APH ash and even ESP ash of an
AFBC boiler can be a feed for CFBC boiler in order to adjust the fines content in furnace. It also
helps in re-burning of ash. The presence of fines is read by the pressure transmitters placed along
the height of the boiler. Here I should make a mention that there are some manufacturers do not
provide this. There was hardly any head read by the pressure transmitter. See picture 1. So I went
for sampling & sieve analysis of coal, bed ash & fly ash.
The table 1 showed there were hardly any fines in the feed or in bottom ash. Loop seal ash
distribution more or less tallied the requirement. Figure 3 is based on extensive trials in a CFBC

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unit. It could be confirmed that the cyclone performance is OK. I had advised for the change of coal
size as in the AFBC boiler looking at the higher content of over size particles.
At the time of visit, the view holes in dip legs of Cyclone were opened & seen. It was found that
there was improper recycling in one of the cyclones. There was reverse flow in one dip leg. See
photo 1 & 2. It was calculated that the total loop seal air flow requirement should be 1000 m3/h,
whereas the present roots blower capacity is 3210 m3/h and all its capacity was used up for loop
seal. This was reduced gradually by opening the relief valve to 30%. The loop seal was seen
working after this. The ash recycling is very important to attain higher efficiency. The carbon burn
up improves with the presence of fine particulates. The working of the loop seal could be identified
by the heavier airbox pressure seen in dip leg and riser leg has less airbox pressure. See picture 3,
showing the inadequate dip leg pressures. See picture 4 which shows the dip leg airbox pressure is
more than the riser leg side.
I left the plant insisting on the coal particle size and ash recycling arrangement required for
maintaining the fines content in the furnace for improving steam generation & carbon burn up.
The second visit
After months later, the customer called up again asking for the visit. By this time the OEM had
tried everything & left it to me. When the customer called up, I requested them to change the coal
size first. I promised to visit only after this is done. Two days after the switch over I had visited.
Boiler performance on Coal of 8 mm top size crushed coal

In the last two days the coal size was changed as per the recommendation given earlier. This
has helped in rising the boiler steam generation without having to exceed the furnace
temperature above 930 deg C. The dust load in the free board is found to rise as indicated by the
free board pressure transmitter. Earlier the differential pressure between upper & lower furnace
before switching over to 8 mm coal was hardly 20 mmWC. Now it is seen as 50 mmWC. See
picture 1 & 2.
The boiler was seen to generate 75 TPH with a bed temperature of 925 deg C. The loop seal
temperature has reduced to 920 930 deg C. Earlier this was going to 950 deg C and with high
excess air. The boiler exit gas temperature was more than 190 deg C.

Loop seal working

In this visit also I found that one of the loop seals was not working. Then the damper settings of air
to loop seals were adjusted. The dip leg seal must be filled with material to a height more than the
riser leg side. The material height at riser is fixed by the construction of the loop seal. When the bed
expands beyond 600 mmWC, the material overflows to furnace. The height of the dip leg is
maintained by adjusting the aeration.

After correcting the loop seal, it was seen to contribute for dust load in free board. The bed
temperatures were then seen to be within limits. The boiler was operated at 75 TPH (beyond
rated capacity) without having to raise the temperature beyond 930 deg C.
In a nut shell, the loop seal operation is very vital in recirculation of fines and this can
contribute increasing the dilute bed above the dense bed.
In fact the dip leg air flow is maintained at 0.3 m/s or less just to promote the aeration of
material in dip leg.
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In riser leg the transfer is a function of the fluidizing air velocity. This is designed for 1.3 m/s. It
needs modulation depending on the fine ash generation. In case the fines are increasing beyond
limit and the furnace gets loaded with dust, the same can be drained from dip leg drain.

Conclusion
CFBC boilers need certain essential instrumentation for proper combustor operation &
identification of a deviation. Figures 1 to 3 are provided for the interest of the CBFC owners.
Figure 1- Furnace & loop seal instrumentation
1. The air flow adjustment valve is for regulation of aeration at dip leg. Helps in proper start up.
Or else it would take more time to establish the loop seal.
2. Air flow control valve at riser leg decides the transfer rate to main furnace. Excess transfer rate
will lead to seal break. In adequate transfer rate will result in plugging of loop seal.
3. Air flow indications provide the operators parameters for regulation. Or else operators have to
make blind adjustment. Many times loop seal will break.
4. Vent control valve is required since a twin lobe blower is used here. Or else VFD will be
required.
5. Loop seal needs drain in order to control the lean bed density. Too much of dust will result in
combustion temperature.
6. Drains are required for the main combustor as well. The bed ash cooler may malfunction any
time.
7. Presence of adequate ash in dip leg is known by this.
8. Comparison of the pressures tells the loop seal is functioning.
9. Height of dense bed is known by this (includes drop across distributor).
10. Height of lean bed is known by this.
11. Secondary air is adjusted to complete the combustion in furnace itself.
Figure 2: Primary air system
1. Air flow meter after APH ensures the leakage air flow in APH is ignored. Moreover tube
leakage is identifiable in case the damper opening increases for the same air flow.
2. As APH develops tube leakage the pressure drop across APH can be used for inference.
3. Cold air is used for coal chute flushing. This prevents the chute fires / explosions / chute
clinkering.
4. Air pressure is a measurable parameter for monitoring. Damper settings are not reliable.
Figure 3: Secondary air system
1. Air flow meter after APH ensured that the leakage air flow at APH is ignored.
2. Pressure to ensure penetration is possible for CO ppm reduction is possible by choosing to close
dampers optionally.
3. Valves to choose levels of secondary air ports based on FC / VM ratio.
4. As APH develops leakage the pressure drop can be used for diagnosis.
New buyers may now review the instrumentation requirement. Existing CFBC owners can review
what supplement instrumentation is required for their plant.

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Figure 1: The principle of CFBC

Figure 2: CFBC illustration with cyclone &

loop seal.

Coal
Top

Bottom

mean
size

13

9.5

4.5

0.2
0.6
Mean particle size

% wt
42.9
8
24.0
6
20.4
8
12.4
8

mean

% wt
8.88
9.47
22.4
5
59.2

mean
0.84
0.43

4.08
1.08
0.41
0.07
5.65

Bed ash
Top
13
6
3
1

Bottom
6
3

mean
size
9.5
4.5

1
2
0.2
0.6
Mean particle size

0.45
0.35
2.07

Cyclone
ash

1.5

Bottom
1

mean
size
1.25

0.425

0.7125

0.425

0.25

0.3375

Top

0.25

0.075
0.1625
Mean particle size

% wt
0.93
12.9
3
26.8
9
40.7
5

Figure 3: Typical size distribution of particles in a

CFBC boiler.

mean
0.01
0.09
0.09
0.07
0.26

Photo 1: flow of ash in Photo 2: Backing of ash in

Table 1: Sieve analysis of coal, bed loop seal- working well.
the next loop seal.
ash & loop seal ash.
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Figure 4: A view of CFBC boiler.

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Picture 1: This is the picture of furnace at the first visit. The furnace bottom temperature is
higher that the free board. The free board pressure is hardly 11 mmWC. There is considerable
temperature drop in free board. Again at loop seal the temperature is more. It means combustion
is taking place at loop seal.

Picture 2: After the parameters were corrected, the steam generation went to 75 TPH with
furnace & loop seal temperatures at 900-920 deg C. The lean bed height is now 42 mmWC.

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Picture 3: Loop seals not working before the adjustments were made. The dip leg airbox
pressure is less than the riser leg side airbox pressure in right cyclone. There is no markable
difference in the left cyclone either.

Picture 4: The air flows between cyclones were balanced & valves were throttled to see that
there is at least 200 mmWC more pressure at the dip leg side. This picture was taken
immediately after the adjustment. Within 2 hrs the boiler reached full load at a lower furnace
temperature.

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IMPORTANCE OF PROPER COMMISSIONING OF STEAM PIPE SPRING HANGERS &
SUPPORTS
By K.K.Parthiban, Venus Energy Audit System
There are several pipings that connect various equipments in a power plant. These pipes are to be
supported properly at regular intervals. Invariably the pipings are hot and hence there is thermal
movement of piping in service. In order to take care of the movement and at the same time to offer
proper support, a combination of rigid hanger, rigid support, roller support, guided supports, limit stops
are provided. There is another important support system called spring supports. Spring supports are
essential to take care of the movement and at the same time offer a support without straining the pipe /
or the connected equipment. Boiler feed pump and turbine flanges are important connections that are not
to be loaded beyond the allowable forces. Also there will be thermal movements to be taken care of.
Spring supports can be variable spring support, variable spring hanger, constant load hanger, constant
load support.
Equipment such as Turbine generator, Final SH header, Steam drum, main steam header , LP heater, HP
heater , Condenser, Condensate pump, BFP are somewhat fixed to some locations. These equipments yet
have thermal expansion at the connecting ends to piping.
The pipes have their self weight and imposed loads due to valves. Certain reaction loads due to opening/
closing of control valves and safety valves also act on the piping. Pipes are insulated and thus have
additional loads.
Pipe lines like any other equipment used to be supported at regular intervals to prevent sagging. Pipes
can be supported by pipe racks or hung or base supported from boiler supporting structure or building.
The routing of pipes is done from aesthetic sense, accessibility for valves, instruments, and head room
clearance and to make use of nearby structure.
Pipings are subjected to thermal expansion. If the piping is not designed for flexibility, we may have
strained flanges, weld joints, strained bends, and strained branches. Ultimately pipe would rupture if the
piping is not designed with flexibility. We often see break down of piping, header due to improper
piping design and improper construction of steam pipings.
Piping failures are due to,
1) Layout changes executed by construction engineers either due to interferences or by their own
decisions.
2) Improper commissioning of pipe support due to lack of knowledge.
3) Inadequate rigidity of the base support.
4) Failure to remove the temporary anchoring done for construction purpose.
5) Failure to locate the support with a shift based on expected thermal movement as per stress
analysis report.

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Recently I had come across a case of a main steam header crack which occurred within few months of
commissioning of a power plant. The cause was identified as non-removal of temporary anchors of
steam piping. But the construction manager showed an attitude of disagreement to the finding. He went
ahead to say that their designer had verified that the header should not fail for this reason. It is
unfortunate that the magnitude of thermal forces is not verified by calculation by the designer. The
inspection made by the design engineer was not complete. The case study is presented below:
This is in the case of a 2 x 25 MW power plant. The main steam parameters are 105 kg/cm2g and 545
deg C. The newly commissioned 2 x 115 TPH boilers and two steam turbines are linked by the main
steam header placed on the roof of control room. The steam pipings from boilers are of 250 nb OD x 32
thk. The steam piping to TG is also 250 nb pipe with 32 thk. The main steam header is of 400 nb dia &
44.45 thk. The main steam boiler is of 6.5 m long. It is anchored at one end allowed to expand in
opposite direction. The steam piping model and arrangements are shown in figure 1. The customer had
arranged for all the piping system drawings. I traced the piping for the correctness of spring hangers,
spring supports, guides & rigid supports. While all the supports are found at the right places, certain
additional temporary supports were seen inside the insulation. After the insulation was removed the
piping was seen to have been locked at locations shown in the drawing.
The unit had several start / stops since there were teething troubles with the various equipments. There
were totally about 20 stoppages. I had concluded that the large cyclic forces must have led to the
failures. This led to the crack of pipe close to the weldments. Generally a weldment is stronger that the
parent metal due to extra thick reinforcement at weld. In addition the heat affected zone is likely to have
some minute hair line cracks. The cracks grow if sufficient force is made available. Cycling forces
accelerate the growth of the crack.
Reasoning by forces / bending moment / stress analysis
To support the argument, the thermal forces were estimated. It can be seen from the calculations, the
order of the forces were simply too high.

The header is considered as a simply supported pipe with various loads acting on it. It has its own
weight along with insulation. The bending stresses can be estimated for this case separately.
Part of the weight of connecting pipes & valves will be acting on the header. Depending on the
location of the support in the pipe, the bending stresses can be calculated.
When the connecting pipes are restricted by locks, the restricted thermal expansion of pipe develops
thermal stresses. The stresses transfer as forces on to the header. The forces are found to be of very
high order. The order of the forces can be seen below.
The above three stresses are added to the longitudinal stresses developed by internal pressure. The
calculations proved the failure was bound to occur at the location where the failure had taken place.

Estimation of forces on header by the restricted piping,

Thermal Co-efficient For P22 Material

= 14.35x10-6 mm / mm / C

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Youngs modulus For P22 Material E
Operating temperature
T
Thermal Stress
(On complete restraint)
Thermal stress

= 1.4342 x 104 kg/mm2

= 535C
= *T*E
= 14.35x 10-6 * 535*1.434x104
= 110.1 kg/mm2

Assuming the pipe is flexible to absorb the thermal expansion to an extent of 90%, the actual stress can
be taken as 10% of the above.
Therefore, Stress in the piping

Converting stresses into forces:

Stress
Force at R (from boiler 1)

= 110.1* 10%
= 11.01 kg/mm2
= F/A
=A
= 11.01 * (273-209)/4
= 266750 kg

Force at S (to boiler 3)

= 11.01* (219-163)/4
= 185000 kg

Force at T (to TG3)

= 11.01* (273-209)/4
= 266750 kg

The forces act as bending moments on the header. Stresses due to bending moment add to the
longitudinal stress developed due to internal pressure. It is found that allowable stresses have exceeded
the value specified by the code.
Related case studies
In another installation, photographs 4 to 6 were taken. In photographs 4 & 5, we can see here how the
inadequate structural support has yielded to load. The variable spring support close to these supports has
got loaded heavily and it is no more a spring support. These developments which show up during
commissioning have to be brought to the designers notice to avoid major catastrophe in steam piping.
Photographs 7 to 13 are from a new power plant. These photographs are not covering all the wrong
installations at the plant. In general such mistakes are seen in several plants.
Recommendations for a proper piping support installation & commissioning
1. Hanger and supports are to be used only for the intended purpose. It is not to be used for scaffolding
purpose.
2. The pipe routing is not to be altered by erection engineer. If done, it should be after the revision of
stress analysis and load calculations.
3. The location of pipe support is not to be changed by the erector. If done, it should be after the

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revision in stress analysis and load calculations.
4. Spring supports and assemblies should not be used for earthing.
5. Temporary supports used for piping should be removed finally after the complete insulation work
also. Finally the insulation should be completed left over area too.
6. All spring supports are to be unlocked.
7. After hydro test, if the springs do not return to cold position, they have to be adjusted to match the
pointer returns to cold position.
8. At the first heating of the piping, the spring supports are to be monitored till the piping reaches its
rated duty condition.
9. After the construction activities are completed, piping engineer should walk through with the
drawings and spring support data sheet to ensure that hangers and supports have been erected
correctly unlocked and that no temporary support is preventing the free movement of piping.
10. Sliding supports should be properly designed and erected. The piping is placed centrally to the
support in cold condition by many of us. Many times we can see the pipe is about to slip off from the
support.
11. It is vital that no pipe line fouls with the structure, cable trays, walk ways etc, hand rails, which can
cause serious damage and accident when thermal expansions start occurring.
Final word
It is a great set back if the piping fails in service. The steam force in the pipe can cause damages to
unpredictable levels to power plant and the staff. It was to the luck of the plant that the damage was
minimal when the header failed. There are so many plants, where piping supports are not commissioned
by the engineers. For the readers information only, some photographs are attached with this article. A
thermal expansion chart is attached with this article for readers information.

Venus Energy Audit System has trained engineers to look in to these aspects and provide with
inspection reports. Functional inspection is different from general inspection. These can be better
inspected by designated inspectors.

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Figure 1: The drawing shows the piping arrangements connected to the main steam header. The drawing
shows the location of temporary anchoring. The pipings & headers are meant for carrying steam at a pressure
of 100 kg/cm2 & at 540 deg C.

Photo 1: The steam piping from header to old TG Photo 2: The steam piping from boiler no 2 to header is
is seen locked up. The insulation was removed to seen locked up. The insulation was removed to identify
identify the temporary anchoring.
the temporary anchoring.

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Photo 3: The header crack can be seen here very close to the weldment.

Photo 5: In the steam main steam piping, this is the

status of the next support. The rigid hanger support
base is not rigid enough.

Photo 4: This is a mistake by a designer that a base

support for hanger was not rigid enough. This is from
Photo 6: We can see that the spring support next to
another installation.
the above two supports has got overloaded.

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Photo 7: A constant load hanger is seen with an Photo 8: A spring support waiting to be loaded in the
improvised lock at a recently commissioned operating power plant.
installation.

Photo 9: A pipe is seen with temporary support

though the permanent support is installed nearby.

Photo 10: Pipe support partially commissioned by the

commissioning team.

Photo 12: Steam piping to TG is seen buried in the

TG building wall. This is a common mistake seen.

Photo 11: A rigid hanger in the boiler feed piping

designed for 125 kg/cm2 is seen fallen due to poor
welding at support.

Photo 13: Due to burying the steam line inside the TG

wall, the pipe support gets lifted off it is sliding base.

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Monel (66Ni-29Cu-Al)

Monel (67Ni-30Cu)

25Cr - 20Ni

Straight chromium stainless steels

(12Cr,17Cr and 27Cr)

Austenitic Stainless steels

Intermediate alloy steels(5Cr - Mo

through 9Cr-Mo)

Carbon Steel; Carbon-moly steel,

low-Chromium steels (through
3Cr)

Material specification

538

593

649

704

760

9.56

6.71

7.41

8.33

9.25

9.21

10.04

10.18 11.11

10.70 11.83 12.96 14.10

7.54

8.37

4.44

3.25

5.36

3.94

6.33

4.66

7.33

5.40

8.29

6.16

9.26

6.92

8.42

9.17

10.25 11.21 12.20

7.66

3.61

4.55

5.53

6.54

7.60

8.68

9.80

10.95 12.11 13.34

0.00

0.97

1.77

2.61

3.45

4.40

5.36

6.35

7.38

8.46

9.58

10.83 11.93 13.15

12.82 13.46 13.82 14.22 14.56 14.94 15.30 15.66 16.02 16.38 16.74 17.10 17.46 17.80

2.71

1.84

0.00

1.02

13.46 14.11 14.44 14.76 15.12 15.44 15.80 16.13 16.49 16.81 17.14 17.46 17.78 18.07

3.45

2.57

2.67

1.92

0.00

1.82

1.30

10.19 10.46 10.73 11.03 11.27 11.50 11.74 11.93 12.10 12.20 12.33 12.42

1.01

0.71

9.90

13.46 13.97 14.26 14.54 14.80 15.08 15.34 15.62 15.86 16.06 16.20 16.34 16.42 16.52

8.43

5.89

6.51

7.33

5.08

5.58

0.00

6.25

4.28

4.69

5.20

3.53

3.83

9.43

4.17

2.79

3.02

3.16

2.03

2.25

0.00

2.17

1.42

1.52

1.22

0.78

0.82

16.40 16.81 17.05 17.26 17.46 17.68 17.86 18.09 18.29 18.52 18.70 18.86 18.97 19.08

482

427

0.00

371

316

10.31 10.87 11.14 11.41 11.70 11.99 12.24 12.53 12.78 13.00 13.18 13.34 13.48 13.59

260

204

0.00

149

93

10.93 11.48 11.88 12.28 12.64 13.01 13.39 13.77 14.11 14.35 14.62 14.74 14.90 15.05

21

0
IN GOING FROM 21 C TO INDICATED
TEMPERATURE

Coeff

Mean Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = A/10 (mm / mm / C)

Linear Thermal Expansion = B (mm/m)

THERMAL EXPANSION DATA FOR MATERIALS USED IN PIPING

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HEALTH TIPS - CUCUMBER HEALTH BENEFITS
1. Cucumbers contain most of the vitamins you need every
day, just one cucumber contains Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2,
Vitamin B3, Vitamin B5, Vitamin B6, Folic Acid, Vitamin
C, Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Potassium and
Zinc.
2. Feeling tired in the afternoon, put down the caffeinated
soda and pick up a cucumber. Cucumbers are a good source
of B Vitamins and Carbohydrates that can provide that
quick pick-me-up that can last for hours.
3. Tired of your bathroom mirror fogging up after a shower? Try rubbing a cucumber slice along the mirror,
it will eliminate the fog and provide a soothing, spa- like fragrance.
4. Are grubs and slugs ruining your planting beds? Place a few slices in a small pie tin and your garden will
be free of pests all season long. The chemicals in the cucumber react with the aluminum to give off a scent
undetectable to humans but drive garden pests crazy and make them flee the area.
5. Looking for a fast and easy way to remove cellulite before going out or to the pool? Try rubbing a slice or
two of cucumbers along your problem area for a few minutes, the phytochemicals in the cucumber cause the
collagen in your skin to tighten, firming up the outer layer and reducing the visibility of cellulite. Works great
on wrinkles, too!
6. Want to avoid a hangover or terrible headache? Eat a few cucumber slices before going to bed and wake
up refreshed and headache free. Cucumbers contain enough sugar, B vitamins and electrolytes to replenish
essential nutrients the body lost, keeping everything in equilibrium, avoiding both a hangover and headache!
7. Looking to fight off that afternoon or evening snacking binge? Cucumbers have been used for centuries
and often used by European trappers, traders and explores for quick meals to thwart off starvation.
8.. Have an important meeting or job interview and you realize that you don't have enough time to polish your
shoes? Rub a freshly cut cucumber over the shoe, its chemicals will provide a quick and durable shine that
not only looks great but also repels water.
9. Out of WD 40 and need to fix a squeaky hinge? Take a cucumber slice and rub it along the problematic
hinge, and voila, the squeak is gone!
10. Stressed out and don't have time for massage, facial or visit to the spa? Cut up an entire cucumber and
place it in a boiling pot of water, the chemicals and nutrients from the cucumber will react with the boiling

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water and be released in the steam, creating a soothing, relaxing aroma that has been shown to reduce stress in
new mothers and college students during final exams.
11. Just finish a business lunch and realize you don't have gum or mints? Take a slice of cucumber and press
it to the roof of your mouth with your tongue for 30 seconds to eliminate bad breath, the phytochemcials will
kill the bacteria in your mouth responsible for causing bad breath.
12. Looking for a 'green' way to clean your faucets, sinks or stainless steel? Take a slice of cucumber and rub
it on the surface you want to clean, not only will it remove years of tarnish and bring back the shine, but is
won't leave streaks and won't harm you fingers or fingernails while you clean.
13. Using a pen and made a mistake? Take the outside of the cucumber and slowly use it to erase the pen
writing, also works great on crayons and markers that the kids have used to decorate the walls!

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ACB India Ltd: Taking Care of Nations coal wastage : Producing power from
washery's coal waste
The coal in India available today is of lower grade (Grade E or F) with high ash content which is not desirable. It led
to the regulation by Government of India that coal with ash content of less than 34% can only be transported over
1000 KMs. Hence, the need for coal washing for the Indian quality coal has become so important.
New Delhi, Delhi, April 12, 2011 /India PRwire/ -- Coal maybe the largest source for power in India, but there are
still some concerns over the use of this non-renewable source of energy for such a huge amount of consumption.
The underutilization and wastage of these resources have posed a bigger question to the Indian economy.
The coal in India available today is of lower grade (Grade E or F) with high ash content which is not desirable. It led
to the regulation by Government of India that coal with ash content of less than 34% can only be transported over
1000 KMs. Hence, the need for coal washing for the Indian quality coal has become so important.
With a total of 55 coal washeries spread across the country, the present capacity for coal washing in India is
approximately 135.08 MTPA. ACB India leads the way in the coal washery business and is also one of the largest
players in this industry with 15 washeries spread across India and total capacity of ACB and its associates
amounts to around 58.75 MTPA which is approx 50% of India's total capacity for coal washing. ACB India, with its
foresight understood the potential of the coal industry at a time, when the sector was quite aversive to the rest. In
its journey of 13-14 years, the company has portrayed to be a pioneer in its field with its vision of what the sector
could become eventually in the future.
Today, ACB India doesn't only have one of the largest coal washeries in the country, but it has also evolved itself
as a leader in the field of power generation with reject coal. ACB India, like any other coal washery witnessed the
environmental problems of disposing the large quantities of coal rejects, since its very first coal washery in Dipka,
which is also the largest in the country. Over the years and with their experience of dealing with coal rejects, the
company understood that a general coal beneficiation plant produces around 20% of coal reject having a GCV of
1600-1800 Kcal/kg. . ACB analyzed that if all the coal rejects from the washeries is counted together, there is a
tremendous potential for generating power in nearby locations. Hence, ACB India, decided to take this vision of
theirs forward and started a pilot 30 MW washeries rejects based power plant at Chakabura, Chattisgarh in 2007.
With the success of 30 MW reject based power plant in 2007, ACB is in the process of expanding its reject based
power plant capacity to 430 MW, out of which 320 MW would be commissioned in 2011 itself. ACB has
demonstrated the unique way of disposing of coal rejects in most environmental friendly manner.
ACB India Limited is further expanding in a big way, to build thermal power plants based on linkage aggregating to
3300 MW in the state of Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh.
For more information, please contact:
ACB India
Executive

copyright 2014 India PRwire (http://www.indiaprwire.com)

India PRwire disclaims any content contained in press release. Use of our service is governed by our privacy policy and terms of service.

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KNOW WHAT IS STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

By K.K.Parthiban, Boiler consultant
INTRODUCTION

Please do not hesitate to read further. For most of you it may sound hi-fi. Actually it
is not. Steel is not a homogeneous material. It is made of lot of grains. Each grain is a
kind of organized atomic structure. The grains may be very strong and do not allow
any bigger atom to enter in between atomic structure. But hydrogen being the
smallest atom, given chance it can seep through the grain boundary and cause cracks
in boiler tube / pipe material. Now read further and compare your experiences.
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING (SCC)

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is caused by simultaneous tensile stress and

corrosion. SCC will only occur if three conditions are fulfilled at the same time,
these are;

The material must be sensitive to SCC.

The environment must be aggressive.

Tensile stresses applied to the structure must be sufficient.

Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) results from the combined action of stress, a

cracking (electrochemical) environment, and temperature to cause cracks to initiate
and grow in susceptible steel. Individual cracks are generally oriented perpendicular
to the maximum stress and parallel to the tube / pipe axis. Groups of cracks usually
occur in what is known as a "colony." In extreme cases, these colonies may be several
mm long and extend nearly around the circumference.
SCC colonies are considered sparse if the cracks are far apart in the circumferential
direction and dense if the cracks are circumferentially close together. Individual
cracks can range from shallow to deep. Many cracks in the middle of dense colonies
have a depth less than ten percent of the wall thickness. In sparse colonies and in
some dense colonies, the cracks can grow in a stable manner until they reach nearly
through the wall.
As nearby cracks grow, individual cracks can coalescence or join to form a single,
larger crack. If the coalesced crack is long enough, it can rupture. The consequences
of a rupture are usually more severe than those of a leak. Sections of metals are
blown away due to loss of strength.
Two forms of SCC have been encountered: high pH and low pH. The surfaces of most
low and high-pH stress-corrosion cracks are not smooth but irregular. High-pH
stress-corrosion cracks are typically intergranular (with a cracking path along the
grain boundaries of the material), with essentially little or no separation or opening
between the crack faces. Low-pH cracks are often transgranular, where the fracture
surfaces are smoother than intergranular fracture surfaces, but they are not as

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smooth as fatigue cracks. Also, both forms of cracking can branch as cracks grow
through the wall thickness.
MECHANISM

Hydrogen diffuses into the metal and reacts with carbon present in the iron carbide
present in steel to form methane bubble. Reduction of carbon in steel leads to
decarburization. The large methane molecules trapped produce very high-localized
stresses leading to micro fissures which link up and form cracks. This reaction is
irreversible. The metal sections are blown out in such locations where hydrogen
attack has taken place. This is also known as hydrogen embrittlement.
POTENTIAL LOCATIONS / COMPONENTS FOR FAILURE

Plain carbon steel, low and high alloy steels, martensitic and ferritic stainless steel
are steels used in boiler / power plant are susceptible for failure. Header to tube
stubs, tube bends, stress induced zones due to weldments, pipe bends, condensers,
water headers, bolts, nuts and fasteners. Locations where debris / loose scales/
suspended solids could accumulate are prone for localized high pH concentrations
which would subsequently lead to hydrogen damage. However it is necessary they are
stressed locations due to weldment / thermal expansion / cold working during
fabrication. Improper flushing after chemical cleaning / improper chemical cleaning
could provide chances for hydrogen embrittlement. Lack of proper Heat treatment
after cold work / after weldment would be the locations immediately attacked by
Hydrogen. Steels containing Chromium / Molybdenum are easily attacked by
Hydrogen. The reason is the high hardness of microstructure of steel and hence
they are likely to crack on any cold work. Similarly the Heat Affected Zones (HAZ)
is harder with large residual stresses. Rolled ends Stainless steel tubes are work
hardened and they are susceptible to cracks on low pH environment.
A CASE OF FAILURE:

Recently I had an opportunity to investigate tube failures of a new boiler while the
pre-commissioning operations were going on. The boiler is designed with a forced
circulation evaporators and the failures have taken place in the non-drainable tube
bends. The failed tube bends were many and all were in the hottest zone. As many of
you know, alkali boil out is done at lower pressure, say at 10 15 kg/cm2g. In the
second stage alkali boil out itself the failures had showed up.
I had discussions with commissioning engineers and had a look at failed tubes. I took
a straight portion of the tube and had it analyzed for chemical and mechanical
properties and it perfectly matched code specifications. The doubt on spurious
material was eliminated. All the bends had failures cracks along the innermost bend
radius and outermost bend radius. It was clear that the bends are highly stressed
along these two planes. The suspicion was now on possibilities of Stress corrosion
cracking.
The commissioning engineers explained that during the first stage alkali boil out only
DM water was used with a pH of 7. Afterwards the chemicals were added in to the
steam drum. Being a forced circulation boiler, the circulating pumps were used.
However during the process of alkali boil out the power supply for the pump was
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unavailable. Unfortunately the burners could not be switched off for certain reason
in the process side and hence the heat input to the boiler continued for 20 minutes.
Like this few interruptions were there for few more times but for shorter durations.
Incidentally the pH of the water used for hydraulic test about a month back was also
of pH of 7.0 instead of recommended value of 8.5.

It had been customary not to anneal tube

bends in the case of boiler tubes if it is
carbon steel. The attachment weld done on
the tube bends must have induced
considerable residual tensile stresses. When
it came to corrosive chemical environment,
the low pH environment was available after
hydro test. Low pH / high pH environments
were available during alkali boil out process.
Heat was available and the circulation was
unavailable for certain duration. The three
factors such as residual stress, high / low pH
chemical environment and Heat were
available for the execution of Stress induced
corrosion. See the hairline crack along the
outer circumference of tube bend.
PREVENTION OF SCC

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Low or high pH environment chances are to be eliminated. Use only water with pH
of 8.5 to 9.5 for even hydro test.

Avoid heavy attachment welds, which leave behind residual tensile stresses.
Carryout stress relieving to remove the residual stresses. Depending on the
material, the tube bends are to be stress relieved.

Wherever residual stresses are likely, the design must be modified / reviewed to
avoid the residual stress.

Most importantly during the boiler usage time, low pH environment should not
occur. Even if occurs once, the failure mechanism gets started and the failure is
irreversible. I have heard of an incident that a battery of boilers had immediate
failures at certain locations when the pH of boiler water went down for a day.

Follow proper preheating procedures for T91 / P91 materials during fabrication
and welding.

During fabrication extensive care is to be taken to avoid moisture ingress into

weldments.

Wrong selection of electrodes / welding consumables could lead to weld failures. I

had seen a case where SS tube spacers welded to low alloy steel came off due to
alloy dilution that took place at weldment.

Inadequate removal of rust / paint / lubricant/ water before weldment could be a

source for hydrogen ingress in to weldment.

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LESSONS LEARNT FROM TROUBLESHOOTING

INTRODUCTION
A boiler with trouble can make the industry sick. It is necessary to stop living with problems.
Interactions with manufacturer could help to find solutions. Boiler users may have to spend for
regular audit of the boilers. A budget for training and annual inspection would prove worth for
achieving better availability & better efficiency of the boiler.
CASE 1: STRESS INDUCED CORROSION IN EVAPORATOR COILS

Problem: A metallurgical boiler tubes failed soon after the first light up.
Diagnosis: The hydrotest of the boiler was done with DM water but without ensuring the pH
was 9.5. The forced evaporator circuits were non drainable. The attachment welds at Evaporator
spacer shoes were heavy. Being carbon steel, the stress relieving was not done at factory. But
due to uncontrolled weldment size the amount of locked up stresses was high. Once the low pH
water was available, the H+ ions diffused through grain boundaries. When the boiler was fired,
the hydrogen ions led to long chain of cracks.
Lesson: Water used for hydro must be of 9.5 pH. The water should be blown out from non
drainable sections. Weldment sizes are not to be heavy. The PWHT should be practiced in case
of heavy weldment.

CASE 2: TUBE FAILURE IN WATERWALL

Problem: Tube failed only in one particular water wall tube (both left & right side of water wall
at identical location).
Diagnosis: The boiler was basically designed for under bed firing of rice husk. The boiler had
provision for firing husk in over bed. Customer had operated the boiler mostly on over bed. In
general about 35% of the heat is absorbed by the under bed firing due to better temperature in
the bed. The heat pick up was now fully by water wall rather than the bed. The boiler was
provided with a baffle to prevent gas bypassing in the gap between the ends SH coils and water
wall. These baffles prevented heat transfer and these tubes started starving. The baffle was
removed.
Lesson: Uneven heat transfer can result in result in poor circulation in natural circulation
design.

CASE 3: DUST POLLUTION FROM BOILER

Problem: Increased dust pollution from chimney. The dust pollution had gone up due to poor
maintenance in Mechanical dust collector.
Diagnosis: The mechanical dust collector casing had failed due to condensation of gases. The
air ingress had let to the reversal of dust in cyclones. Moreover while replacing the mechanical
dust collector cones the required dimension controls were not observed. A dust trap was
introduced below the ID fan suction box casing. Further a water trap was added in the ID fan
delivery ducting. This was also done in another installation as the customer had complaints
from residents surrounding the factory.
Lesson: MDC maintenance should be done with care, preferably under the supervision of
quality control supervisor from manufacturer. The MDC checklist can be referred at the end of
this paper.

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CASE 4: DEAERATER STEAM HAMMERING EXPERIENCED AT TIMES

Problem: An 80 TPH boiler with a deaerator developed hammering at times.

Diagnosis: The level control valve was found to be crack open (less than 5%) during normal
operation. The pressure drop inlet pressure was supposed to be 3 kg/cm2 g, where as the actual
pressure were more than 8 kg/cm2 g. Due to high inlet pressure, there will be wide variation in
water flow even for a small variation in valve opening. The transfer pump was meant for
transferring water to distant boiler as well. Hence the pump discharge pressure could not be
changed. Hence a pressure killing orifice was added to overcome the problem.
Lesson: Control valve operation must be logged in commissioning report.

CASE 5: DUCTING SYSTEM DESIGN DEFECT

Problem: A 60 TPH boiler could not generate beyond 55 TPH. The ID fan impeller change /
Fan change did not help.
Diagnosis: The ducting system sizing was reviewed. The high pressure drop causing locations
were identified and rectified. Even the chimney inlet opening in the concrete chimney was
broken and increased to remove the excess pressure drop in the ducting system. The O2 level
which was earlier not detectable was now 6% in the flue gas.
Lesson: High velocity gas ducting is not good. The order of pressure drops could be high
depending on velocity particularly at restrictions.

CASE 6: HIGH UNBURNT CARBON IN ASH

Problem: An 80 TPH FBC boiler was recording high unburnt level (as high as 18%) in ash.
Other boiler with the same fuel was having less unburnt in ash (as low as 5%).
Diagnosis: The air ingress was severe in roof top. The O2 analyzer was located in after the
economizer was showing 4-5% O2 level. Looking at O2% in boilers with air ingress can be
wrong. We need to optimize the O2 based on carbon loss in ash. Pictures above show the
leakages in roof.
Lesson: air and gas leakage test is a must. A meticulous check is a must as otherwise the
resulting losses will be huge.

CASE 7: BANK TUBE LOOSENING & WATERWALL DISTORTION

Problem: A 35 TPH boiler just after commissioning met with loosening of all bank tubes in
drums.
Diagnosis: The man posted at drum level confirmed the water level was maintained all the time.
From the circular chart recorder the feed water flow was found to be erratic. The line valves
from BFP to drum were all in throttled condition. The control valve was operating under
throttled condition. Practically the FCV was crack open. There were no positive down comers
envisaged by the boiler supplier. The gas temperature at boiler bank was sufficiently high and it
could reverse the water flow in heated down comers (last three rows of bank tubes). Drum
internal modification was suggested. VFD was suggested as an immediate measure, so that
water flow was not disturbed. Customer did not take action. In the next month the total water
wall tubes were found to be twisted. Then the customer went for VFD for pump. All the water
wall tubes were replaced.
Lesson: oversized feed pump / wrong selection of BFP can create intermittent flow to boiler.

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CASE 8: REPEATED SHELL TUBE WELDMENT IN 2 PASS INLET

Problem: A customer was very upset over repeated failure almost everyday at the same
weldment. Recently the boiler was retubed and the problem started. He thought it was a
workmanship problem. But even after the repeated replacement, the problem continued.
Diagnosis: As such the shell tube weldment was experiencing high gas inlet temperature. The
type of weldment was wrong. Wherever there was excess weldment, the weldment was failing
again and again as it was not getting the proper cooling. The J groove weldment design was
recommended and the problem did not repeat.
Lesson: The boiler must be repaired under the guidance of QC inspector from manufacturer.
This helps in ensuring the right workmanship.

CASE 9: LOW STEAM TEMPERATURE FROM BOILER

Problem: A Customer having a 130 TPH boiler started experiencing very low steam
temperature.
Diagnosis: On inquiry the water quality slippage was noted. Foaming was suspected as there
was water level was not steady in the steam drum. The source of water was changed ten days
back. The water came with high TSS. This has led to slippage of suspended impurities in to the
boiler. The Boiler was stopped for 8 hours. During this time heavy blow down was given from
all the bottom drains. Next day the steam temperature returned back to normal.
Lesson: Regular check on total suspended solids check in condensate and make up will help to
identify the foaming problem.

CASE 10: WATER LEVEL WAS NOT STEADY IN A 10 TPH BI DRUM BOILER

Problem: The water level jumped by near about 50 mm within 10 seconds.

Diagnosis: Foaming was suspected. The sources of water were reviewed. The process
condensate was clean as it was a closed system. The lines were of stainless steel. The make up
water pH was being boosted at condensate storage tank. However the DM water storage tank
was made of carbon steel. The manhole cover itself revealed the amount of corrosion products
that was generated.
Lesson: Boosting of DM water pH is a must at the outlet of DM plant itself.

CASE 11: FREQUENT GAUGE GLASS FAILURE

Problem: The gauge glass gasket failed very often. The problem was seen in all three boilers.
The pressure of the boiler was 88 kg/cm2g.
Diagnosis: Condensate was found to be forming in the long extension pipe. This was dripping
from the steam tapping line through the gauge glass. There could be considerable heat coming
to gauge glass. It was recommended to add interconnection pipe before gauge glass. Further the
insulation of extension pipe was to be redone. There could be foaming in all boilers due to
suspended impurities in feed water.
Lesson: Monitoring total suspended solids is not to be ignored.

CASE 12: REPEATED BANK TUBE FAILURE

Problem: The bi drum boiler is a saturated steam boiler without economizer. The pressure of
the boiler is 21 kg/cm2g. The client reported that the bank tubes were failing repeatedly in one
particular row only.

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Diagnosis: The boiler was shut and offered for inspection. Found loose corroded iron particles
in the headers, drum, and feed water tank. The cause for corrosion products was the low pH
water from RO plant. The piping from treated water storage tank was of carbon steel. However
the tank was made of SS. The chemical dosing was done in the feed water tank. The centre
bank tube being insulated from heat transfer by the gas baffles, the circulation is expected to be
poor. Hence the loose deposits inside the tubes were operating as sites for local corrosion.
Pitting corrosion was seen below the rust bubbles inside the tubes.
Lesson: The piping from water treatment plant should be of SS.

CASE 13: CHIMNEY VIBRATION

Problem: The 2 TPH boiler chimney was vibrating at high frequency. In the nearby houses, the
vibration was felt by residents at night.
Diagnosis: The vibration was due aerodynamics from ID fan. The cut off between impeller and
the casing was increased and this solved the problem.
Lesson: When it comes to high frequency noise or vibration the source can be the fans in most
of the cases.

CASE 14: FD FAN NOISE

Problem: The 30 TPH FBC boiler FD fan was making such a noise that it could be heard from
the factory main gate.
Diagnosis: The inlet guide vane direction of opening was found to be wrong. This was inferred
from the fact that the noise was gone when the IGV was fully open.
Lesson: The inlet guide vane opening has to match the casing orientation.

CASE 15: NON-PERFORMANCE OF PA FANS

Problem: There were 2 x 100% PA fans used for under bed fuel feeding in FBC boiler. Though
each fan was designed for 100% duty, both the fans had to be run.
Diagnosis: There was considerable recirculation of air through the standby fan. The multilouver damper was not fully sealing. This was replaced with a guillotine type gate.
Lesson: Isolation gates are very important for high pressure fans.

CASE 16: NON-PERFORMANCE OF ID FANS

Problem: The 2 x 60% ID fans were found to be insufficient for the service.
Diagnosis: The inverted T duct was found to be the cause for the problem. The duct was
modified to inverted Y duct in the best possible manner.
Lesson: Fan performance always related to ducting in most of the cases.

CASE 17: NON-LOADING OF FD FANS

Problem: The 2 x 60% FD fans were meant for FBC under bed operation. One of the FD fan
was taking much lower current than the other for the same % opening.
Diagnosis: The FD fan discharge connections were not correct. Such a high pressure fans
having discharge at right angle was the problem. T duct connection was modified to a Y
duct connection.
Lesson: Poor Fan performance is mostly related to poor ducting layout. Have it checked before
going for replacement of fans.

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CASE 18: CAUSTIC GOUGING IN BED TUBES IN AFBC BOILER

Problem: The FBC boiler bed coil tubes were failing often and caustic gouging indication was
available inside the tubes.
Diagnosis: This was a single drum high pressure (105 kg/cm2g) FBC boiler. The water side
parameters were checked and found to be very good. Customer was very much aware on the
coordinated phosphate control and was found to be practiced. Vendor diagnosed there was
circulation was poor. The risers were modified by vendor but yet the problem continued in new
bed coil tubes. A mistake in drum internals arrangement was diagnosed to be the cause. The
feed water distributor pipe was running just above the down comer.
Lesson: Poor circulation can cause water chemistry related problems.

CASE 19: MUD INSIDE BOILER AND INEFFECTIVE SOFTENING

Problem: The shell cum water wall type boiler had failed due to heavy scaling. After retubing
the problem persisted. There was heavy carryover of water in steam all the time.
Diagnosis: The entire bottom headers had accumulated mud. The inside of the shell revealed
the presence of high level of suspended impurities. The softener was preceded by a multigrade
sand filter. The source of water contained high level of mud as the open storage indicated. The
outlet water of MGF was checked. It was having mud. Customer was regenerating the MGF
only when the softener was to be regenerated. It was clear that the MGF sizing was not
adequate to handle the inlet suspended matter. I advised to add a water flow meter immediately
so that the regeneration of the MGF could be done based on M3 of water passed. The MGF had
to be replaced. There was no softened water storage tank. The water was being pumped directly
to the feed water tank. Client was advised to provide a separate treated water storage tank.
Lesson: Slippages in water quality occur for several reasons. A separate treated water storage
tank is a must. Regular analysis of water of the treated water storage tank would avoid mishaps.

CASE 20: BED COIL FAILURE

Problem: The bed coil failed in a new installation. The Customer had complained the tube had
swollen and failed. But there was no blockage in the failed tube.
Diagnosis: The boiler was not provided with provided with hand holes for cleaning. After the
alkali boil out, it was not possible to clean the bottom headers. Introduced hand hole stubs for
all the headers and cleaned the boiler fully.
Lesson: After alkali boil out a thorough cleaning of the boiler is a must. Many boilers had
failed due to negligence of a thorough cleaning after the boil out.

CONCLUSION:
Boiler users experience varieties of problems in the installations. The problems arise due to basic
design defects and technology gap of the O&M personnel. A regular training program / interaction
with manufacturer could help to find solutions.
By K.K.Parthiban
Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID: parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
Mobile: 098431 13111

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FIGURE 1

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FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3

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FIGURE 5

FIGURE 4

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 7

FIGURE 7
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5 mm

IBR weld fig no XII/67/A/ i

tube

tubesheet

FIGURE 8 Not for high temp zone

35

IBR weld fig no XII/69/A/II

t

tubesheet

t
t

portion removed

tube

1.The tube ends should be lightly expanded to fill the holes.

2.The tube ends and weld projecting beyond the weld shall be grounded off.

FIGURE 9 Correct weld figure

FIGURE 10
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FIGURE 12

FIGURE 11

FIGURE 13

FIGURE 14

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FIGURE 15

FIGURE 16

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LITERATURE ON BOILER TUBE FIT UP BY EXPANDING
By K.K.PARTHIBAN,
Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Boiler tubes are assembled by welding or by expanding. Expanding is mainly adopted in Boiler
bank assembly. Expanding is resorted to, as it is the simplest way to fit the tubes in boiler bank. In
this subject of tube expanding one may not find good literature regarding the % thinning to be
adopted and the sequence to be adopted. Many have doubts whether a leaky joint can be seal
welded or not. This article is brought out to clear the doubts of boiler users.
A TUBE EXPANDER
A tube expander can be a roller type, which is widely used in Industry even today. It has a taper
mandrel, when driven in, pushes out the three rolls. The tube is made to fill the gap between the
tube and the tube hole. After the tube touches the tube hole, tube is further thinned to ensure a leak
tight joint is established.
LITERATURE ON TUBE EXPANDING
Tube expanding is in vogue for many years. Yet code regulations do not spell out enough on this
subject. It has become necessary to reproduce the paragraphs of code regulations on this subject, for
readers interest. Further literature by some manufacturers is added here.
SOURCE: Steam / Its generation and use / Babcock & Wilcox: Pages 32.6 to 32.7
TUBE CONNECTIONS
Tubes may be attached to drums or headers by welding, expanding or a combination of both.

ID

O
D

Figure 1

Welded connections may be made by joining the tube directly to the header, as in the case of
membrane wall panels or by welding the tube to a stub (short length of tube) that is attached to the
drum or header in the shop. This type of construction is used for the majority of connections.

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In some applications, however tube expanding is a practical method of tube connections. Tube
expanding or tube rolling is a process of cold working the end of the tube into contact with the
metal of the drum or header containing the tube holes or seats. When a tube is expanded, the
outside diameter, inside diameter and length increase and wall thickness decreases (see figure 1).
The increase in length, called extrusion, occurs in both directions from some section X-X. The
residual radial pressure between the tube and tube seat resulting from a properly expanded tube will
provide a pressure tight joint of great strength and stability as shown in figures 2 & 3.
A typical roller expander contains rolls set a slight angle to the body of the expander causing the
tapered mandrel to feed inward when it is rotated in a clockwise direction. As the mandrel feeds
inward the rolls develop the internal force, which expands the tube.
The expanded joint presents a simple and economical way of fastening tubes into low-pressure
boilers. Under axial loading, the expanded joint is as strong as the tube itself. However for
conditions of widely fluctuating temperatures and bending loads, the expanded joint must be seal
welded (see figure 4) or replaced by a shop attached tube stub. Generally, tubes above 1500psi
(105 kg/cm2g) range are either expanded and seal welded or attached to shop welded stubs.
Selection of the type of tube end connection to be used is dictated by design, assembly, and
operating characteristics.
SEAL WELDS
Seal welds are used to make mechanical joints fluid tight. The strength of the connection is
developed by the expanded joint, pipe threads or by the configuration as in the case of hand hole
fittings. The throat dimension of seal weld is limited to 9.5 mm. Maximum, and post weld heat
treatment is not required.
SOURCE: INDIAN BOILER REGULATIONS: Regulation no 152
152: Attachment of Steel tubes
a. Tubes shall be connected to the tube plates by one of the following methods. (1) Expanding (2)
strength welding (3) Mechanical bolted bail joint.
b. Drift or roller expanded tubes shall project through the neck or bearing part in the holes by at
least a quarter of an inch and shall be secured from drawing out by being bell mouthed to an
extent of 1/32 inch for each inch in diameter plus 2/32 inch.
c. Tubes may be seal welded into fittings or headers for both boilers and super heaters after they
have been expanded and flared provided the material into fitting or header does not contain
carbon in excess of 0.35 %.
d. In the case of drifted or roller expanded tubes, the tube holes in the tubes plates of drums,
pockets or headers shall be formed in such a way that the tubes can be effectively tightened in
them. Where tubes are normal to the plate, there shall be a neck or belt of parallel seating of at
least inch depth measure in plane parallel to the axis of the tube at the holes.
SOURCE: BS 1113: 1999 Design and manufacture of water tube steam generating plant
A. Connections to main pressure part
1) Expanded connections

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The hole in the main pressure part shall provide a belt of parallel seating of not less than
13mm. It is permitted to seal weld internally or externally. The forming of holes, internal
projection shall conform to B.
B. Tubes and integral pipes.
1) Scope and restrictions
It is permissible to attach tubes and integral pipes to main pressure parts, other than
welding, by propulsive expanding and belling or by expanding and seal welding. It is
also permitted to use other methods of expanding, but in such cases it shall be
demonstrated that the method provided adequate leak tightness and will prevent tube
withdrawal in service, unless documented evidence of satisfactory performance in
service is produced. The outside diameter of the tube of pipe connected by expanding
shall not exceed 114.3 mm.
2) Expanding of tubes and pipes
Tube holes for expanded tubes shall be formed in such a way that the tubes can be
effectively tightened in them. The surfaces finish shall be no coarser than 6.3 microns
(see BS 1134). The surface shall exhibit no spiral or longitudinal score marks which
could form a leak path. Where the tube ends are not normal to the tube plate, there shall
be a neck or belt of parallel seating in the tube hole at right angle to the axis of the tube.
The belt shall be at least 10 mm in depth measured in a plane containing the axis of the
tube at the hole.
Where pipes or tubes are fitted by propulsive expanding, they shall be belled out from the
edge of the tube hole at an angle to the tube axis to resist withdrawal. In no such case
shall the projection of the tube though the parallel tube seat shall be less than 6 mm and
the belling shall be not less than given in table A
Table A belling dimensions for tubes propulsively expanded
Dimensions in mm
Outside diameter of tube

Upto and including 51

Over 51 and upto and including 82.5
Over 82.5 upto and including 101.6

Minimum increase in
diameter of belling over
tube hole diameter
3
4
5

SOURCE: Boiler repair manual by US Navy

FITTING TUBES
When fitting tubes into drums or headers, be sure each tube extends far enough in to the header or
drum. Tubes up to (but not including) 2 inches in OD should project 3/16 inch to 5/16 inch (4.7 mm to
7.9 mm) in to the drum or header. Tubes of 2 inches OD and larger should project 5/16 inch to 7/16
inch (7.9 mm to 11.1 mm) in to the drum or header.
In tube joints where the tube and hole measurements can be obtained, the correct amount of expansion
can be found by using the following formula
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For tubes in drums: diameter of the tube hole minus OD of the tube, plus 0.012 inch (0.3048
mm) per inch OD of tube.

For tubes in headers for boiler design pressure less than 500 Psi (35 kg/cm2g): Diameter of
tube hole minus OD of tube plus 0.015 inch (0.381mm) per inch OD of tube.

For tubes in headers for boiler design pressure over 500 Psi (35 kg/cm2g): Diameter of tube
hole minus OD of the tube, plus 0.02 (0.508mm) inch per inch OD of tube.

The figure arrived by the using above formula should be added to OD of the tube as measured to give
the required OD of the tube after rolling.
If it is impossible to reach OD of the tubes in drums to gauge them, the inside diameter of the tube
must be measured. Since plastic deformation of the tube wall varies with the tube wall thickness, the
ID of the tube for different wall thickness will vary. Where the outside of the tube is not accessible the
following formula is used to in the expansion of the tube.
The ID of the tube, plus the tube hole diameter minus the OD of the tube plus the expansion increase
factor.
SOURCE: Tool selection guide by VERNON TOOL COMPANY CA
Tube expanding (also referred to as tube rolling) is the cold working of the metal of the tube ends into
contact with the tube sheet holes to achieve a pressure tight joint. A tube expander is used to increase
the circumference of the tube ends until a proper joint is produced.
This can be related to the rolling of steel, since the steel sheet is made thinner and longer. The tube is
an endless sheet and the tube expander enlarges the outside and inside diameter of the tube.
A completed tube joint must have the tube larger than the containing metal in the tube sheet hole. The
expanded tube joint contains a force trying to make the tube smaller and a force trying to make the
tube hole in the tube sheet larger. As the tube is expanded, the tube wall is thinned and the tube
circumference is increased. The tightness at the tube joint will be measured by the increase of the
inside diameter or the tube. The following variables determine the proper expansion of a tube.

Clearance between the OD of the tube and tube sheet hole

Original tube I.D.
Amount of expansion after tube-to-tube sheet contact
Pre-thinning of tube wall before tube-to-tube sheet contact

Each of these factors can be measured and determined before the rolling operation begins.
IMPROVED TUBE EXPANDING
The tube of a tube joint must be larger than the tube hole. The tube joint contains equal forces trying to
make the tube larger and the tube hole smaller. These forces are always equal.
A Best tube joint is one in which the weaker member is stressed to give a maximum expanding or
shrinking force. The equal and opposite force in the other member could be greater.

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DO2

T3

T2

DO1 - Tube OD before expansion

DO2 - Tube OD after expansion
DI1 -Tube ID before expansion
DI2 -Tube ID after pre-thinning
DI3 - Tube ID after joint completion

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DO1
DI1

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Expanding beyond the point that develops maximum force in the weaker member of the tube joint is
over-rolling. Over-rolling thins the tube more than necessary making a weaker tube joint, and
produces excessive stressing and growth of the tube sheet.

T1-Tube thickness before expansion

T2-Tube thickness after pre- thinning
T3-Tube thickness after joint
completion

Figure 2

Excessive working of the tube also causes undesirable changes in its grain structure, creates excessive
work hardening, and may even produce cracks in the tubes. Flaking of the tubes usually indicates
over-rolling. Flakes are thin layers of the tube metal being sheared from the inner surface of the tube
by excessive working of the tube. Expanding tubes thins the tube wall and increases its circumference.
If the tightness of the tube joint is measured by an increase in the tube I.D., it is necessary to consider
and compensate for pre-thinning the tube wall. Pre-thinning is defined as tube wall-thinning produced
when a tube is enlarged to make it exactly fit in its tube hole. Pre-thinning varies with the initial tubeto-tube sheet clearance and with the tube wall thickness.
The tube wall is additionally thinned when the tube is enlarged beyond the metal-to-metal fit in the
tube hole to create the interference fit condition of the tube joint. This additional thinning is a constant
amount when each tube joint is made to have the same amount of interference-fit beyond the metal-tometal condition of its members.
The following formulas may be used to figure the amount of Pre-thinning produced in any tube joint
and with any amount of initial clearance between the tube OD and the tube hole ID.
The tube cross-section has a specific area. The area remains constant when the tube is enlarged;
therefore, the tube I.D. must increase.
The ID after establishing the contact with the tube hole is calculated as below.
1.
2.
3.
4.

A1, Tube c/s area = 3.142 *{(DO1)^2- (DI1)^2}/4

A2, Inner area of DI2 = { (3.142*(DO2)^2 } A1
D12, Tube inner dia after pre-thinning = Sqrt [4 *A2 /3.142]
M1,Pre-thinning = {(DO1-DI1)-(DO2-DI2)}

Now final ID is the sum of initial tube-to-tube hole clearance, Pre-thinning & interference required.
The table in the below page shows the calculation for typical convection bank tubes.

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SOURCE : ASME Section 1 Part PWT
PWT 11 TUBE CONNECTIONS
Tubes, pipe and nipples may be attached to shells, heads, headers and fittings by one of the following
methods.
PWT 11.1
Tubes may be attached by expanding, flaring, beading, seal welding in the following combinations
illustrated in Fig PW 11.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Expanded and flared (sketch (a)),

Expanded and beaded (sketch (b)),
Expanded, flared, seal welded, and re expanded after welding (Sketch (c)) or
Expanded, seal welded, and reexpanded after welding or seal welded and expanded after welding
(sketch (d)).

The ends of all tubes that are flared shall project through the tube sheet or header not less than inch
(6 mm) nor more than inch (19 mm) before flaring. Where tubes enter at an angle, the maximum
limit inch shall apply only to the point of least projection. Tubes that are expanded and flared
without seal welding shall be flared to an outside diameter of at least 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) greater than
the diameter of tube hole. For tubes that are seal welded, the maximum throat of seal weld shall be 3/8
inch (10 mm).
SOURCE: HYDRO PRO Inc
Hydraulic expansion is another technology of fitting tubes in tube holes. In this relatively high
hydraulic pressure is used for expanding the tubes in place. The hydraulic pressure makes the tube
metal to flow into the tube hole and thus creates a perfect seal. The following is a comparison of the
hydraulic expanding versus mechanical roller expanding as projected by the tool manufacturer.
HYDRALIC EXPANSION vs. MECHANICAL ROLLING METHODS
1. Hydraulic expanding, or Hydro-expanding, is an innovation in expanding tubes into tube sheet. It
is completely different from roller expanding, whether the tube expanders are driven electrically,
by air, or hydraulically.
2. In Hydro-expanding, the degree of expanding is directly related to the preset expanding
procedure. The pressure is exactly repeatable and does not vary from tube to tube, no matter what
shape the tube is in. But, in mechanical rolling, whether you use torque setting or apparent
percent tube wall reduction, the degree of expanding cannot be directly correlated. Furthermore,
torque controllers measure only the power drawn by the rolls, which can vary with the condition
of the rolls and mandrel, lubrication, operator fatigue and other factors.
3. Mechanical rolling reduces the tube wall by; a) stretching the tube radially, and b) imposing high
unit rolling forces that cause the tube to extrude axially. Hydro expanding, however, only
stretches the tube radially. The amount of wall reduction is barely measurable and, in fact, the
tube end pulls in slightly as the tube is bulged out rather, than extruding.
4. Hydro expanding produces no surface effects on the tube and almost no work hardening. You
never get bell shaped or hourglass shaped tube ends. Therefore, the tube-to-wall contact is always
uniform.

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5. When you roller-expand tubes into grooved holes, tube metal extrudes into the grooves. But,
when you Hydro-expand tubes into grooved holes, the tube bulges into the groove, providing
additional tightness at the contact of the groove edges with the tube.
6. Mechanical rolling may cause tube-end fatigue, depending upon the frequency and amplitude of
the stresses the rollers apply. The frequency is far more effective in producing fatigue than the
amplitude. That is why five or seven roll expanders are used when the tube material is subject to
fatigue. From the fatigue standpoint, Hydro-expanding is like having an infinite number of rolls.
7. The high contact stresses imposed by rolling make it more likely that stress corrosion will cause
tube-end failure. The transition from the reduced wall is a possible trouble source in rolled tubes.
8. You can Hydro-expand the tubes to the exact rear face of the tube sheet, thereby reducing the
chance of crevice corrosion at the rear. This is accomplished by the uniformity of pressure being
applied to the entire tube length at the same time. With mechanical rolling methods you are
pushing the tube material out the rear of the tube sheet and because of this; you create a very
noticeable rear crevice, resulting in premature tube failure.
9. The extreme ease of operation of the HydroPro requires almost no training.
10. If tube rollers cease and stall, the rolling motor may spin and injure the worker. HydroPro is
completely safe.
11. To roll tubes into tube sheet thicker than 2", you have to step roll. This is time consuming and
requires a tremendous amount of skill. You can Hydro-expand tubes into any thickness of tube
sheet with one pass of the mandrel per tube.
12. When you re-roll leakers after hydro testing, you further reduce the tube wall. Also, you may
move the ligaments enough to start other leaks and may even cause ligament damage around the
other tubes. This can also create problems in having to chase the leaks completely around the tube
sheet, creating even more problems, and so on. With Hydro-expanding, because you can
accurately control the exact expansion pressure, you can eliminate the problem of having to reexpand leakers. If you do have a leaker, you know exactly which pressure will provide a seal
without disturbing any of the adjacent holes.
13. Expansion time depends on the tube material and averages from 2 to 5 seconds per tube. Only one
worker is needed to do the work. Tube ends are prepared in the same way as for roller expanding.
Note that tubes would tear up rolls and cages or break mandrels will damage o-rings and backups.
14. Hydro-expanding is successful in out-of-round holes and in holes distorted by tube plugging.
However, axial scratches in the hole or tube material will cause leaks in any expanded tube to
tube sheet joints, regardless whether expanding by rolling, near contact explosions, compressing a
rubber expander, or by hydro-expanding. Therefore, it is recommended that scratched holes be
burnished free of axial scratches or a groove be cut into the tube sheet. It might be further noted
that because of the uniformity of hydraulic expansion, it does further reduce the probability of
axial scratches when retubing. The extraction of hydro-expanded tubes will be extremely even
and uniform, thereby producing cleaner tube holes ready for re-tubing.

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A2

A3

DI2
M1={DO1-DI1)-(DO2-DI2)}
M2=DO2-DO1
M3

M4=(M1+M2+M3)
DI3=DI1+M4

tube hole area

Area of of
enlarged tube
ID of the tube
after contact
prethinning
Clearance
Interference
Total increase
in Id

T2=(DO2-DI2)/2

Final ID
Thk after
prethinning

T3
100*(T2-T3)/T2

Final thk of
tube
% thinning

Final thk of tube due to 12

%

Tube area
tube hole dia

Final thk of tube due to 12

%

A1
DO2

with interference of 0.040

inches

Tube OD
Tube thk
Tube ID

with interference of 0.040

inches

DO1
T1
DI1

with interference of 0.024

inches

TABLE SHOWING THE PRE-THINNING, %

FINAL THINNING, INTERFERENCE
REQD,FINAL THK,FINAL ID.

with interference of 0.024

inches

TABLE : 1 SAMPLE CALCULATION

50.8
3.66
43.48

50.8
3.66
43.48

50.8
3.66
43.48

50.8
3.66
43.48

50.8
3.66
43.48

50.8
3.66
43.48

542.03
51.60

542.03
51.90

542.03
51.60

542.03
51.90

542.03
51.60

542.03
51.90

2091.17

2115.56

2091.17

2115.56

2091.17

2115.56

1549.14

1573.53

1549.14

1573.53

1549.14

1573.53

44.41

44.76

44.41

44.76

44.41

44.76

0.13
0.80
0.61

0.18
1.10
0.61

0.13
0.80
1.02

0.18
1.10
1.02

0.13
0.80
0.86

0.18
1.10
0.86

1.54

1.89

1.95

2.30

1.79

2.14

45.02

45.37

45.43

45.78

45.27

45.62

3.59

3.57

3.59

3.57

3.59

3.57

3.29
8.48

3.27
8.54

3.09
14.13

3.06
14.23

3.16
12.00

3.14
12.00

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SOURCE: WWW.SCHLECHTRIEM.DE German vendor for tube expander
EXPANSION LIMIT FOR EXPANSION OF TUBES
Tube expansion can be compared to the cold rolling of steel sheets. The tube to be expanded can also
be equated with an endless steel sheet, which, during the rolling process, has been lengthened or
enlarged to a point when the external diameter of the tube equals the diameter of the tube sheet hole.
This first stage is called 'metal to metal contact'. Note that the expansion at this stage is not yet leak
proof.
Further rolling is necessary to increase the expansion and reach the point when the material is
deformed. This creates tension because of the compression between the tube and the tube sheet. A leak
proof expansion is assured if the pressure tension is greater than the service pressure, which arises
from the heating, the lengthening and finally the tension of the medium. The difference of expansion
between the 'contact' and the final expansion is called 'expansion limit'.
This 'expansion limit' must never cause a rupture in the cohesion of the molecules of the tube material
by an exaggerated deformation of the material. If this were the case the tube material could become
damaged it could crack or break and this would create the danger of explosions etc. when the tube
comes under high pressure.
It could then happen that, though the tests had turned out positive, the tube would prove useless after a
few days in service.
EXAMPLE
Tube dimension
Tube sheet hole
Less 2 X 3 mm tube wall thickness

:
:
:

30 X 3 mm
30.4 mm
- 6.0 mm

Theoretical internal diameter of the tube at metal to metal contact

Plus expansion limit i.e. 20% of the tube wall thickness

:
:

24.4 mm
+ 0.6 mm

Theoretical ID of tube after having reached the expansion limit

25.0 mm

Recommended expansion range:

Metal to Metal contact: about 3 -5 % of tube wall thickness
Expansion limit: about 15 - 20% of tube wall thickness
SOURCE: TRISTAR TUBE EXPANDERS
WHAT IS CORRECT EXPANSION OF TUBES?
Correct expansion of tubes is the forming of a 100% bond between the tube and tube sheet, a result of
reducing the tube wall by 4 to 5%. Anything less or more will result in under- or over- expansion.
By using controlled rolling motors with the proper tube expander, correct expansion can be assured
automatically.
The basic purpose of tube expansion is to obtain a good hydraulic and mechanical joint. A secondary,
but equally important, purpose is to obtain a seal that is durable, resistant to corrosion and essentially
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free of longitudinal stress. During tube expansion we must take care of Over Expansion and we do
take care of Under Expansion. The under expansion is detected during hydraulic test and can be
corrected by re-expanding. But, over expansion cannot be detected easily and it imposes excessive
stresses in the material of the tube and tube sheet. This results in damage to the ligament and a poor
joint.
The optimum expansion is the one that develops a tight joint with adequate strength and with
minimum stress. The Torque needed for achieving optimum tube expansion varies with the tube
diameter, tube thickness, tube sheet thickness, tube material and tube sheet material. Obviously we
must determine some relation between the amount of tube expansion and the amount of torque
required to achieve that. Many feel that the manufacturer should specify the torque needed for
particular combination of various conditions. Since many preferential factors come into play like the
desired amount of expansion, the lubricant used, the expansion length set on expander etc. it has to
remain with the user to arrive at the torque figure. It is recommended that a group of about five tubes
be expanded, measuring the results after every expansion. Comparison of the measurements with the
calculated figures will enable decision making on the increase or decrease of the torque to be applied.
Once the correct torque is determined the same has to be repeatedly applied for all tubes.
One of the widest methods of determining tube expansion is to determine the percentage of wall
reduction of the tube being expanded. The wall reduction is due to thinning of the tube wall after the
tube outer diameter comes into contact with the tube sheet bore during Tube Expansion. Tube walls of
non-ferrous tubes in condensers are reduced by 3 to 4 % to get an optimum joint. A wall reduction of 8
to 10% in the case of ferrous tubes in Heat Exchangers is considered optimum, whereas non-ferrous
tubes require to be reduced by 8 to 12% due to the pressure involved.
AUTHORS EXPERIENCE
TUBE EXPANDING OF BOILER BANK TUBES FOR BIDRUM BOILERS.
In the following paragraphs the experience of the author in the field of boiler is brought out. Bank
tubes become a design requirement in case of boilers with main steam pressure of 44 kg/cm2 and
below. This due to the fact that the evaporator duty is more at lower pressures and sufficient heat
transfer surface can be provided in less space only with bidrum bank tube design. Bank tubes are
necessarily expanded in to the tube holes provided in steam & lower drum. To erect boiler bank tubes,
the lower drum is usually erected first as the slinging will be easier. A temporary steam drum lifting
structure has to be used for erecting the steam drum. Both the drums are aligned and relatively
positioned as per the design requirement. Now in the following paragraphs, the care to be taken for
tubes expanding is brought out.
1. Cleanliness and surface condition
When installing and rolling tubes, it is extremely important that both the tube and tube holes be clean
and relatively smooth and maintained in this condition until the joint is rolled. Any foreign matter on
either surface can prevent a tightly rolled joint. Particular attention must be given to the cleanliness
of these items. Once the tubes have been stuck in the drum, the tube should be rolled immediately.
Tack rolling now and final rolling later is a bad practice. Immediate final rolling will minimize the
chance of rust or foreign matter from accumulating in the annular space between the tube and tube
hole. Both the tube and tube hole should have a slight chamfer on their edges to minimize the chance
of them scratching each other.

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2. Tube ends preparation
Prior to installing the tubes in the drum, the outside of the tube ends must be cleaned and free of burrs
and shall not have chatter marks, tears, drags, scratches, etc running length wise. Swaged tube ends
must be thoroughly prepared with emery paper or by puffing. The surface roughness shall not exceed
125 microns. The surface shall be free from films or contaminant such as oils, water, paint and
preservatives as determined by a visual examination or a solvent dampened white cloth.
The tubes should be clean for about 300 mm on one end to be stuck first and 150 mm on the other end.
This will prevent any foreign matter from rubbing off the tube onto the tube hole when the tubes are
stuck.
The inside of the tube ends must be free from contamination such as sand, mud, metal chips, weld
slag, etc for the full depth of the tube expander.

3. Tube holes preparation

The tube holes in the drum where the tubes are to be stuck must also be clean and free of burrs and
shall not have chatter marks, tears, drags, scratches, etc running lengthwise. The surface roughness
shall be 200 - 300 micro inches as per ANSI B 46.1 the surface shall appear metal clean when
magnified under normal lighting. Sharp edges shall be removed. The surface shall be free from films
or contaminant such as oils, water, paint and preservatives as determined by a visual examination or a
solvent dampened white cloth.
When a visual examination is not possible and the surfaces are inaccessible, a dry white cloth wipe
shall be done. If either cloth exhibits indications of contaminant, the system shall be re-cleaned or the
specific contaminant shall be determined and evaluated as to its potential deleterious effect.
When there is a groove or serration in the tube sheet, particular attention should be paid to insuring
that the groove is clean. The diameter of the tube hole is based on the following:
Diameter of tube hole = Nominal dia of the tube plus 0.8 mm. Tolerance shall be +0.000 mm and
0.300 mm
4. Sequence of tube installation and expansion
The sequence in which tubes are expanded is critical. Using the wrong sequences can cause the drums
to go out of roll and level. Another important aspect is to insure the tube is parallel with the tube hole.
If the tube is slightly crooked relative to the tube hole, it is virtually impossible to get a properly rolled
joint. The angle the tube hole is drilled at, the angle the tube is bent at, the length of the tube stock and
the ovality of the drum will all affect the parallelism.
4.1

Master tubes

Due to several factors such as drum ovality, error in drilling angle, error in tube bending angle are
going to contribute to varying length of tube projection inside the drums. Hence bank tubes are
fabricated with an additional allowance in length this additional length is trimmed off at site. Now
insitu cutting can be adopted if the required portable facing machine is available. A better way is to
take a set of tubes called master tubes. A set of tubes is inserted in to the drums, aligned, and drum
inner contour is marked and removed. These tubes are sized keeping the belling allowance of 10
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mm on both ends. Now these tubes can be used as master tubes. The balance tubes can be now
sized as per the master tubes, at ground before lifting to position. This saves considerable time.
4.2

Torque control for tubes expansion.

Electrical drive is extensively used in INDIA. The amount of tube thinning can be controlled by
the torque control unit manufactured for this purpose. The torque values are to be set using the
mock up tube sheet & trial tube lengths. Two mock up tube sheets are required matching the steam
drum & water drum thickness. The tube holes are drilled as per steam drum / water drum. The trial
tube lengths should be of the same diameter & thickness as per the bank tubes. If the tube ends are
swaged, then the trial tubes should also be the same. The torque required is set to achieve the
design % thinning. The ID of the hole prior to rolling is recorded. The tube ID required after
rolling is calculated based on the thinning required. Now the torque is set on trial and error method
by gradually increasing the torque values until the desired thinning is achieved. The mock up tube
sheet shall have at least 9 holes for this purpose. The desired thinning for Boiler tubes is 8 to 10 %.
4.3

Sequence of expansion
4.3.1

Stage 1

After the drums have been properly aligned, central two of tubes, and expanded to maintain
drum alignment. The two center longitudinal rows R9 & R10 should be installed as per the
sequence shown in figure 4.
4.3.2

Stage 2

Then two sets of circumferential columns tubes (C1, C2 and C25, C26) near the end of the
drum should be installed. The sequence shall be as per the figure 5. By this clockwise and
counterclockwise sequence the twisting of the drum can be prevented.
4.3.3

Stage 3

The tubes in rows R8 & R11 are erected as per the sequence shown in figure 6. In the same
way rest of the bank tubes are erected. The longitudinal and circumferential reference tubes
erected in stage 1 & 2 are used for aligning the all the rest of the tubes. Here again the
clockwise and anticlockwise rotation will help in preventing twisting of drum axes.
4.3.4

Stage 4

The loading sequence of the tubes is not important, while full rolling of the tubes should be as
per the sequence suggested. Tube to tube spacings is maintained by wooden spacers. Piano
wires are used for checking the alignment of tubes. Simultaneous expansion in upper and lower
drums must be practised. While expanding tubes care should be taken not to spill lubricants
inside the tube to drum joint. The cleanliness inside the drums will help in preventing leaky
joints.
SUMMARY
As far as the tube expansion of boiler tubes are concerned one may not find enough literature. Over
expansion of boiler tubes are frequently encountered in many cases. The reason is mostly the
insufficient knowledge on the part of the personnel who execute the job. Tube expansion is as an art

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and only few take serious steps to maintain the quality of workmanship. It is hoped that the above
article is useful to the readers.

Figure 1 TUBE EXPANDER

6.35 TO 12.7
12,7
This dimension varies with plate thk

19.05

unexpanded tube thickness

DRUM INSIDE
FIGURE.2. SKETCH SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF TUBE, TUBE SHEET, AND
LENGTH OF EXPANDED SECTION OF TUBE FOR HEAVIER PLATE THICKNESS

equal spaces
Expanders are ususally selected to expand
completely through the plate in this
thickness range. Dimension "A" is not
critical and while 6.35 to 12.7 mm is normal.
A greater length, within practical limitation
is acceptable.

A
8

Expanded section

DRUM INSIDE
FIGURE. 3. SKETCH SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF TUBE, TUBE SHEET, AND
LENGTH OF EXPANDED SECTION OF TUBE FOR THINNER PLATE THICKNESS

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DRUM INSIDE

FIGURE.4. INSIDE SEAL WELD ( DRUM)

1/4in. (6mm) min

3/4in. (19mm) max

1/8 inch (3.2 mm)

(c)

ax
)m
m
0m
(1
n.
4i
3/

ax
)m
m
0m
(1
n.
4i
3/

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIG PWT-11 EXAMPLES OF ACCEPTABLE FORMS OF TUBE ATTACHMENT

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NATURAL CIRCULATION IN BOILERS

By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
This article is focused towards the authors experience in the design and trouble shooting of Boilers
related to the principle of natural circulation. Inadequate circulation causes tube failures. Poor
circulation in a boiler may be due to design defect or improper boiler operation. In this paper the
factors affecting the circulation are summarized. Further case studies are presented.
PRINCIPLE OF NATURAL CIRCULATION
Boilers are designed with Economizer, Evaporator and superheater depending on the Design
parameters.

STEAM DRUM

DOWNCOMER

HEAT INPUT
TO
FURNACE TUBES

FIG 1. FLOW DUE TO DENSITY DIFFERENCE

Economizers add sensible heat to water.

The economizer water outlet temperature
will be closer to saturation temperature.
The water is forced through the economizer
by the boiler feed pumps.
Superheaters add heat to steam. That is the
heat is added to steam leaving the Boiler
steam drum / Boiler shell. The steam
passes through the superheater tubes by
virtue of the boiler operating pressure.
Evaporators may be multi tubular shell,
Waterwall tubes, Boiler bank tubes or Bed
coils as in FBC boiler. In evaporators the
latent heat is added. The addition of heat is
done at boiling temperature. The Flow of
water through the evaporator is not by the
pump but by the fact called thermo siphon.
The density of the water, saturated or subcooled is higher as compared the water
steam mixture in the heated evaporator
tubes. The circulation is absent once the
boiler firing is stopped.

BOILING MECHANISM
There are two regimes of boiling mechanisms, namely, the nucleate boiling and the film boiling.
Nucleate boiling is formation and release of steam bubbles at the tube surface, with water still wetting
the surface immediately. Since the tube surface temperature is closer to saturation temperature the tube
is always safe against failure.
Film boiling is the formation of steam film at the tube surface, in which the metal temperature rises
sharply. This leads to instantaneous or long term overheating of tubes & failures. Film boiling begins
due to high heat flux or low velocity or inclined tubes.
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CIRCULATION RATIO / NUMBER
The flow of water through a circuit should be more than the steam generated in order to protect the
tube from overheating. The Boiler tubes, its feeding downcomer pipes, relief tubes / pipes are arranged
in such a way that a desired flow is obtained to safeguard the tubes. The ratio of the actual mass flow
through the circuit to the steam generated is called circulation ratio.

TOTAL
CIRCULATIO

N RATIO

FLOW

THRO

THE

CIRCUIT

=
STEAM

GENERATED

IN THE CIRCUIT

Depending the Boiler Design parameters, configuration of the boiler this number would be anywhere
between 5 & 60. In low pressure boilers, this number is on the higher side as the density difference
between water & steam is high.
WHAT IF THE CIRCULATION RATIO IS LESS THAN THAT REQUIRED MINIMUM?
Tube deformation / leakage failures / tube to fin weld failures take place. The failure mode varies
depending upon the flow, heat input, tube size, boiler configuration, water quality.

Wrinkles seen in tubes

Bulging of tubes
Wrinkle formation & subsequent circular crack
Heavy water side scaling inside tubes.
Corrosion of tubes
Prolonged overheating & irregular cracks on tubes
Sagging of tubes if orientation is horizontal / inclined
Tube to fin weld crack

See figure 2 for the illustrations.

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT CIRCULATION

No of downcomers, diameter , thickness, layout

No of downcomers are selected depending upon the heat duty of each section of evaporator tubes.
Depending on the length of the distributing header, more downcomers would be necessary to avoid
flow unbalance. It is desirable to keep the bends, branches to a minimum so that the pressure drop is
less. The selection of downcomers is so done to keep the velocity less than 3 M/sec.

Heated down comers

In some boilers the downcomers are subject to heat transfer, for e.g. rear section of boiler bank in Bi
drum boilers. The circulation pattern in these boiler evaporator tubes is a function of heat transfer. In
case of heated downcomers, burning of tubes may take place if the design is defective. There could be
stagnation of water in some tubes depending on the heat pick up.

Downcomer location & entry arrangement inside the drum

Depending on the Boiler configuration downcomers may be directly connected to steam drum or else
to mud drum. One should ensure that the entry of sub-cooled water is smooth into the downcomer.
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A down comer directly connected to steam drum is vulnerable to steam bubble entry into the
downcomer. In such a case the circulation is affected. Instead of using big pipes, more no of smaller
diameter pipe would avoid this. Vortex breaker would be necessary to avoid steam entry into the
downcomer pipe.

wrinkles seen in tubes

Bulging of tubes

Circumferential cracks in tubes

Tube sagging

Caustic gouging

Cracks on tube

Heavy scaling in tubes

Fin cracking

FIGURE 2. ILLUSTRATION SHOWING TUBE FAILURES

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In case a set of bank tubes are used for taking water to mud drum, one should ensure that the steam
does not enter these tubes during water level fluctuation.
Proper baffle plates would be necessary to avoid mix up of steam water mixture from risers section to
downcomer section.
Downcomers taken from mud drum are very safe. An obstruction in front of downcomer can cause the
poor circulation in evaporator tubes.

Arrangement of evaporator tubes

The circulation in each evaporator tube is dependent on how much it receives heat. If there is nonuniform heating among evaporator tubes, one can expect non-uniform flow. At times even flow
reversal can take place. In some situations the water may become stagnated leading to water with high
TDS or high pH. Localized corrosion of tubes would occur.

Improper operation of boiler

Depending upon the boiler capacity there may be number of burners / compartments in a boiler. This
is required in order to achieve the boiler turn down in an efficient way.
In FBC boilers no of compartments are provided for turn down. Operating only certain compartments
all the time would cause stagnation of water in unheated section of bed coils. The concentration
dissolved solids, pH could be far different from the bulk water chemistry. This leads to corrosion of
boiler tubes.
Similarly, operating same burner would heat the evaporator tubes in non-uniform way leading to
different water chemistry in unheated section of furnace tubes.

Feed pump operation

In low-pressure boilers, (pressures below 21 kg/cm2 g), the feed pump on /off operation is usually
linked to level switches in the steam drum. When the pump is in off mode, it is likely that the steam
bubbles would enter the downcomer tubes and cause loss of circulation.

Arrangement of evaporative sections and the interconnection between sections

In certain configuration of boilers it is possible to obtain better circulation by interconnecting a wellheated evaporator sections to poorly heated evaporator section. It would be necessary to separate the
poorly heated section if it lies in parallel to well heated section. The downcomers & risers are to be
arranged separately so that the reliable circulation can be ensured. This principle is called
sectionalizing for reliable circulation. The inlet headers / outlet headers shall be partitioned for this
purpose.
However, it is desirable to arrange the evaporative surface in such a way that heat flux & heat duties in
various circuits are more or less same.
If tubes are inclined close to horizontal, the steam separation would take place leading to overheating
of tubes.

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No of risers , pipe Inside diameter, bends, branches

No of risers are so selected that the velocity inside the pipes would be 5 6 m/s. The no of risers are
selected in such a way the flow unbalance is minimum. It is preferable to adopt long radius bends to
keep the pressure drop to minimum. The no off bends, branches should be kept as minimum possible
as these elements contribute for high-pressure drop.

Arrangement of risers in the drum

The risers are arranged in such a way that the pressure drop is minimum. The baffles are spaced apart
to keep the obstruction to flow is minimum. Instead of terminating the risers below the water level in
the drum, it would be better to terminate above water level in the steam drum as it allow free entry.

Feed distributor inside the steam drum

Feed distributor shall be arranged in such way that the sub-cooled water enters the downcomer section.
This will ensure that the good hydrostatic head is available for circulation.

Drum Internals arrangement

Drum internals such as baffles, cyclone separator also form part of the natural circulation circuit.
The baffles are arranged in such a way the steam would rise easily to the steam space without much
resistance. High-pressure drop in the drum internals will retard the flow through evaporator tubes.

Slagging of furnace tubes

The design of the furnace shall be in such a way that the Slagging of the fuel ash is avoided. Slagging
retards the heat transfer to tubes and thus the driving force for circulation will come down. At
locations where the tubes are clean, this would lead to overheating of tubes. If unavoidable, soot
blowers shall be so arranged that the uniform heat flux to evaporative sections be not hindered.

Critical heat flux, Allowable steam quality, recommended fluid velocity

In the design of furnace, the heat flux should not be higher that a limit beyond which the tube will
burn. Several correlations are available on this.
In a circuit the steam produced divided by the mass flow would be the quality of steam produced in
the circuit. The allowable steam quality has been found be dependent on the heat flux, mass velocity
and the steam pressure.
Even after ensuring that the heat flux and steam quality are safe, the entry velocity is important to
avoid departure from nucleate boiling. For vertical rising circuit the velocity is in the range of 0.3 m/s
to 1.5 m/s. for inclined circuit the velocity shall be in the range of 1.54 m/s to 3 m/s.
ANALYZING FOR BOILER WATER CIRCULATION
In a circuit, the circulation takes place due to difference in density between the cold water in the
downcomer circuit and the density of steam water mixture in the evaporator tube. The flow will
increase as the heat input is more and the density of water steam mixture decreases in the evaporative
circuit. But pressure loss in a circuit rises as the flow increases. Hence there will be appoint of
balancing at which time the pressure loss is equal to the head. In order to improve / retard the flow, the
circuit may be rearranged duly considering the above discussed factors.
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Using MSEXCEL, practically any circuit can be analyzed for the circulation.
CONCLUSION
The design of the boiler is not necessarily such a mere calculation of Heat transfer surfaces. It is much
beyond that. One such subject of importance is undoubtedly the circulation.
CASE : 01
The bottom rows of the bank tubes of this
cross tube boiler were sagging.
There were no drum internals. Feed
distributor was added to improve the
circulation. Further in order to have
saturated water into the down comer baffles
were added in the steam drum to promote
circulation.

STEAM DRUM

The blow down stub was very close to the

bottom row of tubes. Continuous blow
down was recommended so that loss of
circulation could be averted.

BLOW DOWN STUB

BAFFLE
FEED DISTRIBUTOR

CASE : 02
In this case, the water wall & bed coils
were failing after bulging & overheating.
Thick rough edge cracks were observed
wherever the failure took place. There were
several locations at which the failures had
taken place.
There was severe scaling in the boiler.
Hence the water quality was suspected for
a long time.
FLOW OBSTRUCTION

By removing the flue tube immediate to the

downcomer, the failure stopped.
Similar failures were noted when there was
lot of accumulation inside the headers due
to improper post cleaning operation after a
chemical cleaning of the boiler.

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CASE : 03

FEED NOZZLE

RISER

DOWNCOMER

This boiler was converted for fluidized bed firing. There were wrinkle formations in bed coil tubes. It was
felt that the Downcomer & risers were inadequate and several modifications were done in order to reduce
the pressure drop in the circuit. Still the failures continued. Suspecting boiler expansion problem, the
refractory work was reconstructed with adequate provision for expansion. Yet the failures continued.
The two drums were provided with feed nozzles at dished ends with separate non return valves. It was
noticed that the feed water was not going into one of the drums, as the NRV was defective. It is possible
that flow reversal was taking place in the downcomer in the drum where the NRV was not functioning. The
NRV at each steam drum inlet was removed and a common NRV was provided in the feed line. Also a
feed distributor was added in each drum to distribute the water to downcomer area. This way the flow
reversal in the downcomer was eliminated and the failures stopped.
CASE : 04
The boiler was provided with heated
down comers. There were no baffles
inside the drum to separate the steam
water mixture from down comer section.
When the load in the boiler increased
beyond a point the down comers started
bursting.
This proved the possibility of steam
water mixture entering the down comers.
Boiler drum internals with cyclone
separators were added.

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CASE : 05

DOWNCOMER

RISER

The illustration shows a boiler converted for FBC firing. In this boiler vibration of riser tubes
was experienced. Even after a snubber support was provided, the vibration continued. The
circulation calculation showed a velocity of 7 m/s in riser tubes. The vibration problem
vanished after one of the risers was removed. The velocity in the riser was then estimated to
be less than 6 m/s.

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CASE : 06

TOP OF TUBE

IDLE COMPARTMENT

CORROSION FAILURE DUE TO CAUSTIC

The above is a Fluidized bed combustion boiler with three compartments. A pin hole failure
was reported in the 12 o clock position of the bed coil tube. On cutting the tubes, the inside was
found have gouging mark for the throughout the inclined portion of the tube. Several adjacent
tubes are inspected with D meter. Four adjacent tubes showed less thickness at 12o-clock
position. The tubes were cut inspected and these tubes were also found to have the same marks
as the leaked tube.
On suspicion the symmetrical tubes about the boiler axis ware also checked with D meter. The
tubes were found to have similar gouging attack.
The boiler water log sheets since commissioning were analyzed and found the water chemistry
had deviated in the past three months. The boiler was operated on pH of 11, resulting in free
hydroxide. The water inside the idle compartment was stagnant, as the compartment was kept
idle. Caustic attack had been the cause of failure.
Customer was advised for alternate activation of compartments so that the circulation in all
tubes would be good. The above case is clearly a circulation-related failure due to operational
defects.

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OPTIONS FOR SAVINGS IN BOILERS IN MODERN RICE MILLS

By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Rice is the key food item, which has seen many technological changes right the way it is produced,
processed and distributed. There was a time in my childhood, my mother used to boil the paddy at
home, then dry up in the sun. I used to carry the boiled paddy to a local rice mill, where rice hull is
removed and polished. Times have changed a lot. There is dramatic change in mass production of
rice using modern technology of parboiling, steam hot air drying and then milling. Today
machinery is available for separating the colored rice from the bright white rice. I have been
watching the trend in the operation of boiler, which is an important and costly input to rice industry.
I would like to consolidate here critical energy saving aspects of boiler operation.
2.0 COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS
The choice of combustion technology was always dependent on fuel used. Rice husk is a popular
fuel for many rice mills. Yet it is seen that in some parts of India alternate fuels are available at
low prices. For example in Kerala, plywood waste is available in plenty. Rice millers prefer to sell
off the rice husk to other industries where high capacity boilers are designed for rice husk. This
improves overall economy of the rice mill.
2.1 STEP GRATE COMBUSTOR
When rice husk is the fuel, step grate was the primitive technology used. As shown in Figure 1,
the combustor is made of a refractory furnace with an inclined grate. The grate consists of number
of horizontal cast iron plates mounted on cast iron support frame. The thickness of the CI plates
would be 10mm. Approximately 3 m2 burning area is required for one ton per hour of boiler
capacity. In this case, the air is drawn through the burning bed of husk by natural draft created by
the chimney. Alternately an ID fan may be used to draw the flue gas. The burning rice husk
should be uniform over the bed. The fuel feeding should be regulated through a feeder having a
discharge width, over the width of the furnace. The ash removal should be continuous to the
extent possible.
The combustion never used to be any better than the other available technologies. The ash had to
be manually removed. The boiler needs to be constructed in a pit. Or else, the boiler shell should
be elevated and be provided with operating platform. The boiler may be single pass or two pass
boiler.
2.2 FIXED GRATE REFRACTORY FURNACE.
Fixed grate furnaces are available in many parts of the country. The husk stored in the bunker is
fed to the furnace through a regulating device usually a vibratory or a screw feeder. The husk is
spread over the grate by an air spreading arrangement. The husk is burnt statically over the bed.
The FD fan supplies air to the bottom of the grate. An ID fan draws the flue gas from the furnace.
The ash needs to be removed manually. The firing is done in external furnace or in an internal
furnace of the boiler. Figure 2 shows the view of external furnace. Figure 3 shows the view of
Waterwall furnace.
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2.3.POF FURNACE.
This is basically a fixed grate furnace inside the boiler. The grate area is so less, the rice husk
when fed into the furnace, it burns in suspension, travels through the flue tubes and finally reaches
ash room. Thus the handling of the ash inside the furnace is avoided. This is a favorite among
mills of 20 Tons per day capacity. The husk is pneumatically transported from the storage room to
the furnace. Alternately the husk may be fed into the furnace by means of screw feeder and
assisted by the additional air. The requirement of ash removal from the furnace does not arise in
this case. Of late, the ID fan is not provided. A variation of grate furnace is now a refractory lined
distributor plate which has overcome the shortcomings of the grate bar design. Figure 4 shows the
distributor plate furnace.
2.4.FLUIDISED BED FURNACE
Fluidized bed combustion employs a distributor plate, a bed of sand. The bed of sand is kept
fluidized state by the FD fan. A PA fan is used to transport and inject the rice husk into the bed.
The bed of sand is initially heated by charcoal / or rice husk. Once the sand is heated and
maintained in fluidized condition, the rice husk is continuously injected to maintain the
combustion and to give the heat required for generating the steam in the boiler. The ash after
complete combustion leaves the bed and gets collected in ash hoppers of the boiler & in the dust
collector. An ID fan is used to maintain the negative draft in the furnace. Pollution is the big issue
here. One should have properly designed & installed MDC cones. Figure 5 shows the sectional
view of a fluidized bed combustion boiler. This technology is widely accepted in industry for its
fast load response and high combustion efficiency. Unfortunately, the power consumption is high
and hence it is viable for 6 TPH and above.
3.0 BOILER OPTIONS
3.1. LANCASHIRE BOILER
Oldest boiler and has already walked out to scrap yard. Yet It is found at some places. This boiler
needs an external step grate or fixed grate furnace as shown in Figure 1. The flue gas passes
through the flue / flues of the boiler. The boiler has multiple flues arranged around the furnace to
exchange the heat. The ash settles through the entire flue path, which is removed manually at
regular intervals. A slow performer. But holds lot of water. So when the steam is drawn the steam
may be more produced by the flashing of steam which will be due to reduction of pressure. It is
time to erase this boiler out of industry. The reason is the high fuel consumption as the flue gas
leaving the boiler is of high temperature.
3.2 LOCOMOTIVE BOILER.
Locomotive boilers were once favorite for many for its sturdiness. With the use of feed water
heater one could achieve low exhaust temperature as in any modern boiler. Locomotive boilers
are provided with 3 / 3.5 / 4 inch tubes. The tubes are longer. There is a water-cooled chamber in
the furnace. The refractory furnace with step grate or flat grate as required for husk firing is
provided. It is this that makes it lower efficient. Then one may say I have FBC in my boiler . An
FBC combustor without bed coils runs on excess air, which also lowers the combustion was not
developed at that time. In the riveted boilers any flame cutting would lead to loosening of rivets.
For this reason no repairer or boiler vendor would venture to modify this boiler.

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3.3 SINGLE PASS MULTI TUBULAR SHELL BOILER.
A single pass shell tube boiler is an economic boiler. The boiler tube length is of 4 to 4.5 meters.
The flue tubes are provided with gas spirals to improve the heat transfer in the tubes. Often It is
observed that operators remove these spirals since it chokes up the tubes. The choice of
combustor is fixed grate or FBC. In this range the FBC is uneconomical due to its high power
consumption. The external furnace is the only choice. The ash has to be removed manually from
the ash settling chambers provided after the furnace. Some boilers are provided with bed coils so
that the efficiency improves due to reduction in excess air. In the case of FBC over bed feeding is
opted as it is simpler. Some customers have taken a stationary grate combustor with large furnace
area when the option of firing wood or plywood waste was required.
A long flue path ensures good carbon burn up. A feedwater heater is a must to recover the heat
from the flue gas before it leaves chimney. See Figure 9, showing the boiler with feedwater
heater. In rice mills the batch operation permits the operator to remove the ash manually from the
ash settling chambers.
3.4 MULTI PASS MULTI TUBULAR SHELL
A multi pass tubular shell eliminates the need for gas spirals. The flue gas velocities are optimum
and the gas is cooled very well. The feedwater heater is a must to recover the heat. The boiler can
be designed for an exhaust temperature of 170o C.
The choice of furnace can be FBC or fixed grate. Fixed grate option is selected for firing multi
fuels such as wood or rice husk or plywood. If the choice is FBC, then the bed coils are necessary
to have low excess air. Response is good. Over bed feeding is OK provided sufficient refractory
lined flue path is available to ensure good carbon burn up. Airheater is the right option if FBC
technology is opted for.
3.5 WATERWALL CUM MULTI TUBULAR SHELL BOILER
As the capacity goes up one has to come here. The water-cooled furnace is a must to ensure the
boiler runs without much trouble from refractory. These boilers are with fixed grate or a fluidized
bed combustor.
In case you want to fire coal also in fixed grate furnace, the same would be possible manually.
The water-cooled chamber is placed directly above the furnace. Figure 14 shows the view of a
waterwall cum shell type boiler with fixed grate furnace for coal / husk / wood / plywood /
bagasse / GN shell.
In case of FBC, the underbed offers flexibility in turndown and maintains good efficiency over
the overbed. The overbed firing allows escape of rice husk to ash settling chamber. The underbed
ensures the husk is better burnt before the husk escape the fluidized bed. The overbed feeding has
been found to cause bunker fires as the flue gas can easily enter the bunker during a furnace puffs.
The excess air required for overbed combustion is of the order of 60 to 70% whereas the underbed
can easily make it at 25%. Since the excess air fired is more in Overbed FBC, The boiler has to
have more convection heat transfer surface. The spirals are used here again to recover the heat.
Operators find that the flue tubes are choked up due to spirals and hence these are removed later.
The exhaust gas temperature will be more, once the spirals are removed. Underbed feeding allows
one to have a good turndown due to the number of compartments.

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4.0 SCOPE FOR IMPROVEMENT IN BOILERS.
4.1. The insulation of the boiler is intact in almost all the mills where I had visited. However the
steam piping is either not insulated or spoilt over a period. The uninsulated pipes lead to
additional fuel consumption.
4.2. Some clients desire that the boiler operates on pressure switches. It is not advisable to operate
the boiler & its auxiliaries on / off mode. The power and fuel consumption will be more. It
damages all the electrical switches. Further until the flame is established the fuel consumption
will be more. It would be like operating your motorcycle in on/off mode. One customer
experienced discoloration of rice due to high steam velocity resulting in stopping the boiler at
higher pressure.
4.3. In the case of step grate uniform feeding over the grate is very important. I have seen in one
case a slot is made in the floor so that a person goes on pushing the fuels uniformly over the width
of the grate. The grate bars support and spacing should be proper. While raking the ash, many
operators disturb the grate and this leads to nonuniform air gap between the grates. Once the gap
is nonuniform, the poor combustion starts. One can observe the absence of the flame in many
spots. The ash removal should be uniform. Uniform removal of ash leads to uniform climbing
down of burning husk.
4.4. In flat grate the depth of the fuel bed should be uniform (about 2 inches) over the grate. If this
is done one can think of good combustion in the furnace. The task is difficult. Pulsating grate /
traveling grate / push grate would do a good job here. Both consume less power and ensure that
the ash is discharged uniformly from the full width of the furnace. The choice of pulsating grate /
traveling grate / push grate depends on the boiler capacity. The investment should justify the
savings.
4.5. In Single pass shell type boiler, spring type spirals have been of nuisance as they get choked
often. One can choose plate type turbulators shown in figure 6. These expose the heat transfer
surface as well.
4.6. In general I find many are still continuing old horizontal model pumps. New range of vertical
pumps is found to be saving good amount of power. While replacement of pumps one should
certainly think of the vertical pump.
4.7. The POF boilers with fixed grate can be replaced by the Distributor plate. This ensures
uniform airflow at all places. Thus the husk is burnt completely in suspension. The old type grate
bars are shown in Figure 10. I recall that many times the grate bars would bend / disturbed. The
husk used to accumulate over the grate in many placed and it called for the attention of Operators
to clean up the furnace. With distributor plate the settling of ash in POF furnace is gone. The ID
fan can be dispensed with thus there will be power saving.
4.8. Earlier days the POF furnaces were provided with a cyclone. The fuel used to be discharged
like a spiral inside the furnace. The cross in the fuel drop chute has now eliminated the nonuniform spreading of fuel. In one case I observed that the pipe eroded off leading to leakage of
steam. See Figure 7 showing the old tangential type fuel feed pipe. Figure 8 shows the cross type
fuel feed pipe.
4.9. In one case the shell tubes were found to be eroding at the entry due to narrow design.
Insertion of ferrules has given the relief against tube failure. Figure 11 shows a view of ferrule.

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4.10. Rotary feeder below Mechanical dust collector is a must to improve the dust collection. One
could use trema cyclone configuration would lead to better collection efficiency. Trema cyclone
design employs optimum inlet velocity and long cone. Figure 12 shows the trema cyclone.
4.11. When ash dust emission was to be brought down in one case wet bottom gas duct with gas
baffles were introduced to improve the ash settling.
4.12. Magnetic water conditioner is found to be effective in removing boiler scales. But then the
softening needs to be continued. The scales were found to be completely removed when tried on a
case where chemical cleaning had failed to do the cleaning.
4.13. Repeated tube failures were reported in one case. It was found the tubes were not fitted as
per standard method. Tubes facing hot flue gases of temperatures above 650oC are to be fitted as
per weld figure shown in Figure 13.
5.0 CONCLUSION
There is good amount of options available for the rice mill industry to choose and specify the
boiler depending on several factors such as the capacity, availability of alternate fuels, extent of
automation, load response. While buying a boiler options have to be thoroughly seen. All the
problems in the boiler are solvable. It is not necessary to live with a problem. I myself have seen
some clients take initiatives to solve even small problems.

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PRESERVATION OF BOILERS
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
The boiler life is more while in service than when it is idle. There are boilers, which are operated for
8-9 months in a year. There are boilers, which act as standby. While in service, waterside parameters
are being monitored by most of the boiler users. When the boiler is running, the gas side surfaces are
dry, except at the low temperature zones where flue gas condensation is experienced.
However, the boiler when idle is not taken care of by the users. This article is aimed at educating both
shell type boiler users and water tube boiler users in the area of preservation.
WATER-SIDE CORROSION
Water, left inside the boiler without properly treating for oxygen removal, can lead to corrosion. The
attacks on metals take place due to improper pH level too. The corrosion results in isolated pits or
craters where in the parent material thickness is reduced. This leads to generation of loose oxides,
which again lead to further deposit related failures. Tube failures can occur at craters where thickness
is less.
GAS-SIDE CORROSION
More corrosion can take place on the gas-side of an idle boiler than when the boiler is in operation.
Gas side corrosion results from attack on the metal of the boiler by sulphur compounds. These
accumulate in soot deposits, which can contain up to 30% sulphuric acid, which is hygroscopic, i.e.
absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. The soot becomes wet, and allows the acid formation and leads
to attack on boiler steel. Corrosion under ash deposits do take place depending of the sulphur and the
fuel moisture.
PRESERVATION METHODS
One of the following methods is used for preservation of boilers.
1. Dry preservation
2. Wet preservation under hydraulic pressure
3. Wet preservation with nitrogen capping
Obviously the gas side has to be put in to dry preservation only. Water-side can be put in to
preservation under any of the three methods.
GAS SIDE PRESERVATION OF WATER TUBE / FLUE TUBE BOILERS
When boilers are laid- off it is important that the gas-side is thoroughly cleaned and all soot / ash
deposits are removed. This is much more easily done with the boiler hot. The soot is then much drier
and more readily removed.
Having cleaned the boiler it is advisable to dust all the heating surfaces with hydrated magnesia to
neutralize any acid that is remaining. This can be done by blowing the powder through the flues by
means of small vacuum cleaner arranged to blow.
Where boilers are connected to separate chimneys it is best to leave the gas side fully ventilated, i.e.
open up the burner, or remove it, and leave the exit damper, if any, fully open.

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Where boiler outlets are connected to common chimney this cannot be done otherwise flue gases may
discharge back into the boiler house through the idle boiler. In this cases the exit damper must be shut
and the dusting with magnesia carried out all the more thoroughly.
Flue tube boilers are easily amenable for gas side cleaning. This can be done by opening the II pass /
III pass doors.
In the case of water tube boilers, the manholes provided for Superheater, Economiser, Airheater,
MDC, ESP sections are to be opened to clean the ash / soot deposits thoroughly. Due to varying
climatic conditions, and due to insulation, the inside of the boiler is never warmer. However it can be
made warmer, by adding high watts lamps. Room heaters or hot air generators can also be used as
source of hot air supply.
In addition, silica gel or slaked lime Ca (OH)2 can be kept inside the boiler in trays. At periodical
intervals the silica gel / Slaked lime must be inspected and replaced.
WATER SIDE PRESERVATION OF SHELL TYPE BOILERS
1. HEADERING WITH OPERATING BOILERS
It may be practical to leave the boiler under steam supply from other boiler. In such a case, the water
quality must be monitored for residual sulphite level and pH. The pH must be maintained at 10 and at
least 150 ppm of sodium sulphite should be maintained. For this purpose the boiler must have separate
chemical dosing arrangement.
2. WET PRESERVATION UNDER HYDRAULIC PRESSURE
In this case, the boiler is always kept under hydraulic pressure of 5-kg/cm2 pressure. Water quality
must be monitored for residual sulphite level and pH. The pH must be maintained at 10 and at least
150 ppm of sodium sulphite should be maintained. This method can be adopted for an idle period of
upto three months.
3. DRY PRESERVATION
Drain and dry boiler with hot air, place a small electric heater in the bottom of the boiler & leave shell
man doors open to allow good ventilation. High wattage lamps may also serve the purpose. The dry
preservation method will be the best and easiest method for the shell type boiler.
WATER SIDE PRESERVATION OF WATER TUBE BOILERS
1. DRY PRESERVATION
The dry preservation method is effective provided the boiler is completely drainable. If Superheater /
Economiser sections are completely drainable then this method can be practicable.
The headers should have removable handhole plates wherein silica gel or hydrated lime can be
kept inside for absorbing moisture.
Heaters can be placed inside the headers. The warm climate will ensure the metal surfaces are dry.
Similarly the drum / drums should be kept dry by means of room heaters.
Volatile corrosion inhibitors can also be used to contain corrosion in idle boilers.
If the boiler has non-drainable superheater sections, getting rid of water will be difficult. Hence this
method can not be adopted for such boilers.
2. WET PRESERVATION
In this method the boiler should be filled with Demineralised water with a pH of 10 and hydrazine /
sodium sulphite dosed to 200 ppm. It is a fact that the steel corrodes at the least rate, when pH of 10.
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The boiler filling must be proper. It is necessary to back fill the boiler from Superheater section and
ensure the water overflows from Superheater to the steam drum. The water should be filled from the
lowest point to ensure the air is properly released from the boiler. After this, any one of the following
should be implemented.
Maintain 5 kg/cm2g pressure in the boiler my means of a hand pump. Every day the pressure
should be monitored.
Instead of pressurizing, the space above the water surface can be sealed by Nitrogen gas, which is
inert. This is known as Nitrogen blanketing. The recommended scheme is shown below. The
nitrogen is maintained at pressure of 0.35 kg/cm2 g to avoid air ingress. In this case the
Superheater section will not be filled with water.
Periodical testing of water has to be done to ensure the water pH is maintained at 10 and the hydrazine
/ sodium sulphite levels are maintained at 200 ppm. A pump arranged for recirculation will be
necessary for higher capacity boilers, where the water hold up volume is more.
CONCLUSION
In Sugar mills, the boilers are forced to go offline during the off season period. Replacement of boiler
tubes is more common in this industry. By taking proper care during off-season, the boiler life can be
improved.

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SHUT DOWN INSPECTION OF A CHINESE MAKE CFBC BOILER
By K.K.Parthiban, B.Tech ( IIT-M), M.E Thermal Engineering- RECT Trichy
Every shut down inspection of a boiler is an experience for us. It gives an insight to behavior &
health of boiler. We share herewith our findings on shut down inspection of a 130 TPH CFBC boiler.
Many times we are given an agenda by the boiler owners. The O&M problems faced by the boiler
owner are given to us for review. Other than the problems referred, we identify several other
problems and give corrective solutions.
1. Final Superheater distortion
The final SH coils had undergone distortion since commissioning. See photo 1. The Primary SH and
Final SH are arranged in the second pass. The secondary SH is arranged in the furnace itself. The
supporting system for Final SH and primary SH was little unconventional.
See figure 1 below. The final SH has two start coils. Each coil has two supports from steam cooled
wall. Incidentally each coil supports come on either one wall only. The load of the coils is taken
through the strap & the pins. The superheater coil is made of T22 and T91 material. Both materials
are ferritic steels. Hence the thermal expansion coefficient does not differ much. Only stainless steel
has higher thermal expansion coefficient due to its face centered crystal structure. The straps are
made of SS309S material. The straps are uncooled.
Straps are held in position
by stoppers welded to the
tube. The stoppers are
available at three levels.
The stoppers have 2 mm
clearance. See photo 2.
The stoppers are welded in
one coil only. While
handling the second coil
would have moved freely.
Observations
The furnace side straps are
found to be distorted see
photo. The rear side straps
Figure 2
are not found distorted.
There is no oxidation seen
in strap material. The
distortion pattern is same across all coils. The inner tubes have shifted out of alignment at several
places.

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Photo 1

Photo 2

A picture on thermal expansion behavior

The superheater coils are fixed in the sealbox end. The seal box for the finishing SH is at rear.
Hence the coils move towards furnace. The furnace side coil ends move forward by 29 mm to
34.5 mm from bottom to top. The rear side bends move relatively forward by 2.2 to 3.5 mm as
they expand relatively towards rear side.
The steam cooled walls expand by 21.2 mm relative to seal box. Net effect the SH coils would
move forward by 7.8 mm to 13.8 mm. At the supports (at steam cooled wall brackets), they move
by 9.5 mm at bottom support and by 12.4 mm at top support.
Straps are held in place by stoppers welded at three levels. The coils expand differentially from
bottom to top. At the top the expansion can be up to 4.9 mm at the front support. The coils
Figure 2

expand differentially by 2.2 mm from top to bottom at the front strap support. The stoppers are
pulling the straps on thermal expansion.

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Strap can expand up to 38 mm vertically due to its length of 2.3 m for an average gas temperature
of 700 deg C. This is due to the fact that the supports are uncooled. When coils prevent their
expansion they can buckle inwards or outwards.

Recommendations
Stoppers were removed at top and bottom, so that straps are not pulled along.

2. Bed material seepage in to windbox

Figure 3

Flooding of bed material in

the windbox was being
experienced in this plant.
Design review
In the original design, the
150 nb ash drain pipe is
provided with sleeve pipe at
the floor panel & at the
bottom panel of windbox.
See figure 3 here. The
bottom sleeve does not
permit movement of inner
pipe. Also the poke hole
added is found passing
through the outer jacket pipe
& inserted in a manner that
the expansion is restricted.
Recommendation
It was suggested to change
the ash drain pipe with the
expansion bellow inside the
airbox. This is similar to
AFBC boiler design. Only
heat protection is required
for ash drain pipe since the
boiler is with duct burner.
Calcium silicate blocks can
be wrapped over the ash

drain pipe if the refractory breaks down.

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3. Distortion of vortex finder

Photo 3

Vortex finder is supported in many ways

depending on the water cooled / steam cooled /
hot cyclone constructions. In all the cases, the
vortex finder remains uncooled. It needs space
around the periphery for thermal expansion. If
it is not provided, the vortex finder comes down
from position.

Photo 3 shows the distortion of vortex finder

due to restrictions in thermal expansion. See
figure 4 below showing the present
arrangement of supporting system. The
mistakes are pointed out in the drawing itself.
There are eight supports. Each support is as shown in the figure 4.

Figure 4

The 25 mm gap required should be ensured. Once such a gap is provided, there can be short
circuiting of bed material / flue gas. A sealing is required. The sealing arrangement recommended is
shown in figure 5. Further the space shall be provided with sealing system as shown in figure 5. The
warping that occurred in the vortex finder cannot be corrected insitu.
It is necessary to check the fly ash particle distribution on daily basis. The sieve sizes can be 25, 50,
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75 and 90 microns. In case there is a problem in loop seal / due vortex finder damage, the size
distribution pattern changes immediately.

Figure 5

Photo 4

Figure 6

Photo 4 and figure 6 show the vortex finder fixing arrangement with expansion gap and the condition
of the vortex finder at another plant. No distortion was seen even after several runs.

4. Random erosion of CFBC furnace waterwall

Waterwall erosion is seen at seal box area, excess fin weld area and at corners. See photos 5 & 6
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below. Any protrusions inside CFBC combustor wall causes erosion nearby. Photos 5 & 6 show that
the erosion was caused due to improper fin to fin field weld.

Photo 5

Photo 6

Figure 7

Erosion at improper field weld joint / shop weld joint is a general phenomenon. It happens at all
CFBC installations. Once the weld reinforcement is eroded, the erosion ceases. In the case of excess
reinforcement in fin welds, the bed material is directed to adjacent tubes. This can be avoided by
removing the excess weld reinforcement. It was advised to deploy portable carbide tip cutters to

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remove the excess weld reinforcements.

Photo 7

Figure 8

Even a draft tapping made in the furnace wall causes erosion, when the draft pipe is extended inside.
It needed correction as shown. Lifting lugs, overlapping fins cause erosion in CFBC furnace walls.

5. Haphazard erosion of the air nozzles

Photo 8

Photo 9

Air nozzles were found to have eroded in haphazard manner as seen in the photo on the left. This can
be due blocking the air jet passage by broken refractory / foreign material trapped between the air
nozzles. Improper furnace refractory patch up work could spall off in service.

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6. Bull nose brick work
Photo 10

Bull nose refractory is seen to crack

from position. This happens due to
many reasons.
a.
Refractory work at bull nose is
thicker as compared to nearby wall.
There will be differential expansion
during the boiler start up.
b.
Proper refractory dry out is
necessary once the casting is done. It is
necessary to have steam vent holes by
drilling from the hot side of the
refractory. Dry out for local repair work
may not be practical always. It is better
to avoid castable work. It was advised
for substitution of precast anchor bricks
followed by special bricks.

Figure 9

c. In case the bull nose cracks away from near refractory brick, the crack should not be filled again.
Because by design there should be expansion allowance and the bull nose should be casted
separately.

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7. Wrong Buckstay fitment

It is seen that some of the buckstays in furnace waterwall are not erected as per drawing. It leads to
straining the waterwall. The zero axis is at the centre of the waterwall. Hence the pin connections
have to be with an offset of 10 mm as per drawing detail.

Photo 11

Figure 10

It is seen that second pass is guided along the centre of the panels. However at the top it is offset due
to some reason. See photo 12 & photo 13 below. The buckstay needs correction.

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Photo 12

Photo 13
There may not be any failure immediately. After cycling operation, the panel may develop cracks
along the corner tube- fin weld. Waterwall caves out or in between the buckstays when the buckstays
restrict thermal expansion.

8. Failure of tube at corner welds of steam cooled wall duct connection

Photo 14

Figure 11

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Any corner joint terminated at tube fails due to cyclic thermal strain. This kind of failure is seen at
many plants. The location is shown in photo 14 & figure 11. The corner joint should be as shown in
the sketch by the side. It is advised to minimize the weld size.

9. Buckling of the platen SH panel

Photo 15

Platen superheater at furnace is seen distorted. Platen SH assembly is supported at top by variable
spring hangers. This should be constant load hanger so that the thermal expansion load comes on to
the hanger. In variable load hanger this does not happen properly.

Photo 16

Another reason for buckling is that

the quick start with excess fuel
feed without sufficient steam flow.
Many operators try to pressurize
the boiler by throttling the start up
vent. This is not a correct method.
Start up vent should be full open
so that the pressurization can occur
due to sufficient steam flow.
It was advised to add retractable
thermocouple below the platen SH
so that one can control gas
temperature at entry to platen SH
during start up.

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10. Char formation at fuel feed openings
Charring of coal is seen at the fuel feed openings. Earlier a fuel spreader fan was used for fuel
spreading. Its pressure was about 1400 mmWC. Now the PA air is used for fuel spreading. The air
flow has come down from previous flow. This is because the nozzles provided kill the pressure.
It is possible during start up and during hot restart there may not be sufficient spreader air flow / air
pressure to spread the fuel. It may be possible that after the start up & load raising the PA pressure
raises and it could be enough.
It is advised to check the spreading of fuel by running the PA fan only at 800 mmWC and check the
spreading at MCR feeder rpm. Otherwise it is necessary to modify the spreader with higher diameter
nozzles to have enough air flow.
The refractory work at fuel nozzle should be sloped downwards so that the fuel flow is not
obstructed.

Photo 17

Photo 18

11. Observations in bag filter

Photo 19

Poppet valve housing is to be

insulated to avoid condensation of flue gas
inside the bag filter.

Poppet valve housing flange has to

be corrected. The rope was not fitted during
installation.

Bag filter hoppers are provided with

double door system. But the inspection door
at clean chamber at top is single door. This
has to be of double door system. In between
the two doors insulation mattress shall be

filled. See photo 20.

One clean chamber was seen with condensation of sulfur dioxide. There must have been high air

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ingress. This can be due to improper closure of inspection door. It is advised to change the rubber
seal every time the inspection doors are opened. This is because the resilience is lost once the
rubber seal is put in service.
The bag filter needs a rain cover at top to prevent rain water in to the bag house. This can happen
when the door seal is not proper. The rain cover can be with removable roof cover.

Photo 20

Photo 22

Photo 21

The dampers in the bag filter should be

insulated. Uninsulated dampers would condense
the flue gas and it may drip through the flange
joints. See photo 21.

The bag filter top floor should be covered

with removable insulation mattress bags to avoid
cooling the flue gas and the condensation of
moisture. See photo 22 showing the damage at
another plant.

12. Air cooled condenser

Photo 23

Feed water pH and condensate pH are

controlled by Morpholine & Ammonia.
Hydrazine dosed in the deaerator breaks
down to ammonia and contributes to pH rise
in condensate. Ammonia is more volatile
and hence the pH does not rise in the first
condensate. Only when the condensation is
complete, we can find the pH rises fully.
Due to this phenomenon there is small
amount
of
corrosion
takes
place
continuously at the inlet end of each ACC
tube. This has been found out when there

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were serious outages in units with ACC. EPRI recommends to raise the pH of condensate to a level
that that there is no corrosion in the ACC. Corrosion can be identified by Iron test and SDI test.
ACC of unit was internally inspected. There was corrosion of ACC duct and the tubes. Hence it was
advised to measure SDI and dissolved iron in the condensate and raise the pH by dosing additional
morpholine at turbine exhaust duct or at Main steam line.

13. Observations in steam drum / boiler water chemistry

Steam drum inspection

The condition of the steam drum is good. See photo 24. The magnetite layer is good. The surface is
free from corrosion and the
magnetite layer is intact. This is due
Photo 24
to boiler water pH being maintained
properly. The boiler water chemistry
is maintained by the phosphate to a
level of 4 to 5 ppm.
The yellow ochre marks are due to
Dosing pump being in operation
even after the fire is put off /
circulation is put off. The HP dosing
pump should be tripped when the
fuel feeders are tripped.

Deaerator storage tank

The corrosion product could be seen floating inside the deaerator tank. Look at the marks above the
NWL in photo below. The source is Air cooled condenser. Air cooled condenser needs pH in the
range of 9.6 to 9.8. This is because the inlet end of ACC tubes experience low pH due as the amine /
ammonia have different distribution ratio in
Photo 25
water & steam.
Rejection of ACC condensate during start up is
a must as the first run off contains iron
contamination. Till the SDI / turbidity is cleared
the condensate must be sent back to raw water
tank. A separate line is to be added from CEP
discharge to raw water tank.
Contaminated condensate leads to under deposit

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corrosion in boiler tubes and can lead to caustic attack or hydrogen attack depending on boiler water
chemistry. Such problems occur in high heat flux regions.

Conclusion
As we audit many power plants in shut down and during tube failures, we have learnt a lot about the
boiler problems. We had been able to offer design solutions to improve the availability and reliability
of the power plants. In the above is the condensed version of our inspection report of a Chinese make
CFBC boiler.
M/S Venus energy audit system Trouble shooting of boiler failures
and operational issues. Company carries out design audit, construction
audit, shut down audit and operational audit.
M/S Sri Devi engineering consultancy and agency engaged in non
pressure parts spares supply for FBC boilers.
M/S Sri Devi boiler equipment and spares engaged in supply of
pressure part spares for all type of boilers

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SIMPLIFIED BOILER START UP METHOD FOR FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION
BOILERS
1.0 SYNOPSIS
The start up of fluidised bed combustion boilers has always been a subject of the most
difficult operation. Many boiler users find it difficult to get their operators trained in the
start up. The author shares his recent start up experience in a 70 TPH underbed Coal
fired FBC boiler.
2.0 THE FIRST FBC BOILER
I recall the Start up experience of the first FBC boiler in INDIA. The start up was a hit
or miss at least for the first 15 start-ups. The operators could learn themselves only
after their hands on experience. The customer could not start the boiler 6 months later,
and the Boiler Manufacturer had to send their service engineer.
3.0 THE CONVENTIONAL START UP METHOD
The conventional start up method, using charcoal and kerosene is explained below:
3.1

A fixed quantity of dry charcoal is spread uniformly over the start up compartment.

3.2

A fixed quantity of Kerosene mixed charcoal is spread uniformly over the dry
charcoal layer.

3.3

Initiate the fire using number of swabs. Throw the swabs in such a way that the fire
spreads uniformly over the entire furnace. If the spreading of the fire is nonuniform sprinkle some kerosene soaked charcoal and throw it to the locations where
fire is not there. Unless the fire is more or less present uniformly over the entire
surface, it is advised not to proceed with the light up. Unless the top layer of
charcoal gets fully ignited, further charcoal would not get ignited.

3.4

After the introduction of fire, top-level thermocouple temperature will go up. It is

very important to increase the airflow gradually in order to increase the top-level
temperature to 800C.
The thermocouples are located in such a way that they are well utilized for start up.
The top-level bed thermocouple is located at a height to read the temperature just
at the burning charcoal layer. The bottom level thermocouple is located to read the
bed material temperature at a height of 100 mm from nozzle level.

3.5

At first the ID Fan damper opening alone allows some leakage air. Further opening of
FD Fan damper will add some more air to increase the bed temperature. Now start
ID Fan and FD Fan and open inlet dampers little to increase the top-level
temperature to 800C to 850C. Till this period the bottom level thermocouple would
not have shown increase in temperature.

3.6

Once the top-level temperature reaches 800C to 850C, the burning top layer of

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charcoal shall be mixed with rest of the bed. The mixing is done by increasing the
airflow so as to fluidise the bed. This mixing airflow should not be higher than that
of the airflow established during the fluidisation study. For this purpose the
markings made on damper positions shall be used. If the mixing is done at higher
airflow, the fire may get put off.
3.7

The duration of mixing shall be between 20 - 30 seconds. During the mixing process,
the top-level temperature would start reducing. At the same time, bottom level
temperature would begin to rise.

3.8

Soon after the mixing is completed, reduce the airflow and open the manhole door
and visually ensure thorough mixing has been done. If top layer charcoal had not
been disturbed at some places, mixing shall be carried out once again.

3.9

After ensuring thorough mixing, the airflow shall be brought down to minimum and
then shall be increased in steps. The airflow shall be increased gradually so as to
raise the bed temperature. The airflow shall be brought up to MCR airflow in the
process of raising bed temperature above 650C. In the process of preheating bed
material, the required fluidisation velocity is maintained in the bed by suitably
opening the FD Fan inlet damper.

3.10 Initiate the fuel flow by switching on the fuel feeders. The fuel flow shall be kept
minimal at the beginning. At the time of fuel feed initiation, the charcoal might not
have burnt fully. Hence it is most important to initiate fuel feed gradually.
3.11 Excess fuel feed will increase the bed temperature uncontrollably. Though the bed
temperature can be controlled by increasing the airflow, it is advisable to take care
at the time of fuel feed initiation. High bed temperature leads to clinker formation.
3.12 Further the fuel feed rate is adjusted to maintain a bed temperature of 800 C to
900C. Further the adjacent compartments are started using the heat available in
the bed material of the first compartment.

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4.0 PARAMETERS WHICH INFLUENCE START UP OF FLUIDISED BED
The following are the parameters, which decide the difficulties in light up.

Bed material size

Bed material height
Charcoal quality
Size of the start up compartment
Compartmentalization arrangement.
Fuel feed point locations
Fuel feed point size
Bed coil immersion area
Bed coil configuration
Type of bed coil
FD fan flow, head & no of fans
ID fan flow, head & no of fans
PA fan flow head
Fuel feeder size
Natural draft
FD compartment damper type
Type of draft control
Type of airflow control
Air flow measurement & Indication

Let us look at effect of the parameters in detail

4.1 Bed material size
The following is the ideal specification for bed material.
Bed material specification:
Maximum particle size
Minimum particle size
Particle density
Bulk density

: 2.35
: 0.85

mm
mm

: 2000 Kg/m
: 1000 to 1100 Kg/m

Chemical Composition

: Alumina
Silica

Fusion temperature

: Minimum 1400C

: 45 % to 35 %
: 55 % to 65 %

(Bed material shall be from Crushed refractory bricks.

Higher the average particle size, the start up will be difficult. This is due to higher
airflow required for fluidisation.

More the powder content, the fire will be put off. This is due to powder covering the
burning particles and preventing oxygen contact.

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4.2 Bed material height
Ideal height for start up is 225 mm above the nozzle. The start up compartment is to be
separately fluidised at a higher airflow so that the spillage to adjacent compartment is
done intentionally before startup. Only after this step the bed height is to be measured.

Lower the height the fluidizing air passes through the bed in some locations. Further
when fuel feed is initiated the mixing of fuel particles with bed would not take place.

More the bed height, more airflow is required to disturb the bed.

4.3 Charcoal quality

The following is the specification for charcoal.
Charcoal size

: 15 to 25 mm lumps

Calorific value

: 6600

Kcal / kg

(Charcoal should be sun dried)

Higher the charcoal size it does not have mobility to spread the fire.

Lower the charcoal size, it burns off very quickly.

Charcoal is to be spread leaving 100-mm gap from all boundaries of start up compartment.
This prevents spillage of charcoal to adjacent compartment while mixing. The charcoal
should be spread below the bed coil. In some cases the pitch for the bed coil will be small
and will prevent charcoal mobility and lead to clinker formation.
4.4 Size of the start up compartment
The shape of the bed & size of the bed influences the start up. More the width of the
bed the start up will be easier. This is due to the fact that the charcoal & bed material
spillage to adjacent compartment will be less during mixing. When the bed size increases
then also start up has been found to be easier. This is due to the fact that the bed
inventory is high and the material spillage to adjacent compartment is less.
4.5 Compartmentalization arrangement
The compartmentalization can be of type A or B shown in figure 1. Type A makes it little
difficult, as the start up compartment is not contained on two sides. In type B
configuration, the bed is contained on three sides.
4.6 Fuel feed point locations
Scattered feed point locations are found to help start up. When the fuel feed points are
too close, the influence of primary air is too high. In such cases the PA fan is switched off
until the bed temperature is heated to 800 deg C.
4.7 Fuel feed point size

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When the fuel feed point size is chosen on the higher side, the no off feed points
required will be less. Hence this makes it easy to start the bed. The start up can be done
keeping the PA on all the time during start up.
4.8 Bed coil immersion area
Fluidised bed without bed coil makes the start up easier. This is due to the fact that
during start up, the heat released by the charcoal partly goes to bed coils. Depending on
the fuel to be fired the bed coil area is provided. In agro waste fired boiler the bed coil
required would be less as compared to coal firing.
4.9 Bed coil configuration
Basically there are two configurations used in FBC boiler design. See figure 2. In the
cross tube configuration (type A), the pitch between the coils is more. The gap between
the coils, both longitudinal and lateral, if more, the start up is easy. In hairpin bend
configuration (type B), the gap is less.
4.10 Type of bed coil
The bed coil may be studded or plain depending on the clients requirement or on the fuel.
The studded bed coil results in lesser gap between the adjacent coils. This invariably
prevents charcoal movement if the charcoal is thrown over the bed coil.
4.11 FD fan flow, head & no of fans
FD fan head & flow are important for mixing of the bed. If the no of fans is 2 x 50%, it is
easier to start the bed. The reason is the better regulation of airflow that is possible as
the FD fan volume flow rate is less. In the case of single FD fan, for better airflow
control, the last compartment air damper is kept open, during start up.
4.12 ID fan flow, head, no of fans,
Higher the flow / head of the ID fan, the control of the draft becomes difficult. More
the negative pressure in the furnace, the lateral spreading of the fire becomes difficult.
In the case of 2 x 50 % ID fan, control of the draft becomes easier.
4.13 PA fan flow head
During start up the PA fan head has to be kept minimum, but ensuring that the fuel line
does not get choked. Higher the PA fan header pressure, the disturbance in the bed will
be more. Also fuel will be thrown more to adjacent bed.
4.14 Fuel feeder size
Oversized fuel feeders create chances for clinker in coal fired boiler. It is necessary to
reduce the fuel feed rate, so that the tendency for overfeeding can be averted.

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4.15 Natural draft

It is a practice to make use of the draft due to chimney for start up purpose. When the
kerosene soaked charcoal burns, the draft should be minimum.
4.16 FD compartment damper type
Leakproof dampers are required for smooth start up. When the damper is not proper,
causing leakage air, then the clinker formation is experienced along the border of the
compartment partition line. The bleed off valves at non-operating compartment air box
are kept open, to vent the leakage air to atmosphere.
4.17 Type of draft control
Of late VFD is used for draft control in the boiler. This has made the draft control easier
in the boiler. The improper closure of ID fan inlet damper used to make the draft control
difficult during start up.
4.18 Type of airflow control
A VFD for FD fan also makes the control smooth. The power cylinder operation & linkage
system should provide a smooth control of the FD fan flow. Or else this alone could be the
main factor making the start up difficult.
4.19 Air flow measurement & Indication
Many types of flowmeters have come in to use in FBC boiler to measure the total airflow.
All of them may not have sensitivity when only one compartment flow is to be indicated.
This makes it very difficult for the boiler operator. Again the reliability and sensitivity of
indicating instrument provided in control panel also matters.
5.0 START UP EXPERIENCE IN 70 TPH FBC BOILER
After 12 start up failures, the customer called up to me to assist in boiler start up.
Variable speed drives were available for FD, ID & PA fan. Further four nos. of 125 -LPH
oil igniters were available for igniting the charcoal. That made the job simpler. But I was
not comfortable with the airflow measurement & indication. The airfoil meter provided in
the common air duct was not properly manufactured. I decided to measure to distributor
plate drop and use it as airflow measurement. Incidentally the designer has to limit the
design pressure drop of Distributor plate to 125 mm maximum while deciding the no off
air nozzles. I requested the client to add the direct bed height measurement tapping as
per figure 3, and hook it to a draft transmitter. The client could do it in a matter of few
hours. The start up was done. The DCS was recording the bed temperature profile.
Identical start up curves could be repeated several times before I left the site after six
days.
6.0 THE REFINED START UP METHOD

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The following the summary of start up method which was adopted.
6.1 The bed material was filled upto 325 mm (as measured from plate) in all beds. All the
four compartments were fluidised alternately so that the bed height was even in all
compartments.
6.2 The first compartment was fluidised at an airbox pressure of 460 mmwc. The mixing
was good. The primary air header pressure at 850 mmwc to avoid choking of fuel
transport lines. The fluidisation was kept on for 5 minutes. This was done to ensure a
good mount could be formed along the border between 1st & 2nd compartments. The
airbox pressure was reduced to zero and the border formation was checked.
6.3 The bed height was physically checked and required bed material was further added
to maintain 325-mm bed height in start up compartment.
6.4 Charcoal equivalent to 15 % by weight of the start up bed was added to the start up
compartment keeping the airbox pressure at 350 mmwc. The bed was fluidising even
at this airbox pressure, due to the right particle size. The charcoal was thrown into
the bed. Nobody went inside the furnace.
6.5 Now the airbox pressure was brought down to 265 mmwc, by adjusting the FD fan
rpm.
6.6 All the four burners were switched on. The oil igniter could continuously ignite the
charcoal and throw the same to a farther point away from the burner. The primary air
jet was also helping the building up of fire. The fire at first got established in
pockets. The fluidisation was happening at these locations. The charcoal, which was
premixed earlier, could now get ignited easily with the ignited charcoal. The bed
temperature was rising to 650 deg C almost in all locations in 15 minutes time and the
fluidization had commenced automatically over the entire bed.
6.7 The burners were put off now. The primary air pressure was raised to 925 mmwc to
ensure the fuels lines are not choked while coal feeding. The fuel feeders were
started immediately.
6.8 Now the fuel feeder rpm was controlled in order to maintain the bed temperature at
850 to 900 deg C. No change was done on airflow. The bed height inside was found to
be about 200 mm as read by the new bed pressure tapping. That ensured a DP drop of
65 mmwc now.
6.9 In the next half an hour the bed height was raised to 250-mm by throwing additional
bed material into the start up compartment. The airflow was increased gradually to
maintain 80-mmwc DP drop.
The start up curve showing the temperature profile of all bed temperatures is shown in
the attachment.

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The start up was made simpler so that all operators could easily repeat it. The bed
material height, simpler air flow control using the airbox pressure and bed pressure
tapping made the start up easier and repeatable.

The author is a Graduate from IIT (M) and Postgraduate from Madras
University in Thermal Engg. He is a Boiler specialist with 25 years
experience and had worked for BHEL, Cethar Vessels, and Veesons. He
has been a consultant for Thermax, Nestler Ltd and now Thermal
systems, Hyderabad. He extends service for trouble shooting of
boilers.

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THERMAL EXPANSION OF BOILERS

INTRODUCTION
Boiler is made up of plates, tubes, pipes and simple steel of various grades depending upon the duty
conditions. Depending on the service such as cold air / hot air / cold flue gas / hot flue gas / cold water
/ hot water / saturated steam / superheated steam, thermal expansion movement of steel materials take
place to different extent in Boiler. Ignorance of thermal expansion movement of boiler components in
design / installation may lead to failure of boiler components. The damage to boiler components can
be costly affecting human life in some cases. This article is aimed at imparting awareness among
boiler users.
ABSOLUTE EXPANSION & DIFFERENTIAL EXPANSION
The boiler has an absolute expansion movement as a total mass. There are places where there is a
relative expansion movement, which can cause stress in those parts. A packaged boiler expanding as a
total can be regarded as a single mass movement.
THE PACKAGED BOILER
Boiler shell
Shell type packaged boilers are generally mounted on two saddles. The boiler is to be mounted on base
plates on the RCC footing. One of the saddles will be a fixed support and the other is a sliding support.
At the fixed support the boiler will be fastened to the foundation bolt or held in place by means of
stoppers. At the sliding support, slippery medium is required between the saddle and the base plate.
The locknut is loosened by half a turn to facilitate expansion. The guide blocks are provided to make
the boiler move in the desired direction. One may observe breakages of RCC pedestals where this
aspect is ignored.
Ducting
In packaged boilers, flue gas ducting to chimney would need an expansion joint to accommodate the duct
expansion due to heat. The expansion joint is generally metallic and pre-expanded. The expansion joint would
be compressed when the duct expands due to heat. An expansion joint may be with a single or multiple bellows
as illustrated in figure 1.

Water & steam piping

In packaged boilers, the feed piping is generally small and flexible and thus may not call for spring
hangers / supports. The steam piping is generally managed with fixed and guiding supports and
expansion loops. Expansion loops accommodate the displacement due to thermal expansion. See the
typical illustration in figure 2.
LARGER CAPACITY BOILERS
Larger capacity boilers are mostly designed for high pressure & high steam temperature. The thermal
expansion phenomenon is more seen in many parts of the boiler. When the design pressures are higher
the strain on the boiler components is not tolerable. In several components the design should address
the differential expansion aspect.
PRESSURE PARTS - STEAM DRUM
A steam drum may be either top supported or bottom supported or floating. Top supported steam drum
can be saddle supported or hanger supported. The steam drum may be floating free through support
from downcomer or from bank tubes
1

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Case 1. Saddle support from base.
When supported from base the steam drum will stretch in length due to heat. The drum movement
must be generally arrested at the centre and allowed to expand linearly towards the ends. This is taken
care of stopper blocks. The drum base plates must be provided with Teflon sheet so that it freely slips
over the fixed supporting surface. Positioning fasteners when provided, must be made loose by a
turn and nuts must be tack welded with bolts. Machined base plates help in free movement. Instead of
Teflon sheet, graphite lubrication or dry lubricant may also form a slippery surface for the drum to
freely expand as shown in figure.3 (A)
Case 2. Hanger supports.
The steam drum may be supported through hangers from top structure. In such a case the hangers are
provided with rocker plates to facilitate from rotational freedom for the hangers. The rocker directions
are important and shall be as shown in figure 3 (B)
Case 3. Bottom supported through downcomers
The downcomer supports are critical supports and vulnerable for buckling, if the drum is not guided
for vertical expansion. In some cases the steam drum may be physically attached to waterwall and thus
the expansion may be guided. Otherwise it is necessary to provide guides, which will make the drum
to go up vertically without any lateral movement in the direction perpendicular to the drum axis. When
supported on downcomers, the support base of downcomer should be free for movement along drum
axis. There will have to be guides, which ensure the movement is free in the desired direction. Teflon
base / graphite lubricated base plates are required to allow for the slip.
In some cases the downcomer may be rigidly attached to waterwall giving a complete lateral support
along the height.
LOWER DRUM
The lower drum may be bottom supported or hanging from top drum through the bank tubes.
Case 1. Lower drum bottom supported
The lower drum may be base supported with three saddles or two saddles. In the case of three saddles
supported design the centre one will be the zero point of expansion. In the case of two-saddle support
design an external stopper or guide is required to guide the boiler expansion. A restraint is required to
ensure the drum center point is anchored to the structure.
Case 2. Lower drum hanging from top through bank tubes
When the lower drum is supported through bank tubes, the mud drum should be free from any
restraint.
ASH HOPPERS
The ash hoppers are generally attached to pressure parts such as waterwall second pass, Lower drum
of boiler bank, Economiser casing, Airheater base frame, Bag filter / ESP fields. In all the cases, the
ash hoppers move along with the equipment or part to which they are attached. Suitable metallic
expansion joints are added. It is a good practice to hang the ash feeders from the flange of ash hopper.
External supported ash feeders act as restraints for expansion and hence care is to be taken here.
Flexible metallic bellows are used to care of downward expansion or linear movement of ash hopper.
DOWNCOMERS
Downcomers start from steam drum in case of singe drum design. In case of bidrum design,
downcomers start from steam drum or lower drum depending on the designers choice.
2
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Downcomers should preferably be attached to waterwall. If unavoidable, then external supports are
provided. Flexibility is a very important factor to avoid development of thermal stresses. Most of the
time the stresses can be made below allowable limits only by providing spring supports. Spring
supports support the piping allowing some deflection of the pipe. Only when there is a constraint for
expansion movement, the stresses are high.
In some cases, it may not be necessary to provide spring supports, as the piping itself may be flexible
to accommodate the thermal expansion by elastic deflection.
RISERS
Riser tubes are usually quite a good number of them. It is more sensible to support these pipes from
the water wall top headers. By this way there will not be any differential expansion between waterwall
& risers. External supported risers are susceptible for undue stresses.
WATERWALL
There are basically two types of waterwall, namely fin-welded waterwall & loose tube waterwall.
Top supported waterwall is free to expand downwards. Ensuring the free expansion by suitable
clearances to the combustors is very important.
Bottom supported waterwall is to be supported at same level. Differences at supporting level can lead
to tearing of waterwall fin weldment.
In the case of loose tube waterwall, the boiler should necessarily be supported from top. This will
ensure the tubes do not buckle or distort laterally. Improper supporting system leads to leakages in
roof refractory work and ash leakage outside. See in figure 4.
BUCKSTAYS
Membrane waterwall panels are stiffened with buckstays to withstand furnace pressure fluctuation.
The buckstays being unheated are not going to expand as the way waterwall expands. The corner pins
should allow the expansion movement of waterwall. Improper erection of buckstays can lead to failure
or distortion of waterwall. The buckstays have anchor points, which would generally coincide the zero
axis of boiler expansion.
SATURATED STEAM LINKS
The link piping between drum and superheater can be very well supported from the top waterwall
header. This is practical for top supported Superheater headers. For horizontal Superheaters the links
should be supported properly allowing expansion movement. Constant load hangers or variable spring
hangers are required to support the piping.
SUPERHEATER COIL ASSEMBLY
Superheater assemblies, which are hung from waterwall top headers, the downward movement of coils
should be restricted. The nose panel to Superheater coils clearance should be adequate. Otherwise the
coils become distorted.
In horizontal superheater, the waterwall to Superheater clearances are important. Otherwise the
superheater coils get distorted.
SUPERHEATER HEADERS
Superheater intermediate headers & Final steam headers expand differentially as compared to
waterwall panels. When headers are supported from waterwall headers through saddles, differential
expansion must be considered. Where SH tubes pass through the space between waterwall tubes, the
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SH tube / Water wall tube space is sealed by plates. There should be flexibility in Superheater stubs
for differential expansion of Superheater. See in figure 5
REFRACTORY
Refractory walls expand. The coefficient of linear expansion of refractory is different as compared to
any steel material to which they are attached or resting on.
The hot wall expansion length is more as compared to cold wall expansion across the thickness of the
wall.
For this reason expansion joints are given along the hot face during construction. Similarly as the
refractory walls are expanding, at the end they have a total movement resulting in pushing them each
other. This is taken care of by leaving gaps before as shown in figure 6. Where castable refractory is
used in the boiler, to take care of differential expansion, expansion joints are given. Even the anchors
have linear expansion. To take care of this, plastic anchor covers are used over steel anchors. Wax is
applied over anchors so that there is gap over the steel anchors, once the refractory is heated up while
in service.
TUBULAR AIRPREHEATER
In most of the tubular airpreheater, the hot flue gas passes through the tubes and relatively cold air
passes around the tubes. There will be relative expansion between the tubes and the casing. To take
care of this a metallic expansion joint is provided as shown in the figure 7.
PIPING
The expansion movement of piping is the greatest in the boiler. The piping is always between
equipment, which are usually stationary. At the terminal point the piping is usually supported rigidly.
The piping in between stretches as the heating takes place. The piping needs some kind of flexible
support. This is provided by means of spring hangers. The spring hangers support the piping and at the
same time allow movement of piping so that the piping is not strained.
Piping can be carrying fuel oil, gas, hot water, LP steam, HP steam, Condensate. Depending on the
service, the expansion of piping will be to a different extent.
In case of piping terminating at turbine or feed pumps, the forces exerted by piping on the flanges
should be zero as otherwise it would cause damage to the connected equipment. The design of the
piping is to be done carefully. Constant load hangers are to be used for this purpose.
EXPANSION POINTER
Expansion pointers are used for verifying the expansion movement of the boiler. These are attached to
the drum ends / bottom or top header ends. When the boiler is under commissioning stage the
expansion must be monitored. Depending on the anchor points in X-axis and Y-axis, the expansion is
predicted by designers. The same is counter checked at site. Deviations in the form of non-uniform
expansion should be checked.
DUCTS
Ducts expand in length. Ducts expand in other two dimensions also. The thermal expansion along the
length may push the connecting equipment. For example a hot air duct from an airheater will push the
windbox. This is taken care of by expansion joints. See in figure 8. Flexible fabric expansion joints
easily take care of expansion in all three directions. Metallic expansion joints of single bellow design
would accommodate linear expansion. These expansion joints are pre-pulled and locked at boiler
vendors place. Only after erection of complete ducting, the transportation clamps or the locks are
released. The thermal expansion movement now compresses the expansion joint. Expansion joints are
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required practically wherever the duct takes a turn. Further at all equipment terminal points with fans /
windbox, fuel feeding equipment, chimney, Fans, isolation guillotine gates, the expansion joints are to
be provided.
FEEDBACK FROM BOILER INSTALLATIONS
Failures to account thermal expansion in design or erection can lead to several types of failures.
Author had diagnosed some boiler problems such as piping distortions, boiler membrane waterwall
failures, seal plates failures, ash leakages, and repeated flange leakages. The cause had been thermal
expansion. It may be true that some of the readers may have any of the above-referred problems in
their installations. Care at design or aptly at erection stage would help to prevent failures due to
thermal expansion.

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TIPS FOR A FIT ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
By K.K.Parthiban, Venus Energy Audit System / www.venus-boiler.com
Introduction
Electrostatic precipitators are widely used as pollution control equipment. There are mistakes being
made during design / construction / maintenance. These end up in poor performance and poor
availability of the ESP. We had come across some cases in which the design engineering or
installation or maintenance is compromised resulting in poor ESP performance & availability. About
5 years back, we had visited a Cogeneration power plant in a sugar mill. Customer desired the visit to
solve the problem of severe back firing in boiler. On inspection, it turned out to be corrosion failure of
ESP casing. There was large amount of air ingress through the leaky ESP casing and hence the
furnace was back firing. Since then we used to include inspection of ESP in our shut down inspection
programs of all boilers. This article is on common mistakes made in ESP installations.
Air ingress at inspection doors
The inspection doors are provided at side casing of the ESP on one side. Some inspection doors
provided at the top as well. As we know the ESP inlet gas temperature is close to 130 deg C in most of
the installations. Some power plants are operated with a high moisture fuels. In the case of Indonesian
coal, the moisture is as much as 25%. It means for every 100 Tons of coal fired, 25 ton of water is
being added in to the boiler and is being evaporated. Any fresh air entry in to the ESP would cause a
local temperature drop. When the gas temperature drops below 105 deg C, the moisture condenses on
the steel surfaces nearby. This begins the corrosion process. This leads to corrosion of ESP casing and
at times it leads to failure of collecting electrodes as well. The following are the causes for air ingress.

Incomplete welding of door frames during erection time.

Improper placement of sealing rope during maintenance.

Photos 1 to 3 are the proof of the above facts. This can end up in replacement of ESP casing at times.
The downtime & repair work cause loss.
Double door system for ESP inspection doors
Inspection doors are needed for each field and for entering inside the penthouse. Door plates have to
be warm to avoid condensation of flue gas. Double door system is widely used by reputed quality
conscious companies. New entrants and cost conscious companies provide a single door system. In
double door system, the outer door frame is seal welded to ESP casing. Insulation mattress is placed in
between the inner door and outer door. This provides a good insulation finish around the door. In
single door system the insulation work becomes shabby leading to cold spots around the doors. This
can also cause localised condensation of flue gases. In fuels that contain high moisture / high sulfur,
the casing failures are unavoidable.
See photographs 4 & 5 that explain the arrangement and benefit of double door system. Photograph 6
shows the absence of insulation around the door in the case of single door system. Photograph 7
shows the failure of casing below the doors due to gas side condensation.
Water condensation in ESP penthouse
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ESP penthouse is a nice concept practised since long. Of late this is being dropped out by some
vendors. This can lead to exposure of ESP roof to gas condensation possibility. A pent house has the
following features.

A leak proof housing called penthouse is set over the ESP roof casing. This penthouse is a
clean pressurised house.
The pressurising fans are provided to ensure no dust comes in to clean chamber. There is no
water / moisture. Hence there is no short circuiting between high voltage suspension systems
to casing. Imagine the danger of ash & moisture over support insulators.
The penthouse is to be insulated at sides and as well as at top to prevent condensation of
moisture.
Electrical heaters are provided at the pressurising fans in case of high moisture fuels.

Photographs 8, 9 show a case of no insulation inside the penthouse roof & side casing. The water
droplets are seen over the ESP top casing. This ESP had a long complaint of one field tripping. The
ash does not come out from the hopper. If ESP top casing is cooled, the gas can condense inside the
gas path. Photo 10 shows the condensation of water droplets from penthouse top chequered plate.
Improper insulation without covering the support beams can also cause source of condensation.
Without a patch, the penthouse roof plates are to be insulated from inside. Photo 11 shows the poor
practice.
Improper seal welding of penthouse
Some ESP suffers from poor workmanship. We can see in photo 12, case where the ESP side casing is
corroding due to running water. During the rainy days lots of water must have come inside. In the
same plant another ESP was seen to be in dry condition without corrosion of side wall plates of
penthouse.
Fit up of access doors in penthouse
Improper sealing of inspection doors on ESP top casing can leave the gas filled inside the ESP during
boiler tripping. Under such circumstances, the gas can condense and damage the inside of ESP.
maintenance team should remember to seal the doors. Improper fit up of doors without seal welding
will allow the pressurizing air to leak in to ESP causing condensation due to air ingress. See photo 13,
a case where the access door was left open during maintenance. The ID fan has sucked the insulation
mattress from roof.
Improper finishing roof plate against rain water ingress in to insulation
The rain water collected on ESP roof should be properly drained out without allowing it to enter in to
the penthouse casing. If it enters, it can create damage to casing by bringing down the temperature.
We can see in photo 14, how rain water can spoil insulation of ESP. Also see photo 15, how rain
water can be prevented from entering in to insulation.
Improper insulation / no insulation for ESP casing stiffeners
ESP casing stiffeners work as extended surface (like fins of boiler tubes). They dissipate heat to
outside. As the heat is taken out, water can condense from flue gas. In one case, we can see that water
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running down inside the ESP along the horizontal and vertical stiffeners. See photographs 16 & 17 of
an ESP in a cogen plant at a sugar mill. The casing was corroded and severe air ingress took place
later causing back firing in furnace. See photo 18, which is a standard feature in many plants. An
improper fit up of insulation mattress and cladding can be seen in many plants. ESP being an outdoor
equipment, cladding joints should be fitted with sealant tape or sealant paste. See figure 19 for
insulation cladding with sealant. Some companies claim this cladding without sealant is their
company standard. Consultants have to specify / approve the insulation drawing. Figure 1 shows a
typical ESP insulation drawing by a supplier. We may note the insulation over stiffeners and the
insulated door double door system at access doors.
Insulator mounting base plate fit up
Alignment of emitting frame with respect to collecting electrode frame is vital for performance of
ESP. This can be achieved if only verticality of ESP main frames is maintained at each stage. The
emitting / collecting electrode frames are maintained vertical & uniformly spaced if only its
supporting base is rigid and levelled. Photo 20 shows the direct mounting of insulator base on a plain
casing. We can see the support insulator is already out of verticality. Such defects lead to failure of
support insulator. This is a photo taken in a 150 MW plant. Photo 21 shows at a nice support system at
a 25 MW plant. Ideally, we need to have a jack system to adjust the top surface of insulation support
to spirit level. The base of the insulator support plate is supposed to be sealed with ESP top casing.
Photo 22 shows the absence of seal welding of the support insulator base.
Hopper heaters functional requirement
Hopper heaters are provided at ESP ash outlet hoppers to keep the wall plates warmer so ash does not
form cake due to temperature drop. The moisture condensation can cause troubles in ash flow. See
photo 23, where the hopper heaters are not erected properly. We can see hammer marks in ash chutes,
where the installation of hopper heaters is incomplete. The hopper heaters are mounted in an outer box
surrounding the ash hoppers. The sealing is a must and further insulation is a must to prevent heat lost
to ambient.
Temperature control system for ESP
Part load operations / off design fuels can lead to low temperatures at ESP inlet. One has to ensure
that the ID fan outlet temperature is not below 120 deg C to ensure that the gas does not lead to failure
of expansion joints. Airpreheater by pass / Gas side by pass arrangement are required to achieve this.
Some plants do not have this arrangement.
Conclusions
Construction inspection can bring out the defects in ESP. Time and access would be available to
rectify the defects. An ESP PG test was offered by an EPC contractor with 5% Oxygen increase across
ESP. The emission being quantity of dust per gas flow, mg/Nm3, any air ingress states a better
efficiency number. ID fan loading will be more in the case of air infiltration in ESP. The simplest way
to identify air infiltration in ESP is to check O2 in flue gas before and after ESP.
It is for the boiler operating engineers to understand the about possible defects in their ESP and get the
best from it.

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Photo 1: Air ingress from an inspection door of ESP has led to condensation damage of ESP
collecting electrodes.

Photo 2: Condensation of flue gas below the inspection door. The door is not a double door
system.

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Photo 3: Incomplete welding of inspection door frame and absence of double door system is
seen causing corrosion of ESP casing.

Photo 4 & 5: ESPs are to be provided with a double door system. This ensures that there is no
exposed uninsulated area around the door. In the absence of double door system, the corrosion
of casing is more. These problems are addressed by double door system. The photo at right is the
arrangement with double door system. In double door system placement of LRB mattress can
help to keep the inner door warmer.

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Photo 6: This is the area below inspection doors. In most ESP this will be the case. The ESP
casing is exposed to ambient. After some time, the casing is seen punctured.

Photo 7: Condensation of flue gas inside ESP casing when the casing is exposed to heat
dissipation by improper insulation.

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Photo 8: The penthouse is seen uninsulated by an EPC company in to manufacturing ESP.

Photo 9: Condensation of flue gas inside the penthouse. When the boiler frequently stopped for
some reason, the condensation of penthouse is unavoidable. If there is any door open at
penthouse, the flue gas fills penthouse and starts condensing.

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Photo 10: Condensation of gas from ESP penthouse roof plate. No insulation is provided by the
manufacturer.

Photo 11: The incomplete penthouse roof insulation is seen here. Patch insulation is not the right
way for any hot surface.

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Photo 12: Rain water running down inside the penthouse, due to incomplete sealing at top.

Photo 13: In this case, the inspection door was left open in the penthouse. The ID fan has draft
has led to falling of mattress from roof.

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Photo 14: Improper roof of ESP. The rain water enters inside the ESP insulation. This leads to
gas condensation and after some time, the casing starts failing.

Photo 15: This the way the rain water ingress in to insulation is prevented. Yet the skipped
welds can cause water running in to insulation.

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Photo 16: The ESP casing seen damaged in a plant where the main column & tie beams were not
insulated. Hence the ESP collapsed in two years time.

Photo 17: The casing in the above case developed holes and led to more air ingress ultimately
affecting the steam generation rate. This is in the case where the columns were not insulated.

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Photo 18: The insulation mattresses have to be properly overlapped. In case there is localized
cladding disturbance, the cladding needs to be attended on priority.

Photo 19: In outdoor installations, sealant shall be used at the cladding sheet joints. This
ensures, the rain water does not go inside the insulation.

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TYPICAL CASING

TYPICAL FUNNEL

DOOR FITTING

DETAIL OF INSPECTION

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Figure 1: The insulation detailing is very important for ESP. The above is an extract from the
insulation arrangement drawing by a good ESP manufacturer.

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Photo 20: Improper base for insulator, which supports the emitting frame. Such defects leads to
insulator break down.

Photo 21: This is a right way to support insulator support. The base is taken from roof beam.
Here also leveler jack bolts are required for bring the insulator top to spirit level.

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Photo 22: Water pools with ash are seen in ESP penthouse. This space is supposed to be a clean
space. It proves there is no perfect sealing between ESP inside and the penthouse. Water around
the insulator is unsafe.

Photo 23: The hopper heaters installed by an ESP supplier without the purpose. The box should
be completely sealed and insulated outside to help ash flow.

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TIPS TO IMPROVE AVAILABILITY & EFFICIENCY OF YOUR ATMOSPHERIC
BUBBLING FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION BOILERS
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
The fluidized bed combustion technology has been now well accepted by the users across the country
for different solid fuels. There are installations for mixed fuel firing & even gaseous / liquid fuels cofiring. Across the country there are lot of engineers and boiler operators who have learnt this
technology. Yet the technical tips of FBC operation may not have reached all. This is a sincere effort
to throw more light to the behavior of FBC to the benefit of boiler users.
A BRUSH UP ON FUNDAMENTALS
WHAT IS FLUIDISED BED?
When air or gas is passed through an inert bed of solid particles such as sand supported on a perforated
plate, the air, initially, will seek a path of least resistance and pass upward through the sand. With
further increase in the velocity, the air starts bubbling through the bed and the particles attain a state of
high turbulence. Under such conditions, the bed assumes the appearance of a fluid and exhibits the
properties associated with a fluid and hence the name 'Fluidised Bed'.
MECHANISM OF FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION
If the sand, in a fluidised state, is heated to the ignition temperature of the fuel and the fuel is injected
continuously into the bed, the fuel will burn rapidly and the bed attains a uniform temperature due to
effective mixing. This, in short, is fluidised bed combustion.
While it is essential that temperature of bed should be at least equal to ignition temperature of fuel and
it should never be allowed to approach ash fusion temperature (1050C to 1150C) to avoid melting of
ash. This is achieved by extracting heat from the bed by through evaporator tubes immersed in the
bed.
If velocity is too low, fluidisation will not occur, and if the gas velocity becomes too high, the particles
will be entrained in the gas stream and lost. Hence, to sustain stable operation of the bed, it must be
ensured that gas velocity is maintained between minimum fluidisation velocity and particle
entrainment velocity.
DESIGN OF FLUIDISED BED
Based on the boiler heat duty, the amount of fuel to be burnt is decided. Based on chemical constituent
of fuel, the air required for combustion is calculated. As the combustion takes place in the bed all the
heat is released within the bed. The heat is extracted out of the bed by the leaving flue gases and the
bed evaporator tubes. The bed cross sectional area is fixed based on the fluidisation velocity which
will not exceed 2.8m/s. Once the bed coil area and bed cross sectional area is decided it is clear
turndown becomes difficult. Because lower the heat release rate, lower will be the bed temperature.
Hence by reducing the bed height, the bed HTA immersed in bed is reduced. Thus the bed temperature
is still ensured for steady fuel combustion. Additionally compartmentalisation is done to ensure the
minimum fluidization is achieved. The fuel feed and air feed are turned off in the slumped bed.
OVERBED AND UNDERBED FUEL FEEDING ARRANGEMENTS
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Any time underbed feeding is superior in terms of combustion efficiency. Underbed is best suited for
fuels which have higher carbon content, such as Australian & African coals. The excess air
requirement is more in Overbed feeding arrangements. In overbed feeding arrangement elutriation
losses would be more. Hence underbed is preferred by many boiler buyers.
FINE TUNING THE FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION BOILERS
The design of Fluidised bed combustion boiler has lot to do with the fuel type and the fuel conditions.
The fuel itself may change since the purchase of the boiler. A design based on certain fuel / fuel
combinations is not at its optimum when it comes to other fuels. This is specifically true when the
boiler is changed from agro fuels to coal. Similarly change in operating loads may also warrant fine
tuning of the boiler operational parameters. There are cases where the boiler is specifically oversized
considering the future expansion. In such a case the bed area and bed coil area may have to be covered
up until the steam requirement increases. The air requirement and flue gas to be handled becomes less.
Use of VFD / use of smaller capacity fans would benefit the user in terms of power saving and
operational efficiency. Like this there are lot of possibilities for a review of the original design to
present operating conditions.
TIPS FOR IMPROVEMENT IN OPERATIONS / MODIFICATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT
In the following pages the tips are explained with illustrations as necessary. The tips are based in the
operational experience of several make of FBC boilers in India. Some of the tips would certainly
benefit some boiler users. There is always a solution born to every problem experienced. In the
continual improvement of the design / Operation of the FBC boilers there is always scope for
additions to this list.

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TIP 1 Measure and maintain adequate Distributor plate drop

The quality of fluidisation should be good ensuring there are no defluidised zones. This can not be
ensured by visual means. The distributor plate pressure drop becomes a vital factor to ensure this.
When the DP drop is less than 75 mmWC, the coarse particles begin to settle down at the bed bottom.
In an ideal case, DP drop should be 1/3 rd of bed height. Defluidization or settlement of coarse
particles will not be visible from top of the bed, as the fine bed material would continue to fluidise.
Settling of coarse particles can also damage bed coils. This leads to localised erosion of bed tubes.
This can happen even in overfed FBC boilers. Providing studs does not help. Bed coil erosion
continues. See figure 1.

BED COIL PRONE

FOR EROSION HERE

AIRBOX

P1

SETTLED BED DUE

TO LESS DP DROP

AIRBOX

DP DROP = P2-P1

P2

FIG 1: WHEN DP DROP IS LESS BED COARSE PARTICES SETTLE AT BOTTOM OF BED

TIP 2 Check bed coil pitch for studded bed coils

Studs can increase protection against gross erosion but not localised erosion. Studs decrease the
clearance between adjacent bed coils. Spacing of coils is to be specially addressed if studding is opted
for. The Increased fluidisation velocity at narrow clearances decreases the life of the bed coils.

TIP 3- Consider reduction of bed size

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When the steam demand is less, the bed area becomes oversized. Maintaining a minimum pressure
drop for fluidisation would be difficult. The boiler operators continue to maintain high excess air level
to avoid bed slumping. In many process boilers this is the case due to oversized boiler (planned
considering future steam requirement) See figure 2. It is necessary to reduce the bed area by blocking
nozzles and by construction of refractory walls.

230.0 NEW REFRACTORY WALL

NOZZLES ARE REMOVED AND

PLUGS ARE FITTED TO DP PLATE
IN THIS AREA
FIGURE 2. BED AREA REDUCTION TO SUIT THE REDUCED STEAM GENERATION REQUIREMENT

TIP 4 - Inadequate instrumentation

Some manufacturers do not provide draft gauges
/ manometers for indication of bed pressure. In
such cases, the operators do not get an idea on
bed height. Knowing air box pressure alone
does not tell what the bed height is. It may be
possible that fluidising air is more and the bed
height is less. More fluidising air leads to excess
air operation. This affects the bed coil life. See
figure 3.

IDLE BED
AIRBOX

DG

DG

FIG 3: BED HEIGHT & AIRBOX INSTRUMENTATION

TIP 5 - Care of idle bed

At times it may be necessary to reduce the steam production rate. This is done by slumping
compartments. Continued operation of slumped bed may result in shallow bed height in the operating
compartment and leads to defluidization. This happens particularly when bed size is smaller. The bed
height in operating bed becomes less when it spills to adjacent slumped compartment. See figure 4. It
becomes necessary to alternately activate the slumped bed to bring the bed height back to normal.
There are other reasons as well. See the further tips.
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BED MATERIAL / FUEL SPILLS FROM

FLUIDISING COMPARTMENT

COMPARTMENT I

COMPARTMENT II

COMPARTMENT III

AIR

FIGURE 4. BED MATERIAL SPILLAGE TO IDLE COMPARTMENT

TIP 6 Provide additional drain points

Heavy stones and heavy ash particles keep accumulating at the bottom of bed. Larger beds need more
ash drain points in order to ensure coarse ash particles, which settle at the bottom can be effectively
removed. If drain points are inadequate or if all the available drain points are not used, small clinkers
would form and grow big. The ash draining will be effective in open bottom fluidised beds. The ash
draining must be kept partially opened to allow gradual discharge of ash from the bed. This way it is
found to remove most of the coarse particles that settle at the bottom.
In overbed feeding arrangement coarser particles would settle near fuel feed points. Provide additional
ash drain points at these locations to remove the stones / heavy particles.
TIP 7- Care for idle bed
Slumping of the bed is done to meet the steam demand. It is not correct to keep same compartment
under slumped condition. In the slumped bed heat transfer to bed coil becomes less. The circulation of
water ceases. This may result in high pH corrosion / caustic gouging/ settling of iron oxides /
corrosion products in such bed coils, depending on boiler water chemistry. See figure 5, for
appearance of tube inside on a caustic gouging failure.

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TUBE SECTION AA
A
A
A
A

FIGURE 5. CAUSTIC GOUGING ATTACK IN IDLE COMPARTMENT

TIP -8 Use Optimum primary air pressure

Primary air fans are required for underfeed system. The PA fans are selected with 15% - 25 % flow
margins. It is necessary to keep the PA header pressure as low as possible so that the suction effect is
just the minimum at the throat. The air leakage from the feeder must be taken as a guide. Higher PA
header pressure leads to more air flow through the fuel feed points. Higher air flow would erode the
bed coils faster. It addition venturi erosion would be faster.

TIP 9 Care for shutting PA damper in idle bed

In underbed feeding arrangements there is no physical partition above the distributor plate. When a
compartment is slumped for load control, particularly for longer duration, it is necessary to close the
PA damper in slumped compartments. Leaving the primary air full open in idle compartment would
lead to bed coil erosion. It is the tendency of many operators to leave open the PA line dampers, for
the fear of line choking. The bed material is continuously thrown at bed coil.

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FUEL LINE
COMPARTMENT I

COMPARTMENT II

COMPARTMENT III

AIR

FIGURE 6. FUEL LINE AIR ERODING AWAY BED COIL IN IDLE COMPARTMENT

TIP 10 Replace the Worn-out venturi / mixing nozzles promptly

In underfeed arrangement the fuel is fed from bottom of the bed. As the pressure at the feed point
inside the bed is 400 -500 mmWC, high pressure PA fan with mixing nozzles are used to transport the
fuel inside. The air jet velocity at the throat of the mixing nozzle is of the order of 100 130 m/s. The
fuel particles are accelerated at the mixing chamber and the diffuser ensures the gradual return to
normal line velocity. The diffuser erodes over a period (1-2 year). As the pressure drop of mixing
nozzle increases more and more air is required for generating suction at the throat. Naturally the
erosion rate of bed coil will be more inside the bed.
TIP 11- Care to use the air vent valve in idle compartment
Slumping of a compartment is necessary to take care of load reduction and while start up of the
combustor. There can be clinker formation if the fuel spillage is present in the idle compartment. In
certain boilers, the fuel feed point may be close to the border of the adjacent compartment. For the
clinker to take place there should be air flow in the idle compartment. The compartment dampers may
not be leak proof. For this reason, automatic air vent valves are provided in compartment air box, to
enable venting the passing air from compartment damper. If the valves are to be manually operated,
the same must be done. Needless to say, that the leaky damper will have to be attended.

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CLINKER ON TOP OF BED

COMPARTMENT I
S
AIR

COMPARTMENT II
S

COMPARTMENT III
S

LEAKAGE AIR

LEAKAGE AIR

VENT

FIGURE 7 : FUEL SPILLAGE AND LEAKAGE AIR IN IDLE COMPARTMENT CAUSING CLINKERS

TIP 12-Avoid continued operation with troubled bed

A fluidised bed may get clinkered when there are disturbances in boiler operation. For example when
there is no coal in bunker, the operator momentarily reduces the air flow in order to reduce the bed
quenching. At this time, it is likely the bed defludises at some zones. The average particle size is
always high compared to start up bed material and hence defluidization chances are more when the air
flow is reduced. Once the bed is known to have clinkered, steps are to be taken for immediate
removal. This may be possible by increasing the drain rate from the clinkered bed. A bed clinkering
can be figured out from the differences between the bottom and top bed temperature readings.
TIP 13- Ensure proper fuel particle size
Improper fuel sizing affects the bed particle size. Improper screen cloth sizing, coarse particle
separation in bunker, worn out crusher hammers can lead to oversized fuel particles. Oversized fuel
particles are found to accumulate near the fuel feed points leading to defluidization. The air jets
upwards once this happens. Bed coils erode locally above the fuel feed point at this time. See figure 8.

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AIR

FIGURE 8 : COARSE PARTICLES SETTLING AROUND FUEL NOZZLE AND PA JET HITTING BED COIL

TIP 14 - Attend to Loose air nozzles

Some manufacturers adopt push fit nozzles over the distributor plate. Further a castable refractory is
laid over the plate. The castable gets broken during service due to thermal expansion. This leads to
leakage at the air nozzle base itself. Such leakages lead to not only bypassing of more air from such
locations, but also lead to defluidised zones. This can happen near bed ash drain points.

TIP 15 -Leaky compartment dampers

Leaky compartment dampers lead
to partial fluidisation. Spilled fuel
from
adjacent
operating
compartment would lead to clinker
formation and further growth.
Dampers will need replacement.
Butterfly dampers with proper
seals would be the ideal choice to
solve the clinker problem. In
ordinary flap type damper sealing
strips would help bring down the
leakage. See the figure 9, for the
detail of sealing strip which prove
useful.

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TIP 16- Improper setting of Power cylinder of compartment dampers
Compartment dampers are to
be set for closed conditions.
At times it is found that the
dampers do not close inside
where as the power cylinder
closes fully at the outside.
See figure 10, which points
out the defect, which is faced
in many cases.

TIP -17 Leaky distributor plates

Some manufacturers adopt removable distributor
plate design. This is adopted for ease of approach
during bed coil maintenance. The leakage
between distributor plate and supporting frame
would lead to local fluidisation and keeps making
clinkers. When the air bypasses at some place it is
natural at some other location, the bed has settled.
See figure 11. If the erection is improper this
could be a serious matter disturbing the fluidised
bed operation.

LEAKAGE
PARTITION WALL
FIGURE 11: LEAKAGE BETWEEN SUPPORT FRAME AND DP PLATE

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TIP -18 Replace all failed air nozzles at one go
Air nozzles may be made from cast iron /
stainless steel. The nozzles begin to oxidise at
the top where it receives radiation and
convection heat. Over a period the top opens
up. Now the air jets from top hitting the coils
above. Some experience cracking of air
nozzles along the top row of nozzles. Failed
air nozzles allow more air flow and hence the
air flow through the good ones would come
down (Preferential flow through least
resistance path). This leads to defluidised
zones.

CRACKED NOZZLES

OXIDISED TOPS

FIGURE 12: FAILED AIR NOZZLES DISTURB FLUIDISATION

AND CAUSE BED COIL EROSION

TIP 19 Do not Operate the boiler with choked PA lines

Primary air lines choke up when oversized fuel is fed or when compartment damper is opened before
operating PA damper. Due to this the fuel nozzles get distorted. In running boiler no one can guess
what the extent of distortion is. The fuel nozzle cap is distorted the fuel-air mixture may target the bed
coil and lead to premature failure. Distorted nozzles are to be replaced immediately. SS fuel nozzles
offer better protection when it comes to bed coil life.

TIP 20 -Reduce the chances for start up clinkers

Fluidised beds may be started compartment by compartment. When the first compartment is started
one must ensure that there is a good mount of bed material to prevent the fuel spillage to adjacent
compartment. The PA pressure should be bare minimum. Excess PA pressure spills more fuel to
adjacent compartment. The PA pressure requirement will be less, since the bed height will be less
during start up. When the fuel spill is more a border clinker is likely to form. Excess mixing air flow
also leads to more spillage. It is necessary to keep the PA air line dampers of adjacent compartments
in close condition.

TIP 21- More PA and less fluidizing air

By virtue of design / operating load, bed material settles along the wall side. This leads to throwing of
bed material along the wall to the coils. This happens where fuel feed points are close to wall. When
the frequent load turn downs are expected the bed plate pressure drop has to be designed for ensuring a
minimum bed plate pressure drop of 75 mmWC. Operating at lesser P would lead to pockets of
defluidised zones.

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TIP 23 -Bed coil to fuel nozzle clearance
The designer has to ensure a minimum clearance of 150 mm from fuel nozzle cap top to bed coil to
safeguard the bed coil against erosion. At times due to faulty erection the clearance may be less
leading to premature bed coil failure.

TIP 24 Check the adequacy of instrumentation of fluidised bed

In the absence of bed temperature indications and air box pressure, bed pressure, operation of the
fluidised bed is risky. When such instruments are compromised, no one can vouch that the bed is
perfectly OK at all places. It may be possible to assess from the bed material drained from ash drain
pipe. But the same will not be proper for bigger beds. Failed thermocouples, burnt compensating
cables, defective temperature indicators are to be replaced at the earliest opportunity to prevent bed
coil erosion.

TIP 25- Review Oversized fuel feeders

In some cases, it is likely that the feeders are over sized. A feeder designed for agro fuel becomes
oversized when it comes to changing over to coal. The fuel feeders are to be replaced with a smaller
one or additional speed reduction mechanism needs to be added. For a small rpm change the feeder
may be dumping excess fuel. The clinker formation possibility is increased due to this. In the recent
years many boiler users have started using high GCV imported coal. This may also lead to excess fuel
dumping for a small rpm change.

TIP 26- Change the bed coil configuration while replacement

The pitch of the bed coil is a factor for
erosion potential. At least one tube gap
must be adopted while selecting the
pitch. This is a reason for bend erosion
in closely pitched hairpin type bed coils.
Staggered bed coils would ensure
sufficient gap between coils and thus
fluidisation becomes more uniform at
entire bed. Cross bed tubes are found to
be better than the hairpin coils. While
planning for replacement of bed coils,
consider improvement of bed coil
configurations.
There
are
many
possibilities for better configurations
considering ease of replacement.

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CONCLUSION
I hope the readers would agree some of the suggestions made here are applicable to their installations.
Suggestions are welcome from the readers.

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TROUBLE SHOOTING WATER CARRY OVER IN BOILERS

INTRODUCTION
Carry over is any solid, liquid or vaporous contaminant that leaves a boiler steam drum
along with steam. Entrained boiler water contains dissolved or suspended solids, which
affects the steam purity. Carryover results from incomplete separation of water from steamwater mixture.
EFFECTS OF CARRYOVER

Water carry over from steam drum leads to loss of treated water through the steam
traps in case of saturated steam boilers. Thus it costs additional fuel.
However in case of boilers with superheater, the carryover will be indicated by the
drop in main steam temperature.
The carryover leads to deposition of solids in SH coils and turbine blades. It affects
equipment availability.
Carryover affects product quality in food & pharmaceutical industries.

CASE STUDIES
It may be appropriate to deal first some cases wherein the carryover had been a concern and
the way they were solved.
CASE STUDY 1
The customer has a chemical factory situated at Tamilnadu. He reported that the water
carryover is enormous and there has been a large quantity of water flowing from the steam
traps in the main steam line. The boiler is a 10 TPH B&W inclined bank tube boiler shifted
from a different location and converted to FBC firing. The customer has experienced carry
over ever since the boiler was restarted. He complained to the boiler manufacturer who got a
reply that they had not done any modification inside the drum. The service engineer who
had visited could not resolve the problem.
When I visited the plant the customer had given a brief shut down of the boiler. The steam
drum was opened and inspected. The cause for carry over was too simple a reason. The feed
distributor pipe was not erected. The feed water inlet pipe bend was facing upwards towards
the steam separator pipe.
The cause for carryover here is faulty erection of steam drum internals.
CASE STUDY 2
The customer has a rice mill industry at Andhrapradesh. The customer had complained that
he had been replacing SH tubes in the boiler every year. The failed tubes were seen with
heavy deposits. The reason for this was clearly carryover. Now I went on to check the
reasons.

DM plant was located in a dusty area, where there were high chances for fouling of
resin beds and carryover of suspended solids.
The Feedwater storage tank manhole door was open giving the possibility of
forwarding dust from mill into the boiler.
There was no suction filter for the boiler feed pumps. Thus impurities would enter
the boiler unnoticed.
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There was no deaerator provided for this boiler. There were chances for iron oxides
transportation from feed water tank itself.
There was no pH booster arrangement to improve the feed water pH. There were
chances of metal loss from the pipes and contaminating the feedwater.
There were frequent boiler stoppages during which time no preservation procedures
were followed.
The feedwater flow was not regulated. The feed pump was being operated on /off.

There were enough number of reasons for carry over and thus deposition inside SH tubes
was the net result.
CASE STUDY 3
This boiler user from Tamilnadu is a well-known tyre manufacturer. The customer called for
an annual inspection visit. During the visit the boiler operators explained about the drum
water level fluctuation in the steam drum. They experienced erratic variation in drum level,
though the plant runs fairly at a constant load. The boiler is of bi drum configuration
producing saturated steam. The steam traps in the plant were all connected in closed circuit.
All the traps exhaust are connected to the blow down tank from where the water is pumped
back to boiler through the Ogden pump. There was no way one could suspect the carry over.
On inspection of DM water storage tank, I found severe corrosion inside tank. The tank was
unlined and made of carbon steel. The pH of water stored in this tank was 6.5 to 7. Clearly
there was high possibility of corroded metal being transported to boiler.
There had been a huge loss of heat energy when the water from drum is transported to Blow
down tank without consuming the energy in the plant. The gain in DM water and fuel has
been remarkable.
Cases like this are really found to be many. Boiler sellers do not seem to offer such services
to ensure the water quality would be assured after the plant is put into operation. It is true
consultants like me get our bread from such boilermakers.
CASE STUDY 4
This Boiler user from Andhrapradesh is a big chemical Industry. Recently a second hand
John Thomson boiler was bought and converted to higher capacity by a boiler repairer. The
repairer had ignored the importance off the steam drum internals. When the steam
generation rate is increased it is necessary to ensure the right type Steam driers are put. The
client was interested in an audit of the boiler after erection by me. I recommended for
changing of driers for ensuring steam quality. Customer had postponed the decision until the
unit was stabilized. After stabilizing the unit the steam temperature remained lower to rated
temperature by 20 deg C.
AS per my recommendations, the customer had now procured the driers and installed. To his
surprise the SH outlet temperature now went up. There was an improvement of 40 deg C just
after changing the driers. This implies there had been carry over of water from the boiler.
There was a huge pay back of the expenses incurred in attending the drum internals. As the
steam temperature turbine specific steam consumption came down and thus the savings.
CASE STUDY 5
This Boiler user at Orissa is a Chemical plant making sulfuric acid. The Boiler system has a
waste heat boiler, two Superheater stages and an economiser, which form part of sulfuric
acid plant. The various heating surfaces are designed to maintain the process temperatures
for the necessary chemical reactions to take place. The customer reported that the gas
temperatures after SH stage was too low. The plant supplier who visited the plant advised to
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check water carryover from the steam drum. The boiler vendor deputed me to solve the
problem. The water chemistry data for last one month was checked. It was clear there had
been a serious deviation in water chemistry. The boiler water pH had been at 6.5 to 7 for a
period of 10 days prior to this incident. The boiler TDS was double that of recommended
value. The phosphate concentration in boiler water had exceeded the recommended value. I
suspected that the boiler water is contaminated with corrosion product that was generated
within the boiler itself. I recommended the boiler water is replaced completely. The boiler
was blown down from the lowest points and the next day the SH temperature got restored.
The process temperatures reached the requirement.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE CARRYOVER

Operating pressure
Water level in steam drum
Load characteristics
Drum size
Drum internal geometry
Condition of drum internals
Feed water chemistry
Boiler water chemistry
High drum level operation
Improper water treatment
Blow down practice
Offline preservation

Influence of each factor is elaborated below.

OPERATING PRESSURE
Operating the boiler at significantly below the design pressure is a cause for carryover.
Lower the steam pressure more the steam specific volume. Hence the steam velocity in drum
internals would now be more. The separation of water droplets from the driers would not be
good.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Fluctuating loads lead to sudden withdrawal of steam. Hence the velocity in the drier zone
will be more and hence the water droplets get carried over to the steam before they fall out
from the steam. In addition when the load demand is larger, the drum pressure will be
lowered and this causes a momentary raise in water level, called priming. At this time, the
carryover of water will be more.
DRUM SIZE
This factor is by design. Three-element drum level control had made it possible to design
smaller diameter drums. The drum internals include baffle plates, cyclone type separators,
Chevron separators or screen driers, perforated boxes. The drum diameter should be selected
so that the distance from water-steam interface to driers is quite adequate. Failure to address
this would result in carryover.

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DRUM INTERNAL GEOMETRY
There is no single standard method to arrange the drum internals. The boiler configuration
calls for extensive variation of drum internal arrangement between boilermakers and even
within the product range of single manufacturer. Figures show several internals arrangement
followed / encountered by me.
Improper internals arrangement is a major cause for carryover. There is always good scope
for improving the steam quality by critically reviewing the present arrangements. Drum
internal design should aim at fulfilling the following criteria.

Reducing the turbulence created by the risers & downcomers by adopting baffles.
Creating a tortuous path for steam before it enters drier section.
Provide adequate drier section to trap water droplets and drain off without allowing
re-entrainment into the steam.
Maximize the distance between the water-steam interface and the driers.
Distribute the chemicals over the entire drum length
Extract the blow down water across the entire drum length
Distribute the feed water without creating turbulence

Low-pressure boilers, generally, the fire tube boilers are provided with dry pipes at steam
pipe inlet. High-pressure boilers are to be provided with multi stage separators such as
cyclones, chevron separators. Some boilermakers use demisters with higher drum sizes.
CONDITION OF DRUM INTERNALS
Whatever be the proper engineering & supply made by the boiler vendor, it is possible that
things go wrong in erection at site. Even in operating boilers, the drum internals get
disturbed during maintenance. The drum internals fail due to corrosion in service due to
poor water chemistry or improper boiler storage at idle times. Regular check by the
manufacturer or competent boiler consultant would be worth.
FEEDWATER CHEMISTRY
The chemistry of feedwater should meet certain minimum requirements laid out by the
boilermakers. The feedwater if contains oil or organic matter, the same leads to foaming.
The carryover of solids is very high.
If the feedwater has dissolved iron, which may be either from condensate or from the make
up water or generated within the boiler will again lead to foaming.
If the feedwater contains suspended impurities then also carry over will be high. Dissolved
oxygen in feedwater leads to corrosion of economiser and this leads to generation of iron
oxide, which again leads to increased suspended iron in the boiler water.
BOILER WATER CHEMISTRY
The chemistry of Boiler water should meet certain minimum requirements laid out by the
boilermakers. The boiler water if contains high TDS the carryover of solids will be more.
Since the efficiency of separator which is fixed, the only way to bring carryover is to bring
down the Boiler water TDS. In boiler water, the presence of free NaOH must be eliminated
by practicing coordinated phosphate control. High alkalinity and presence of suspended
impurities increase carryover.
When the suspended impurities are more, there is a blanket formation over the water-steam
interface and this prevents the easy passage of steam bubbles from the boiler water. The
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steam bubbles out of the skin formed by the impurities throwing the suspended impurities to
the steam driers.
The silica in boiler water is to be controlled more stringently based on pressures. Silica
carryover is more at pressures above 28kg/cm2.
HIGH DRUM LEVEL OPERATION
The operating level, alarm levels & trip levels such as NWL, Low water level, very low
water level, High water levels are decided by the boilermaker. At site conditions the levels
are to be clearly marked and set by competent persons. While the low levels affect the
circulation, the high level affects steam purity. The carryover is more with high water level.
Lowering the NWL settings should be examined ensuring that roof tubes are within the
water level. In many cases, Boiler users have reduced the carryover in the boiler simply by
altering the NWL settings and by tuning the control valve action.
On off operation of boiler feed pumps a cause for carryover in flue tube boiler. It can be
practiced only when the drum size is big as in an oil-fired boiler with internal furnace. In
external furnace cases, the steam space is less, thus feed water regulation would give purer
steam.
IMPROPER CHEMICAL DOSAGE
A good water treatment is important for water controlling carryover. Excess chemical
dosage leads to upset in boiler water chemistry. Antifoam agents are used to control the
carryover. Use of sludge conditioners also help in preventing carryover besides preventing
deposits.
BLOW DOWN PRACTICE
Continuous blow down is the best way to maintain a constant boiler water quality. Blow
down at lowest points of the boiler must be done at every opportunity without affecting the
circulation in boiler.
OFFLINE PRESERVATION
Improper offline preservation leads to iron oxide generation in boiler water and this leads to
carryover during boiler restarting.
CONCLUSION
Equipment availability is greatly affected by the carryover, though it appears to be a simple
matter. It is hoped that the readers are benefited out of this article. Take care to inspect the
drum internals in the next shut. There are many users who do not open the steam drum
manhole even during annual maintenance. Please be benefited by a thorough shut down
inspection of drum internals.

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TUBE FAILURES RELATED TO COMMISSIONING & OPERATION OF NEW POWER
PLANTS WITH AIR COOLED CONDENSER
By K.K.Parthiban / Sri Devi Boiler Equipment & Spares & Venus Energy Audit System
Abstract
There are many new power plants which have come up across the country in the last ten years. These
units have been mostly built with air cooled condenser due to environmental considerations and due
to plant locations. Several tube failures have been faced in these units due to lack of knowledge in
the overall water chemistry behavior. This article is on the cases which were attended by the author
and the care to be taken to avoid repetitive failures.
Water chemistry for high pressure boilers
Amongst the Industrial boiler (Drum type Natural circulation Boiler) users, there is a good
understanding the pH range to be maintained for keeping the corrosion rate at minimum. The feed
water pH, boiler water pH and the condensate pH are maintained in the range of 8.5 to 10 / as per the
range specified by the boiler manufacturer. The feed water / condensate pH is maintained by the use
of morpholine / Ammonia / volatile amines. For boiler water, traditionally phosphate based treatment
is in vogue in India. In some units all volatile treatment (AVT) has been started.
Oxygen is removed by thermal deaeration at the deaerator from the system continually. Hydrazine is
generally used as a chemical scavenger to remove the left over oxygen. Of late DEHA usage is
picking up as hydrazine is reported to be a carcinogen.
Dissolved solids & suspended impurities are removed at water treatment plants using pretrement
plant, RO plant & DM plant. Where the water contains colloidal silica, ultra filtration is added in the
water treatment stream. Colloidal silica becomes ionic only at high pressure boiling (> 45 kg/cm2 g).
Always some amount of silica leaves the boiler water and reached turbine as volatile carryover.
Depending on the pressure there are limits laid out on boiler water chemistry.
Units with condensate return from process plant have been equipped with condensate treatment
system depending on the condensate chemistry. Condensate contamination used to occur at power
plants equipped with water cooled condenser. These units were fitted with online cation conductivity
monitor so that the contamination could be detected immediately on occurrence. Unit will be stopped
immediately as the organics in cooling water brings down the boiler water pH rapidly due to acid
formation. The residual phosphate maintenance programs used to take care of the cooling water
breaching to some extent.
Many thought units with air cooled condensers are safer to operate as it is closed system without
cooling water contamination. First time I was called by two customers saying that the boiler water
silica was uncontrollable for more than a week since turbine was rolled. I explained it had to do with
the ACC. I advised to them to return the condensate back to water treatment plant. This suggestion
was of help to them.
CASE STUDY 1: REPEATED WATER WALL TUBE FAILURE IN A 250 TPH CFBC
BOILER

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This was newly commissioned unit with a Chinese boiler. The customer sought our diagnostic
service to solve their repetitive waterwall tube failure in the installation. The boiler manufacturer had
given up saying that there are many units operating in their country. There were some urgent
modifications carried out in the downcomer & riser arrangements as the failures were always in
some sections only. The failed tubes showed the sign of rapid overheating and burst that appeared as
fish-mouth. See photo 5. During the diagnosis, there were so many parameters which had led to the
failures.
The first CFBC boiler was commissioned in the month of October 2009. The power plant had been
in operation for a total period of 326 hrs. Within this period, there had been 34 stoppages. Out of
these stoppages, three tube failures were due to the WW tube bursts experienced in the LHS & RHS
panels at rear corner & two adjacent tubes at the upper part of furnace. The tube failures had been
200 to 400 mm below the refractory lining near the furnace outlet. The tubes burst show the sudden
overheating. The tubes have burst due to sudden loss of circulation / Departure from nucleate boiling
or steam blanketing. The failed tubes did not exhibit long term overheating.
The boiler was under shut down at the time of visit. As requested the steam drum was opened and
offered for inspection. The boiler drum exhibited the cause for failure. See the photos with
explanations in annexure 1.
Boiler water & condensate chemistry problem
The steam drum was exhibiting low pH corrosion and there was no magnetite layer formation of
internal surface. There was no distinct water to steam interface. The steam purifying driers also
showed the reddish appearance confirming the foaming of the boiler water. See photos 1 3. A good
drum appears as in photo 4 ( of course after regular operation).
It was learnt that during the entire operating period the best silica level in condensate was only 0.07
ppm. The condensate was always seen with high silica levels. See table below:
Table 1: conductivity & silica levels in return condensate
Period of operation
18/9-21/9
25/9 -28/9 1/10 - 5/10
Conductivity s/cm 25.5 to 8.3
8.8 to 10.5 4.2 to 6.1
Silica
ppm
0.31 to 0.42 1.67 to 0.3 0.13 to 0.41

15/10 19/10 2/ 11 to 4 /11

5.2 to 6.9
9.7 to 11.4
0.07 to 0.25
0.25 to 0.35

There had been very high blow down rate done to limit the silica in boiler water. Under this
circumstance the phosphate dosing had been raised. But simultaneously high blow down was
maintained. This should have led to low pH levels in boiler water. It was confirmed that the blow
down water was reddish. However the boiler water phosphate and pH were high confirming that the
boiler water was alkaline. This could have been due to presence of foaming or due to drum internal
arrangement. Though the boiler water chemistry seems OK, the boiler internal surface did not say so.
A wipe off shows the drum surface was red. There was no grey surface at water space or steam
space. The following were the boiler water analysis data.
Table 2: pH & silica values in boiler water
The pH values
The PO4 values
9.15,9.9,9.9,9.5,9.56,9.64,9.65 22.4,8.15,10.4,4.6,10.4,3.8,5.5,7.9,9.8,4.5

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Drum internal arrangement
There is a possibility of stirring effect by the feed water distributor pipe. See photograph 9 & 10. It is
the normal practice to locate the chemical pipe in such way that the feed water carries the phosphate
chemical to the downcomers. In steam drum internal layout, the blow down pipe should be arranged
in such a way that the high TDS return water is taken out without mixing any fresh water / chemical.
In the present drum internal arrangement the holes in feed distributor is 30 deg upward to horizontal.
The two distribution pipes can stir up the chemical and cause a sampling error. It was advised to
rotate the feed distributor pipe so that the water ejects downwards. The chemical pipe can be
connected to feed distributor pipe close to inlet point in the drum. This will help in proper mixing
with feed water.
Proper pre-commissioning care for start up of the unit
Air cooled condenser has large heating surface as compared to boiler. Air cooled condensers are not
chemically cleaned during pre-commissioning. It generates corrosion product during every start up.
The first steam that enters the ACC is generally of low pH it starts removing the loosely held
corroded iron. The corrosion product due to oxygen exposures also would come in to the condensate.
The contaminated condensate chokes up the strainers at CEP inlet. Also the BFP strainers will be
choked as the mesh opening is lesser than that of the CEP. It is reported that the strainers exhibit
reddish fine particles. This can increase the conductivity and silica depending on the internal surface
of the ACC tubes. This had forced the high blow down rate from the boiler. See the rate of blow
down had been as high as 7.7 to 9.52 %. It was confirmed that colloidal silica was absent in the feed
water. Hence the source of contamination can be from ACC. There was lot of mismatch in boiler
water chemical consumption.

The TSP consumption should have been 18 to 23 kg instead of 5 kg as per log sheet. Usually the
chemical consumption will be more from the estimated value due to low purity levels. There is no
flushing arrangement for ACC in the condensate piping system. This is a must as per experience by
others as well.

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Frequent tripping & ACC being off line
There had been as high as 34 tripping of the power plant. During this tripping the ACC went off line.
Every time the ACC was exposed to air and it could corrode. When the condensate was taken
without treatment it could contaminate the boiler water with suspended & dissolved impurities. This
made the boiler water dirty leaving the possibilities of choking the bottom drain valves. The high
blow down requirements and boiler drain valve choking confirmed this. The hot box of the boiler led
to choking of the drain / bottom supply pipes as the dust would settle to bottom most point.
Physical arrangement of downcomers & riser
The distributing pipes are tapped off from the main downcomer and connected to all four walls. The
failures had been in the last five tubes at the ESP side on both left & right side panels. The
distributing pipes to this section of the boiler are taken from the bottom most point of the main
downcomer. See photograph 7 & 8. The front & rear waterwall panels (226 tubes) are fed by 18
distributing pipes. The left & right side waterwall panels (170 tubes) are fed by 14 distributing pipes.
The rear waterwall tubes have lot of bends as compared to the side waterwall panels. When there is
undersized downcomers, the failures will be experienced at all water wall tubes and the worst
affected will be the rear waterwall panel tubes. Since the tubes of left & right side waterwall panels
have failed, the problem is simply related to starvation only in the extreme ends. Looking in to
symmetry of the boiler about the centre, we can understand that there is a problem only in the lowest
distributing pipe. It is very much possible that the water flowing is disrupted when there is as
stoppage and restart. On stoppage of boiler / load reduction / on filling, the corrosion products tend
to accumulate at bottom most pipes only. This can retard the flow rate to the extreme tubes of the
LHS & RHS panel tubes.
Accumulation of dirt in low velocity tubes
As such the corner tubes can have less circulation as there will be less heat pick up. Dirt build-up /
concentration is usually more in such tubes. This can cause overheating failures as the cooling may
be retarded.
Failure to do low pressure blow down during commissioning
During commissioning of the new boiler, Low pressure blow downs are done with fire off. This
helps in attaining good water chemistry in a short time. Moreover when there is a mechanism of dirt
generation in the boiler or even after the tube replacement job, the boiler calls for a low pressure
blow down. It is learnt that this was not done.
Storage post hydrotest stage
It was learnt that the water used for hydrotest was left inside the boiler for a long duration. This is
not proper. During long outages, the boiler needs preservation against corrosion. The water should be
completely removed and hot air should be admitted in the boiler. This is the best practice followed.
See photograph 11 in annexure 1. Simple alternate method is to place a tray full of silica gel / lime
inside the drum. This will have to be followed at TG exhaust & condensate storage tank also so that
the ACC will be dry. Failure to preserve the boiler & ACC will accumulate dirt inside the boiler and
lead to plugging of evaporative circuits.

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Hand hole pipe & drain at main downcomer
At present there is no adequately sized hand hole pipe system in any header. Hand holes pipes help
to clean the system after the alkali boil out in a better manner. In this boiler the main downcomers
act as trap. In some boilers the bottom ring headers collect the dirt. It is safer this way. The drain
pipe of 50 nb is directly fitted to end plate. Further the drain valve is of 25 nb and is of globe type. It
is difficult to de-choke this valve even by tapping. It is learnt that the valves have got choked often.
This confirmed the presence of sufficient amount of corrosion products. The drain arrangement
needs to be modified. See the better arrangement in photo 12. This arrangement was recommended at
wing-wall downcomers also.
Globe or gate type valves for drains
It is advised to provide 40 nb / 50 nb drain valves of gate type. Gate type valves help in easy removal
of blockages. When the boiler is restarted after the repair work or annual overhauling, the water
should be flushed out from the boiler by keeping the drain valve open.
Piping system after the drain valves
The drain piping from the main downcomer is connected to blow down tank. Unfortunately the drain
piping is with a U loop. As long as the boiler is under pressure, the water may flow to tank. When the
pressure is less, the last run of dirty water will trap in this U loop. It is a good engineering practice to
slope the drain lines towards the final outlet point. It was suggested to have an alternate direct drain
to trench.
A Quick check on circulation velocity
This boiler has two main downcomers of 350 nb, feeding the water for the fours side waterwall
panels. It was informed that the CR ratio is 6.7. This will have a velocity of 3.2 m/s in main
downcomers. The distributing pipes are of 125 nb pipes. The water velocity in these pipes is 2.1 m/s.
The steam water mixture velocity in risers will be 3.95 m/s. There is no under-sizing of downcomers
or risers.
Filling arrangement
For hydrotest purpose, the boiler must be first filled from the SH side to prevent any dirt going to the
superheater coils. Otherwise we may experience tube failure in superheater coils.
Lessons
The lack of provisions for proper cleaning during pre-commissioning & operational cleaning and
ACC debris ingress had led to the multiple tube failures.

CASE STUDY 2 : REPETITIVE FURNACE WALL TUBE FAILURE IN A 85 TPH CFBC

UNIT
The plant was commissioned during November 2007. The boiler parameters are 85TPH, 88 kg/cm2g
and 515 deg C. The boiler had several stoppages on account of bed ash cooler design, cyclone
refractory break down, air nozzle failures. The boiler started developing leakages in combustor wall
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during the year 2009 & 2010. This was mistaken for erosion related failure. Thickness was built up
during every failure and the unit was put on line again for 3 -4 times. In March 2010, the tubes
developed long cracks. The new power plant GM had resorted to tube removal & inspection. As soon
as he noticed that the tubes were being corroded inside with gouging marks, he arranged for detailed
investigation.
Appearance of failed tubes & boiler drum
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The failed tubes had gouging marks. See photographs 13 & 21.
At some location the tubes had hydrogen cracks. This can be seen in photographs 14 & 21
Tubes were seen to have deposits.
The failure was above kink zone. This was a high heat flux area.
Drum inspection revealed boiler tube corrosion / dumping of corrosion products from elsewhere.
Loose powdery material was seen accumulated inside the drum. See photo 15 & 16. The same
would be present as porous deposits in high heat flux zone and as well as low velocity circuits.
Tubes inspected insitu confirmed this. See photograph 18.
6. One of the bottom headers was cut & seen. It showed alarmingly high level of corroded boiler
tubes waste. See photograph 17.
Failure mechanism
The kind of gouging marks & cracks prove that there had been under-deposit corrosion taking place.
There were several causes which came to light when the investigation was completed.
Causes & prevention
1. Since the boiler was not running continuously, it generated rust during every start. It was
necessary to give low pressure blown down at a pressure of 5 kg/cm2 during start up. But this
was never done.
2. Low pressure blow down should be practiced during every shut down to get rid of loose
corrosion products from the boiler. This was not done at all.
3. Air cooled condenser generates corrosion product whenever it is offline. Hence the start up
condensate should be dumped to WTP or to drain. This will avoid dumping of corrosion products
to boiler. It is advised to monitor the condensate chemistry every half an hour for turbidity, pH
and iron whenever ACC is taken in to circuit.
4. ACC Off line preservation can be practiced by using silica gel / VCI pellets / or by circulating
hot air.
5. ACC being very large, appropriate amine should be dosed for pH control. To check whether
there is proper protection with amine or not, it is advised to monitor dissolved iron on a
continuous basis. As soon as the plant is shut any time, Condensate tank must be inspected for
reddish color. If it is reddish instead of dark grey, it means the amine needs to be a mix to cover
short & long distances. It is advised to use morpholine & cyclohexylamine mix for better results.
Hydrazine use as Oxygen scavenger shall be stopped. Instead DEHA shall be selected. The
breakdown of DEHA is minimal as compared to hydrazine. Ammonia contributes to bulk water
pH but it does not offer complete protection in the process of condensation. This is because
ammonia tries to be in vapor until the entire condensate is formed. ACC tubes being very long,
the upper part of ACC tube is not protected with the right pH condensate.
6. The boiler is designed with a water cooled cyclone. By virtue of differential heat flux, there may
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not have ideal uniform circulation velocity as compared to main furnace tubes. It is likely that the
corrosion rates accelerate when there is ingress of corrosion products. See photograph 19.
7. The boiler was being operated for IBD ceremoniously. This is not correct. This upsets the PO4 &
pH in boiler water. Chemical dosing rate was seen to fluctuate. The PO4 was seen to range from
12 to 24 ppm.
8. Ideally for high pressure boilers, PO4 should be limited to 3 to 5 ppm. Since there is no
contamination possibility from cooling water, this level is sufficient. In the sense a certain
reserve of OH is required to maintain the magnetite formation. Free hydroxide alkalinity shall be
limited to 1-2 ppm.
9. In order to maintain pH limiting the PO4, it is advised to mix Tri sodium phosphate & Disodium
phosphate.
10. Check the phosphate chemical for chlorides & silica. Only lab grade Phosphate is recommended.
Chloride ingress can drop the boiler water pH. This could have taken place sometime depending
on the lot.
11. The under deposit corrosion mechanism takes place mostly at high heat flux area, which is about
5 m above kink area. It is recommended to replace the waterwall from the weld joint at kink area.
There shall not be any weld joint within the 5 m distance above the kink. Preferential erosion can
thus be avoided.
12. It is seen that the fly ash & loop seal ash is not being analyzed for size distribution. In order to
distribute the heat flux across the furnace, the fines (> 100 microns) are to be retained in the
furnace. It is advised to procure sieve shaker with finer mesh sizes. Regular analysis is
recommended.
13. The amount of lean bed height in the furnace is important for heat transfer. There has to be two
draft transmitters just above kink. We can get to know the presence of adequate lean bed for heat
transfer in upper furnace. Insufficient dust in furnace can cause differential heat pick up &
differential erosion.
14. In this boiler, the rear wall is provided with complete refractory. This can cause differential
steam generation as compared to other three waterwalls. The rear wall should have been with a
separate outlet header (instead of a common header for front & rear walls) for better circulation.
This is not to say that common header is the cause for the failure. But bad boiler water (with
corrosion products- either generated or transported to boiler) will lead to accelerated corrosion.
15. It was learnt that the spectrometer was not available for a long period. It was possible that the
water chemistry went hay where.
16. It is highly possible that out of the numerous idle periods, proper preservation procedures have
not been adopted for boiler. Since the boiler is fully drainable, the water must be fully drained
and kept dry. Silica gel / VCL pellets can be placed inside the steam drum to prevent moisture
related corrosion. To stop corrosion the air should not have water vapor. Hydrated lime shall also
do the job. The same can be followed for ACC & steam duct.
17. The ACC condensate must be tested regularly for the turbidity, dissolved iron, total suspended
solids and pH.
18. It is observed that the chemists came in general shift only. The pH PO4 maintenance in boiler
water is taken lightly. The 2P-M value shall be 1-2 ppm in boiler water.
19. It is learnt that the strainers of HP chemical dosing pumps do get choked often. The matter is
taken lightly. The pump should be working on a continuous basis. The pump is to be relocated to
ensure the strainer does not get choked.
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20. On drum internal inspection, it was noticed that the downcomers for cyclone inlet duct & riser
connections at steam drum are located so close to each other. See photo 21. This may allow
steam to enter in to the downcomer. This may be checked in this installation. If the arrangement
is same, it is advisable to provide an extension pipe to riser stub up to NWL. A canopy can be
provided at the extension pipe to avoid steam throw direct to the steam driers.
21. Annual inspection of boiler must be focused to ensure the boiler is in good health.
a. Steam drum should be inspected and photographs should be taken. The surface of the
boiler drum should be grey in color. Reddish color indicates the variation in boiler water
pH.
b. Bottom header hand hole plates should be cut & inspected.
c. Condensate tank shall be inspected for corrosion products and shall be cleaned.
d. The deaerator shall be inspected for debris from ACC.
e. Whenever the CEP strainer is choked, analyze the choked material.
f. Depending on the corrosion rate of ACC, condensation filtration and / or polishing system
is recommended. This decision is based on the powdery material collection from the CST.
Conclusions
A chemical cleaning by EDTA was recommended and followed by a hydrotest at 1.25 times the
design pressure to ascertain the minimum thickness is available for service. A thickness
measurement conducted proved to be a waste. The boiler showed up many leakages before the unit
could be put back on line.

CASE 3: TUBE FAILURES IN CFBC & AFBC BOILERS AT SAME INSTALLATION

When the first unit was commissioned, the Power plant head spoke to me about the high rise in silica
levels in boiler water. IT was perplexing how the silica in boiler water was going up thought WTP
was equipped with Ultra-filtration system. As the silica ingress was heavy from the ACC, I advised
to return the condensate back to water treatment plant. Accordingly the condensate was rejected till
the condensate was satisfactory. Subsequent units were commissioned accordingly. The first boiler
that was commissioned was the AFBC boiler. Subsequently the second AFBC boiler & CFBC boiler
were commissioned. At that time phosphate based treatment was practiced. The PO4 level was kept
at 2-4 ppm. The boiler pressure being 88 kg/cm2, this was advised to avoid caustic gouging. The bed
tubes of the AFBC boiler was of plain tubes. In spite of proper care, the unit suffered caustic gouging
within a year of commissioning. Rifle bore tubes remove the intermittent flow of the steam inside the
low sloped tubes. The cause for caustic gouging was due to poor circulation system design and the
over loading of the boiler. But this client was interested in retaining the plain tube bed coils due to
high cost of the rifle bore tubes.
However, AVT based internal water treatment was selected to avoid caustic gouging. The phosphate
dosing was stopped completely. The unit was on hydrazine treatment as well for oxygen removal.
This went on nearly for two years. Two years later, there were tube failures in all three boilers.
Water wall crack in CFBC boiler
The failed tube can be seen in photo 22 & 23. The tube had a long crack along the high heat flux
area. The tube had failed just above the refractory lined furnace. There was a tube failure reported in
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water wall area of CFBC boiler. The tube showed the presence of the deposits.
Bed tube crack in AFBC boiler1
The failed tube can be seen in photo 25 & 26. The tube was blown close to the bend and a weld joint.
The tube showed the presence of the deposits. See photo 27.
Bed tube crack in AFBC boiler 2
The failed tube can be seen in photo 29. The tube shows the long cracks and the deposits inside the
tube. But the drum is not with deposits, but with loose corrosion products as can be seen in photo 31.
Causes
In this case too, there were numerous reasons for deposit generation and accumulation inside the
evaporative circuit. They are summarized below.
1. Porous deposits inside inform that the condensate chemistry was not OK.
2. Whenever the ACC goes off the circuit, it undergoes corrosion due to oxygen. On restarting the
corrosion products are dumped to boiler. The corrosion products circulate within the boiler
evaporative circuit leading accelerated corrosion by way of further corrosion of boiler tubes.
3. In normal running itself, the ACC may corrode due to inadequate chemical dosage practices and
lead to dumping of iron in to the boiler circuit. The boiler was not inspected properly during shut
down. The color of steam drum being satisfactory, the doubt on health of the boiler did not arise.
Photo 31 showed a good drum but with fine suspended solids. Photo 30 is the inside picture of
CST which explains the corrosion of ACC tubes.
4. Iron oxide deposits at high heat flux area / low velocity circuits. This can upset the water
chemistry locally and lead to further corrosion.
5. High blow down which may be practiced during start up for silica control, may deplete the boiler
water chemical leading to acidic regime.
6. Deposits are bound to generate whenever the boiler goes off line. On restarting the boiler needs
low pressure blow down at all bottom drains to discard the oxides out of the system. The blow
down is to be done with fire put off.
7. During annual inspection, drum & bottom most headers, condensate tank have to be inspected to
know the health of metal and to decide the chemical dosage modifications. Possibly this was not
addressed during annual shut down. The condensate tank which was inspected later after the
failures, showed signs of ACC corrosion. See photo 30. Photo 31 explains the condition of good
boiler water chemistry. But the iron oxides transported from ACC are seen inside drum.
8. Alkali boil out after replacement of bed tubes have to be followed with boiler flushing from top
header hand holes in order to remove the sludges. Leaving the sludges within the system will
lead to deposit related corrosion.
9. Since the CFBC cyclone & Cyclone inlet ducts are of water cooled design, it would act as sites
for deposition of corrosion products due to low flow.
10. In CFBC, the cyclone inlet duct is with horizontal tubes, which can trap dirt and lead to sites for
deterioration of metal surface due to steam blanketing.
11. In furnace rear wall the tubes are arranged horizontally. This can lead to steam blanketing and
chemical concentration. Chemical concentration would dissolve metal at a faster rate.
12. In CFBC combining the front wall & rear wall at a common header was not a good idea from
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circulation point of view.
13. The Hydrazine used for oxygen scavenger is breaking down to ammonia and providing the
required pH in condensate. This is not OK. Oxygen scavenger shall be done through DEHA.
Neutralizing amines shall be used for boosting the condensate pH. A mix of morpholine &
cyclohexylamine shall be used for achieving the least particulate iron / dissolved iron.
14. To stop the dumping of ACC corrosion products filters shall be installed. Or else the condensate
shall be dumped to water treatment plant unless the turbidity is normal.
15. Requirement of continuous filtration system has to be decided based on condensate filter test
results. If the condensate filter test proves corrosion, then on line filtration is required.
16. In AFBC boiler, the front wall & rear walls are of low velocity circuits and hence can lead to
aggravation of deposit related damage.
Conclusions
Several measures were suggested to be followed immediately to remove the deposits.
1. Physical inspection of headers would inform the extent of corrosion products inside the boiler.
Sample tube removal at high heat flux areas would also inform of the deposits.
2. Water flushing through all tubes from top header to bottom header is advised. Water flushing at
bed coil outer header is also advised. This is to reduce the loose deposits and to prepare the boiler
for a chemical cleaning.
3. For iron oxides deposit removal EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) is recommended. It is
advised to carry out a trial at laboratory for the dissolving of the iron oxide scale. It is desirable to
work with a chemical vendor for this purpose. The failed bed coil bend with deposit shall be
weighed & photographed initially before the chemical cleaning is done. The concentration of
chemicals requirement can be known. In fact when the chemical is purchased, its effectiveness
must be tried on tube sample before it is administered on the boiler.
4. The hydrazine is known to break down at high pressure inside the drum and generates ammonia.
This was seen in another plant when the condensate tank & deaerator were inspected. It was
advised to check the condensate tank for corrosion at the next shut down. And this was done and
the photograph was sent later. The photo confirmed the corrosion of ACC.
5. It is advised to stop using hydrazine as oxygen scavenger. DEHA shall be used instead. For pH
boosting of condensate morpholine & cyclohexylamine is recommended. It is advised to monitor
particulate iron by filtration of large quantity of sample to understand the corrosion rate of ACC.
Based on this decision has to be taken to install condensate filtration system / polishing system.
6. It was advised to take up with AVT supplier with respect to break down of chemical in deposit
affected zone. It may be possible that it had led to hydrogen crack at deposit sites. Whether the
bulk water is going to be alkaline / acidic, under deposit corrosion would result in caustic attack
or hydrogen attack. Hence deposits have to be prevented or removed regularly.
7. Low pressure blow down has to be adopted whenever possible. It is necessary that all drains
(including drains of cyclone inlet duct & cyclone inlet header.
8. Whenever the turbine is restarted, the ACC condensate has to be discarded until the turbidity is
normal. If ACC condensate is to be used all time, we have to install condensate filtration &
polishing system.
9. Annual / once in two years, chemical cleaning of boilers would have to be adopted depending on
the deposition levels.
10. In CFBC boiler deposition levels have to be assessed by cutting tube samples at furnace (high
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heat flux area), cross over duct (horizontal tube) and cyclone tube where tube is horizontal. In
AFBC boiler tube sample has to be at bed coils & above the fuel feed point.
11. ACC can be preserved by means of VCI pellets or by hot air circulation. The hot air fan has to be
hooked to condensate storage tank so that the air would fill the ACC & come out from turbine
end. It may just need a 5 deg C rise to ambient to keep the ACC dry of moisture.

Corrosion mechanism explained

Under deposit corrosion begins with a deposit. The source can be unremoved mill scale, corrosion
products from condensate or contaminations due to plant upsets / stoppages. Regardless of source,
the deposit creates an area beneath it that is chemically different from bulk water. The process
generates a corrosion cell.
Detailed corrosion mechanism
Formation of magnetite layer
The control of corrosion in boiler environment is
based on maintaining conditions which enhance
passive film formation. Magnetite, Fe3O4 is the
preferred high temperature iron oxide form. Well
crystallized (unhydrated) magnetite forms a
dense layer resulting in excellent passivation.
The formation of magnetite takes place as shown
below.

Fe2+ Ferrous ion

Fe3+ Ferric Ion
FeO Ferrous oxide Iron II oxide
Fe2O3 Ferric oxide Iron III oxide
Fe3O4 Ferrous ferric oxide Iron II, III oxide
FeOH2 Iron II hydroxide
FeO(OH) Iron II oxide hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 Iron III hydroxide

(Reaction -1) Fe + 2H2O <-> Fe +2 + 2OH- + H2

(Reaction -2) Fe+2 + 2OH- <-> Fe (OH)2
(Reaction -3) 3Fe (OH)2 <-> Fe3O4 + 2H2O + H2
It is seen from reaction 2, that the hydroxyl ions are to help in continuous formation of Fe(OH)2
that is soluble iron II oxide. Fe3O4 forms over the inner surface of tube offering a continuous
protection. On the whole it is a passivation process is basically due to an active surface of Fe being
corroded to a relatively inactive state of Fe3O4.
Hydrogen attack
In reaction 1, the hydrogen which is released continuously has to be consumed by the free OH ions
present in alkaline water. But under the deposits, the flushing action is absent. The hydrogen that is
released vide reaction 1 is forced to back to travel through pearlite grains. Here the carbon reacts
with hydrogen to form methane distorting the grains and creating voids or fissures. The heat
facilitates the diffusion of hydrogen through the grain boundaries. Case study 3 is exclusively a case
of hydrogen attack since the boiler was on AVT.
(Reaction 4 )- 2H2 + Fe3C (pearlite) 3Fe + CH4
Caustic attack
When the bulk water contains high amount of free hydroxides, they can concentrate under deposit
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leading to caustic gouging. This is nothing but high alkaline corrosion. That is formation of
magnetite layer is retarded. Case study 2 is a case of high & low phosphate levels in boiler water.
(Reaction 5 )- Fe (OH)2 +OH- <-> Fe(OH)3 + HFeO2 + H2O
(Reaction 6 )- Fe (OH)2 +2OH- <-> Fe(OH)4 <-> FeO2 + 2H2O

The author is a Graduate from IIT (M) and Postgraduate from Madras
University in Thermal Engg. He is a Boiler specialist with 30 years
experience and had worked for BHEL, Cethar Vessels, and Veesons.
He had been a consultant for Thermax, Nestler Ltd Thermal systems,
IJT Delhi, Enmass Andritz.

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Photo 1: The drum internal showing the low pH situation. There can be iron loading from ACC
during pre-commissioning. Usually if the corrosion products are transported from the pre-boiler
circuit, the dirt appears dark brown but the boiler surface will show gray surface. If the corrosion
products are generated within the boiler circuit, then the grey surface will be absent.

Photo 2: The downcomer inlet is provided with vortex breaker. This exhibits the flow of reddish
boiler water.

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Photo 3: The screen drier showing the foaming inside the drum due to iron in boiler water. The
magnetite layer is not seen even in steam space. This is an indication of deviation of boiler water
pH.

Photo 4: This is the color of the steam drum when the boiler water pH & PO4 are properly
maintained
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Photo 5: Tube burst showing instantaneous overheating- This is failure due to steam blanketing
which is the result of disrupted flow in the tube.

Photo 6: The main downcomer is not provided with a dirt trap / hand hole plate. The drain size is
small. It was informed that the drain was choked during boiler operation. On every hot box up, the
floating dirt would settle at this header end cap.

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Photo5:TubeburstshowinginstantaneousoverheatingThisisfailureduetosteamblanketingwhichis
theresultofdisruptedflowinthetube.

Note 1: The above is a feedback from a commissioning service company. My feedback on Air
cooled condenser commissioning at two sites was the same as informed to you. The ACC needs
proper6:hook
up todowncomer
avoid dumping
to boiler
The/ hand
BFP hole
choking
stilldrain
experienced
even
Photo
The main
is not dirt
provided
withcircuit.
a dirt trap
plateisThe
size is small
It
after three months of commissioning.

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Photo 7: The present downcomer arrangement. The bottom most supply pipes feed the
extreme WW tubes in the LHS & RHS. If this is choked then the tubes may starve.

Photo 8: Even the front & rear waterwall tubes are fed by the bottom most supply pipes. But
the connection is at middle. The remaining supply pipes would ensure supply.

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Photo 9: The feed water distributor is arranged in such a way that the water outlet holes are facing
30 deg up to horizontal. This arrangement can stir up the drum with phosphate and lead to high
phosphate in blow down. Then the boiler water chemistry will be different from what the sample
indicates. It is advised to direct the holes downwards. Though the boiler water pH and PO4 were
OK as per report, the drum internal surface indicates low pH. The chemical dosing line has to be
connected to feed distributor itself.

Photo 10: Arrangement of feed distributor with holes facing upwards. This could stir up the
chemical leading to wrong diagnosis.

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Photo9:Thefeedwaterdistributorisarrangedinsuchawaythatthewateroutletholesarefacing30
deguptohorizontal.Thisarrangementcanstirupthedrumwithphosphateandleadtohighphosphate
Photo 11: Hot air circulation in boiler during idle period.
in blow down. Then the boiler water chemistry will be different from what the sample indicates. It is
advisedtodirecttheholesdownwards.ThoughtheboilerwaterpHandPO4wereOKasperreport,the
druminternalsurfaceindicateslowpH.Thechemicaldosinglinehastobeconnectedtofeeddistributor
itself.

Photo 12: Good engineering practice by another boiler maker. The main downcomer has a hand
hole & a drain valve taken above the end cover.

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Photo 13: The failed tube is seen with long crack. The tube is blown out by hydrogen attack. The
pits indicate the under deposit corrosion situations.

Photo 14: The failed tubes from furnace side. The tubes are vertically oriented in position and
tube crack is along the crown. The cracks were seen above the bottom refractory zone, where the
heat flux is highest.

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Photo 15: The drum internals show presence of high level of corrosion products inside the boiler.
Widely varying pH conditions must have taken place.

Photo 16: The presence of loose circulating material can be seen at the downcomer. These
powdery materials can deposit at high heat flux zones & at low flow Cyclone tubes / cyclone inlet
duct that is water cooled.
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Photo 17: The high level of corrosion products which should have generated due to poor storage
practices, low pH situations and under deposit corrosion products.

Photo 18: The tube showing the present of deposits and the corrosion pits.

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Photo 19: There are three circulation circuits, namely furnace wall, cyclone connecting duct
and the cyclone. Based on the heat flux & by the complicated tube bends, slope of tubes, any
contaminants present would tend to accumulate at low flow circuits & accelerate corrosion.
Boiler design also should address well circulated tubes. Refractory lining the entire rear wall
can lead to poor circulation. Positioning a common header for both rear & front wall was not a
good idea for boiler with more steam low circulation ratio.
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Photo 20: The positioning of downcomer & riser so close to each other can retard the flow in the
circuit due to steam entrapment.

Photo 21: More furnace tubes exhibit the presence of the corrosion products and the under deposit
corrosion mechanism.

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Photo 22: This is the tube that failed in high heat flux area in furnace tube of CFBC boiler. The
failed location was about 2 m above kink zone.

Photo 23: The outer surface shows thick edged crack which is typical of hydrogen crack. This is
not an overheating failure by any other strongly adherent deposits. It is a propagation of hydrogen
crack under the deposits and at high heat flux area.

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Photo 24: The inside of wall tube in CFBC shows the sign of deposits in water.

Photo 25: The AFBC boiler tube (unit 3) is showing deposition of corrosion products and the
crack originated due to hydrogen. The tube is blown out.

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Photo 26: The site for deposit is close to weld joint ahead. Surface discontinuity offers sites for
deposition of corrosion products. This tube is from AFBC boiler.

Photo 27: Another bed coil tube is seen to contain deposit.

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Photo 28: The boiler drum of AFBC boiler 1, showing insufficient alkalinity at surface below
NWL. The yellow ochre deposits confirm that the FeOH3 was not converting to Fe3O4.

Photo 29: Failed bed coil in another FBC boiler showing deposits.

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Photo 30: Color of internal surface of condensate storage tank.

Photo 31: Inspection of steam drum at AFBC boiler 2. Loose powdery iron oxides are seen in the
drum. This material is in circulation and it could have deposited elsewhere in the boiler circuit.

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VISITING BOILER PENTHOUSES & BOILER ROOFS

Very few operational & maintenance personnel dare to visit this area. This is because there is always a
pool of ash and one may end up in inhaling ash to his lungs. This ash leakage is not intended. But
many of the boiler users are unaware that the designers intention is to give a leak proof penthouse.
Due to ignorance of construction workers and due to urgency of commissioning the unit, the seal work
remains incomplete. Moreover the sealing work is so cumbersome work, the erection staffs tend to
compromise the work. If the work is incomplete, it results in ash leakage & air ingress while the boiler
is in service. During a replacement / repair work, seals are ignored and it creates air ingress.
The effects of incomplete seal work are many.
1. Ash leaks and makes the boiler house dirty.
2. Air ingress leads to increased oxygen percentage in flue gas. Thus excess air setting would be
wrong. This results in poor combustion efficiency.
3. ID fan gets overloaded. At times some users go for ID fan change.
4. In some boilers the combustion is drastically affected. The ID fan provides combustion air near the
Superheater area. This can lead to high steam temperature in some cases. The design metal
temperature may be exceeded at times.
5. Gas leakage to penthouse can corrode the boiler supporting structure.
Almost 50% of the boilers suffer from this man made disease. The case studies are presented for the
benefit of readers.
Case study 1
See photograph 1 & 2. This was an AFBC boiler with unfinned waterwall design. The roof seal work
was made of refractory tile followed by castable refractory. The boiler was lignite fired. The complaint
in this boiler was the poor combustion efficiency. With air ingress through the cracks in refractory
roof, how could any one follow the oxygen? This roof area needed engineering leak proof seal box.
Case study 2
This was a pulverised coal fired boiler with load carrying oil burners. The visit was made to solve their
recurring radiant SH tube failure problem. One of the causes for failure was related to heavy air
ingress from roof. This boiler was of loose tangent tube waterwall construction. The side wall casings
were in good condition. However the roof design was not OK. Photograph 3 shows the condensation
of sulfur dioxide in the roof refractory. The unit was oil supported for many years. Recently due to
management decisions, the oil support had been cut. The air ingress to penthouse had been quite high
that the gas had condensed and damaged the convection SH hanger tubes. It had been corroding the
side waterwall outlet header & roof beams inside the penthouse. See photograph 4 & 5. The penthouse
inspection door was not leak tight. The photograph 6 shows the leaky door. Yet more leakage was
seen from the roof floor that was not sealing against air ingress.
The customer had been experiencing the shortage in generation capacity of the boiler. The high air
ingress has put restriction on supply of FD air. Hence coal mills were unable to deliver the required
coal for the full load.
Another serious problem caused by this air ingress was that partial combustion had been taking place
in Superheater zone causing high convection SH steam outlet temperature. The weld joints at the
convection SH header stubs had been failing frequently. These weld joints were of dissimilar material
combination of T11 to carbon steel. Since the design steam temperature was only 390 deg C, boiler
supplier had given carbon steel tubes & header at outlet of convection SH. In service the steam
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temperature went as high as 490 deg C. See photograph 7.
Case study 3
This was a bagasse fired boiler. The customer called for improvement of boiler capacity. I found there
were several leakage spots downstream the furnace. One major point was that the bagasse particles
were found to come out of the furnace roof and burn over the roof. See photograph 8. One can see how
difficult it would be to work in the boiler house. Such leakage spots are often created by ignorant
maintenance contractors. It remains a fact that we are allergic to engineering drawings. In most cases,
sufficient details are given by some manufacturers and documentation is complete.
There are cases, I see that some boiler manufacturers think that it is their trade secret and they do not
provide any drawing. A product delivered without technical documentation causes more problems to
clients. The customers often rate such companies as incompetent.
Case study 4
A rice husk fired boiler with leaking boiler roof. The water wall roof is finned. But during replacement
of SH tubes, the sealing has been ignored. This has led to combustion of rice husk near the convection
superheater. The Steam temperature crossed the design values. Photographs 9 & 10 show the air
ingress locations. Many times the metallurgy of tubes / pipes adopted may not allow such temperature
excursions. Often the superheater suffers localised overheating failures at the locations where small
dirt or deposit is present inside the coil.
Case study 5
Photograph 11 is the roof view of a boiler audited by me for availability & efficiency improvement. I
often see maintenance team tries to apply castable work on the roof. Castable refractory cracks once
the heating takes place. I recommend that the final insulation layer is plastered with cement
magnesia mortar mix or Plaster of Paris. This is to be covered by Hessian cloth & painted with
shalikote paint finish. This alternative has been able to arrest the leakage with least effort.
Case study 6
This is a recently commissioned 90 TPH AFBC boiler. Customer called me for diagnosis of high LOI
in ash. The boiler was shut & offered for my inspection. We can see the incomplete erection work by
the manufacturer at the roof. Photo 12 shows the inside view of the convection SH penetrations in roof
panel. The fresh air ingress mark is clearly seen. Look at the outside header view in photo 13. The ash
marks around the hanger support proves the air ingress. Customer had been trying to maintain the O2
at 3.5% in order to keep the excess air at 20%. With air ingress the oxygen indicated would be wrong.
In such a situation, seeing the optimum LOI in fly ash of ESP 1 ash hopper, the air flow has to be
adjusted.
Case study 7
This is a 76 TPH boiler AFBC boiler. In this case the shut down audit was performed after three years
of operation. Photographs 14,15 & 16 prove the severe leakage of flue gas from penthouse. The boiler
being a pet coke fired boiler the SOx is condensed inside the penthouse and to the structure which is
close by.
What needs to be done to prevent the disease?
The boiler makers however organized they may be at their production shop, there is inconsistent
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quality workmanship at field. This is due to fact that the field quality audits are not performed.
Customer engineers concentrate on project schedule expediting delivery and thus the focus to field
quality audit is lost. External inspection companies do not have the product knowledge and thus they
miss the intricate points. Consulting companies have the problem of shortage of knowledgeable
persons who can go in to the drawing details.
Insisting on design engineers visit, specifically the person who made / approved the drawing, can help
to prevent these mistakes. Auditing the erection by boiler operating engineers can be of help.
During maintenance, things are getting worse for various reasons. The continuity is lost when the
people are changing jobs faster. Documentation is not at all available, even if a dedicated engineer gets
in to the subject. With short shut down time available, ensuring a good quality would be impossible.
But this can be overcome by meticulous planning. During shut down experts can be hired from boiler
makers just to look after the quality job. Engineers may be specifically assigned the jobs relieving
from regular report making, etc. At many plants, maintenance engineers are content once the job is
assigned to a contractor.

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Photo 1- cracks are present in roof refractory work. Castable refractory does not arrest leaks.

Photo 2: Cross sectional view of boiler

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Case study 2- Photo 3- cracks in roof refractory work leading to condensation of sulfur di oxide.

Case study 2: Photo 4: Corroded waterwall header due to condensation of flue gas.

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Case study 2: Photo 5- Roof beams under corrosion.

Case study 2: Photo 6: leaky penthouse door.

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Case study 2- Photo 7-Failures of weld joint of dissimilar materials caused by high steam
temperature.

Case study 3- Photo 8: Fuel & ash leakage in the roof.

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Case study 4: Photo 9- Waterwall roof with leakage

Case study 4- Photo 10: leakages around the headers.

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Case study 5 -Photo 11- marks of flue gas leakage.

Case study 6-Photo 12: Inside view of SH coil penetrations in the roof shows the air ingress.
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Case study 6- Photo 13- Ash leakage marks at SH header area above the roof in a new boiler.

Case study 7 -Photo 14: dust leakage seen around the side cladding sheet below the penthouse.
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Case study 7- Photo 15- corrosion seen at roof beams indication of gas leakage. With high sulfur
fuel the corrosion damage will be more.

Case study 7- Photo 16: Flue gas condensation as droplets over the ash is seen. A proof air ingress
& ash leak.
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Figure 1: A cross sectional view of roof seal box design followed by boiler manufacturer. What
was intended in Computer screen is this. This is a leak proof design taking care of differential
thermal expansion between roof panel, SH tubes & the seal box. The arrow shows the location
of seal weld which is missed out at site most of the time.

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WHY THE NON RETURN VALVE FLUTTERS?
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com
Some of the readers might be experiencing the NRV flap making noise. The NRV makes noise when
the flow is inadequate. There are two case studies on this subject, which I would like to present to the
benefit of readers.
CASE 1
A client had complained that the non-return valve in steam line at
deaerator was fluttering. The irritation made him to call me up. The
deaerator pressure control valve was crack open. It meant that there is no
sufficient steam flow available for taking care of NRV flap. There is a
force required for keeping the flap in lifted condition. Generally we select
the line size based on steam pressure & steam temperature. That is, the
line selection is based on the steam velocity. The recommended steam
line velocity is 30 to 50 m/s. In case the actual steam consumption is so
less and the steam velocity is inadequate, then the NRV flap flutters. The way out is to go for reduced
line size so that the steam velocity would be sufficient to keep the flap lifted up.
Yet I advised the client to remove the flap as there was no other source of steam supply to deaerator.
Since it was a low pressure deaerator with 105 deg C as outlet water temperature, I had suggested this.
In case there was a possibility of reversal of steam flow, as in high pressure deaerator, then the nonreturn valve would be required.
CASE 2
In another case, there were two boilers connected to common header. The boilers were running at part
load. The NRV of one boiler kept on fluttering. The reason was again the reduced steam flow. Here
the solution can be nothing but changing to smaller steam line size.
THE FUNDAMENTALS
The non return valves do not have much turndown. There is a minimum velocity required to keep the
flap up. This is given by an expression,
V = j v,
where j = constant, v = specific volume of the medium. Depending upon the make of the valve, the j
value would be different.
Depending on turndown expected, it would be necessary to introduce the reducer and expander. The
pressure drop will not be greater than a bigger valve with flap partially open due to lesser flow.

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WHY THE WATER LEVEL IN GAUGE GLASS KEEPS OSCILLATING?
By K.K.PARTHIBAN, Boiler Consultant
Venus Energy Audit System
Email ID:parthi2006@gmail.com / venus.energy@gmail.com

A customer was annoyed about the unsteady water level in

their boiler. The boiler was shut for a long time for pressure
part repair work. After the restart of the boiler, they found that
the water level had begun to oscillate. The level fluctuation in
the local water level gauge was to an extent of 50 mm. The
level fluctuation was rapid.
The reason for fluctuation was diagnosed to be the rust
formed inside the boiler during the shut down period. A boiler
is cleaned up by alkali boil out during the pre-commissioning
stage. During this process, the loose scale, oil and rust are
boiled out. If this was not done, there would be heavy
foaming in the boiler due of presence of oil and the suspended
impurities. The same phenomena could occur when the boiler
had been on a long open outage. The rust formed in the boiler
would be enough to increase the suspended matter. As the
deaerator (in case of dedicated deaerator) gets rusted during
outage, it also adds up to water contamination with rust.
The remedy would be to give blow down after some initial
firing and pressurization. The blow down must be done from
all bottom points. At the time blow down, the fire must be put
off. We should allow the water to become stand still (without
circulation), so that the suspended matter would come down
to lower points. Water treatment chemical supplier could be
consulted for dosing flocculent chemical on line to remove the
suspended solids.

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