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Pollution is a harmful (for ecosystem) change in the natural environment caused by human activities
Types of Pollution
Pollution sources are defined as two types
Non-point source pollution - pollution is emitted from many sources and it is extremely difficult to
identify and monitor.
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Example
Soil erosion - farmers till the soil. The soil is loose, so rain may erode it.
Fertilizer and other chemical runoffs - farmers use fertilizers and chemicals like
pesticides. Rain dissolves the chemicals and they build up in lakes and rivers
Only the amount that occurs at a specific point in time matters, like waste flowing into the
river.
Stock pollutant - A pollutant that the environment cannot absorb. The level of the pollutant in the
environment grows over time as the pollutant is accumulated.
Some pollutants are regional (tend to stay within the region emitted) e.g. Solid waste,
particulate matter, etc.
Some pollutants are global (once emitted tend to have global impacts)
e.g. CFCs (deplete the ozone)
Trans-boundary problem - pollution emissions in one country or several countries affect other countries
without pollution problems. Examples, acid rain, global warming, polluted oceans and seas
The acid dissolves and leeches minerals from the soil, killing the trees
The Ph decreases in lakes and ponds, killing the fish and other life forms.
Burning fossil fuels release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, allowing the earth to trap more
heat.
Theoretical literature on trans-boundary pollution uses: game theoretical models that allow for
strategic interaction between different players.
First question: are there gains from co-operation? If yes, how to share them?
NO x Nitrogen Oxides are created from fossil fuel combustion and contribute to smog &
respiratory illness.
SO x Sulphur Oxides are created from fossil fuel combustion and contribute to acid rain &
respiratory illness.
Ground-level ozone has significant impact on respiratory health, crops, vegetation, soil,
water, materials, animals, and visibility.
Ozone forms as sunlight hits air containing hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides
PM -Particulate Matter is created from smoke, soot, dirt, and dust and contributes to respiratory and
immune system illnesses.
CO -Carbon Monoxide is created from fossil fuel combustion and can limit the delivery of oxygen
to the body, resulting in complications ranging from headaches to death.
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds are created from propane and benzene gases used in refineries,
gas stations, etc. and contribute to smog.
CO2 Carbon Dioxide is created from fossil fuel combustion and contribute to global warming.
Lead emissions
Indoor air pollution: One-third of energy in developing countries comes from burning wood, crop
residues, and animal wastes in stoves.
For each of the conventional pollutants, the typical first step is to establish ambient air-quality
standard
In the United States, two ambient standards have been defined. The primary standard is designed to
protect human health. It was the first standard to be determined, and had the earliest deadlines for
compliance.
The secondary standard is designed to protect other aspects of human welfare from those pollutants
having separate effects. Currently, only one separate secondary standard has been set, for sulfur
oxides.
The secondary standards are designed to protect aesthetics (particularly visibility), physical objects
(houses, monuments, and so on), and vegetation.
2.
b.
Technical threshold
The standard in order to maximize the net benefit, which includes a consideration of
costs as well as benefits
3.
4.
The choice of uniform standards over standards more tailored to the regions involved
a.
b.
c.
5.
The failure to incorporate the degree of human exposure in the standard-setting process
a.
Air pollutants in each of the places in which people spend time as well as the amount
of time spent in each place
b.
Indoor vs outdoor
Acid Rain
Acid rain is the popular term for atmospheric deposition of acidic substances, is actually a misnomer. Acidic
substances are not only deposited by rain and other forms of moist air, they are also deposited as dry
particles.
Precipitation is normally mildly acidic, with a global background pH of 5.0 (pH is the common
measurement for acidity; the lower the number, the more acidic the substance, with 7.0 being the border
between acidity and alkalinity). Industrialized areas commonly receive precipitation well in excess of the
global background level. Rainfall in eastern North America, for example, has a typical pH of 4.4. Wheeling,
West Virginia, once experienced a rainstorm with a pH of 1.5.
Studies have documented that Sweden has some 4,000 highly acidified lakes; in southern Norway, lakes with
a total surface area of 13,000 square kilometers support no fish at all; similar reports have been received from
Germany and Scotland.
Acid rain has also been implicated in the slower growth, injury, or death both European and american
forests, particularly German
According to this research, acid rain rarely kills trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken trees by
damaging their leaves, limiting the available nutrients, or exposing the trees to toxic substances slowly
released from the soil by the acidic deposition.
Economic aspects in Pollution
Normative economics: Economists are people with biases, many people take a moral approach to
the environment
Therefore, polluters can take advantage of asymmetry of knowledge and pollute more
Precautionary Principle
Precautionary Principle - there is much uncertainty about how much pollution is needed to damage the
environmental resources and to what degree
Thus, we do not know how our current choices impact the future - we should take a stance now to
reduce the pollution
If we wait and see, then the environmental damage may not be correctable in the future.
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Examples
Damages may be barely noticeable for low levels, but become severe above some uncertain
threshold, or tipping point.
Our world is too complex; we do not know where the tipping points are.
A Marginal abatement cost curve is a set of options available to an economy to reduce pollution.
Example
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Future generations probably would choose a low discount rate too, but their decisions are
not known
Carbon Sequestration
One of the main sources of environmental problem is carbon. It forms carbon dioxide, which is a relatively
stable compound and stays in atmosphere and traps heat close to the earth surface and a cause of increase of
surface temperature
Carbon sequestration - a process to remove carbon out of the air and store it
Mitigates the accumulation of greenhouse gases in atmosphere on a large scale, it could lower
greenhouse gases
Have to ensure trees thrive and grow, if a tree rots or is burned, then the carbon is released back
into the atmosphere
If trees are harvested, then carbon is still stored in roots and lumber
Could potentially remove large amounts of carbon dioxide out of the ocean and surrounding air
Could use special ovens to breaks down wastes into carbon which can be mixed into soils
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Could be done on a large scale with wastes that are heading to a landfill
Terra Preta - created by humans between 450 BC and AD 950 in the Amazon
Emissions from a coal power plant is pumped into an old mine shaft, salt dome, deep water in a bay,
etc.
Carbon dioxide reacts with salt and minerals in the water to form carbonates